1.
Ministry of National Defense (Republic of China)
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The MND is currently headed by Minister Feng Shih-kuan. The MND was originally established as Ministry of War in 1912 at the creation of the Republic of China and it was changed to the Ministry of National Defense in 1946. The Law of National Defense and the Organic Law of the ministry were officially promulgated for implementation on 1 March 2002, the completion of the building had been delayed for nearly two decades due to the compound original architecture and the bankruptcy of the projects original contractor. The planning for the new building and relocation had been done since 1997, the official ribbon-cutting ceremony was held on 27 December 2014. The headquarter building of the military is located in Dazhi area of Zhongshan District in Taipei, the 8-story main building was constructed at a cost of NT$15.8 billion, spreading over 19. It also includes several buildings around. The compound also has features, such as stone walls, aluminum. The central air conditioning system is provided by ice storage system to peak load electricity demand. The building also has rainwater collecting facilities which can store up to 1,000 tons of water, complete with its water treatment. The current annual defense budget for Taiwan is NT$320 billion, 歷代海軍部長： Yang Shuzhuang ：1929–1932, Kuomintang Chen Shaokuan ：1932–1938, Kuomintang 3. 歷代訓練總監部長： He Yingqin ：1928–1931, Kuomintang Li Jishen ：1931–1933, Kuomintang Zhu Peide ：1933–1934, Kuomintang Tang Shengzhi ：1934–1938, Kuomintang Bai Chongxi ：1938–1946, Kuomintang 4
2.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
3.
Chen Cheng
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Chen Cheng was a Chinese political and military leader, and one of the main National Revolutionary Army commanders during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. After moving to Taiwan at the end of the war, he served as the Governor of Taiwan Province, Vice President. He represented the ROC in visits to the United States and he also helped to initiate land reforms and tax reduction programs that caused Communism to become unattractive in Taiwan, where peasants were able to own land. Chen Cheng was born in Qingtian County, Zhejiang, he was graduated from Baoding Military Academy in 1922 and it is here where he met Chiang Kai-shek for the first time, Then Commandant of the Academy. Later, Chen joined National Revolutionary Army to participate in the Northern Expedition, during the Northern Expedition, Chen displayed his excellent leadership ability. Within a year of conquest, he was promoted from commanding battalions to divisions already, later after the expedition, Chen became active in the wars against warlords. His successes in these battles allowed him to be promoted again, beginning in 1931, Chen was assigned the task of suppressing the Red Army. In various campaigns searching for the force of Red Army. In the fifth campaign against the Communists, he managed to defeat them. Campaigns against the Red Army came to an end after the Xian Incident, during the Battle of Shanghai he was one of the top military assistants of Chiang Kai Shek. It was his idea to seek a decisive action in the rather than confront the Japanese in Northern China where nationalist troops were in poor condition. After the fall of Shanghai and Nanjing, Chen moved to Hubei to command the Battle of Wuhan during the year of 1938, Wuhan was the provisional headquarters of the Chinese Army. The Japanese however, managed to defeat the Chinese, albeit suffering heavy losses, in the latter years of the war, Chen went on to command in the Battle of Changsha, Battle of Yichang and Battle of West Hubei. In 1943, he was appointed the commander of the Chinese Expeditionary Force in the Burma theatre until he was replaced by Wei Li-huang due to illness, after the Second Sino-Japanese War, Chen became the Chief of the General Staff and commander-in-chief of the navy. He followed Chiangs orders and began to raid the liberated areas of the Red Army which launched the Chinese Civil War. In August 1947, Chiang appointed Chen as director of the Northeastern Headquarters to command the Nationalist forces against the Communists in that area.3 million to less than 480,000. He also dismissed some of the most capable nationalist commanders, such as Du Yuming, Sun Li-jen, Zheng Dongguo, Chen took a sick leave in Taiwan to treat his chronic stomach ailment. Chiang appointed Chen as the Governor of Taiwan Province in 1949 to plan the development of Taiwan as one of the strongholds of the Kuomintang
4.
He Yingqin
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He Yingqin, was one of the most senior generals of the Kuomintang during Republican China, and a close ally of Chiang Kai-shek. A native of Guizhou, He was healthy and bookish in his childhood, in 1907 he was enrolled by the Guiyang Military Elementary School, and transferred to the more famous Wuchang Third Army Middle School in the following year. In the same year, he was chosen by the Defense Department of Qing Dynasty to study in Japan at the 11th class of Tokyo Shimbu Gakko, when studying in Japan, he became acquainted with fellow student Chiang Kai-shek. He learned military skills and was influenced by the anti-Qing Dynasty theories of the Tongmenghui, which he soon joined. In 1911 after the outbreak of Wuchang Uprising, He came back to China with other members of Tongmenghui, to work for Chen Qimei, who was governor of Shanghai and also known as Chiangs mentor. When the war waged by the Tongmenghui against Yuan Shikai failed, He had to take refuge in Japan and his classmates at this time included Zhu Shaoliang. After Hes graduation in 1916, Liu Xianshi, the governor of Guizhou, Liu asked his son, who also had studied in Japan, to enroll some talented men for this job. With the recommendation of Lius son and Wang Wenhua, the commander of the Guizhou Army and he won Wangs trust quickly and married Wangs sister later. In the power struggle between Liu and Wang, He supported Wang and Liu lost power in 1920, as a reward, He was appointed as president of academy, head of police, and brigadier of the 5th Brigade of Guizhou Army. When Wang was assassinated by his rivals in 1921, the troops of Wang fell into chaos and he was expelled from Guizhou by other generals and went to Yunnan to work for a local warlord. In 1924, Chiang Kai-shek made preparation for the establishment of Whampoa Military Academy under the authorization of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang knew Hes talent and recommended that Sun appoint him as General Instructor of the academy. Sun sent a telegraph to Guangzhou asking He personally to accept the offer, in the course of the academys establishment, He supported Chiang and won Chiangs appreciation. In the war against the local warlord Chen Jiongming, students training in the academy were grouped into two regiments, with He as a colonel of one of the regiments, galen sent his sword to He as a gift after this war. In July of the year, the National Revolutionary Army was established. In September, Chen Jiongming masterminded another commotion, Chiang led the war to put down this revolt, in which He demonstrated his military talent again. During the Northern Expedition in 1926, He Yingqin succeeded Chiang as commander of the 1st Army Corps and led his army marching into Guangdong, after He controlled the whole area of Fujian, he conquered Zhejiang as well. When Chiang began to confront the Communists He continued to support Chiang, in 1927 He supported the Shanghai massacre of 1927 in which General Bai Chongxi’s Eastern Route Army launched a massacre on Communist Party members in Shanghai, ending first KMT-CCP alliance. When Chiang seized power, the tension arose with Wang Jingwei and the New Guangxi Clique led by Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi, under these circumstances, He thought Chiang had made himself a public enemy and was destined to fail, so he lent secret support to Chiangs opponents
5.
Guilin
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Guilin, formerly romanized as Kweilin, is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of Chinas Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. It is situated on the west bank of the Li River and its name means Forest of Sweet Osmanthus, owing to the large number of fragrant sweet osmanthus trees located in the city. The city has long been renowned for its scenery of karst topography and is one of Chinas most popular tourist destinations, in 314 BC, a small settlement was established along the banks of the Li River. During the Qin Dynastys campaigns against the state of Nanyue, the first administration was set up in the area around Guilin. In 111 BC, during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Shi An County was established, in AD507, the town was renamed Guizhou. Guilin prospered in the Tang and Song dynasties but remained a county, the city was also a nexus between the central government and the southwest border, and it was where regular armies were placed to guard that border. Canals were built through the city so that supplies could be directly transported from the food-productive Yangtze plain to the farthest southwestern point of the empire. In 1921, Guilin became one of the headquarters of the Northern Expeditionary Army led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, in 1940, the city acquired its present name. Guilin administers seventeen county-level divisions, including six districts, nine counties and it has a total area of 27,809 square kilometres. The topography of the area is marked by karst formations, the Li River flows through the city. Winter begins dry but becomes progressively wetter and cloudier, spring is generally overcast and often rainy, while summer continues to be rainy though is the sunniest time of year. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 7.9 °C in January to 28.0 °C in July, and the annual mean is 18.84 °C. The annual rainfall is just above 1,900 mm, and is delivered in bulk from April to June, with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 14% in March to 53% in September, the city receives 1,487 hours of bright sunshine annually. Population,4,747,963 Urban population,975,638 Ethnic groups, Zhuang, Yao, Hui, Miao, Han and Dong The GDP per capita was ¥19435 in 2009, ranked no.125 among 659 Chinese cities. However, since the 1950s Guilin has electronics, engineering and agricultural equipment, medicine, rubber, and buses, food processing, including the processing of local agricultural produce, remains the most important industry. More recent and modern industry feature high technology and the tertiary industry characterized by tourism trading, the airport is Guilin Liangjiang International Airport. Arriving to North Station, high-speed trains between Guilin and Changsha and Beijing came into operation in December 2013, in December 2014, high-speed operations began connecting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Guiyang, and Shanghai. It will bring much convenience for people come to Guilin and it takes only about 2 or 3 hours from Guangzhou to Guilin,7 hours from Shanghai to Guilin and 11 hours from Beijing to Guilin
6.
Guangxi
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Guangxi, officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is a Chinese autonomous region in South Central China, bordering Vietnam. Formerly a province, Guangxi became a region in 1958. Guangxis location, in mountainous terrain in the far south of China, has placed it on the frontier of Chinese civilization throughout much of Chinas history, the current name Guang means expanse and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in 226 AD. It was given provincial level status during the Yuan dynasty, but even into the 20th century it was considered an open, the abbreviation of the region is 桂, which comes from the name of the city of Guilin, the provincial capital during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Originally inhabited by a mixture of groups known to the Chinese as the Baiyue. In 214 BC, the Han Chinese general Zhao Tuo claimed most of southern China for Qin Shi Huang before the emperors death, the ensuing civil war permitted Zhao to establish a separate kingdom at Panyu known as Nanyue Southern Yue. The name Guangxi can be traced to the Expansive or Wide province of the Eastern Wu, Guilin formed one of its commanderies. Under the Tang dynasty, the Zhuang moved to support Piluoges Yi-ruled kingdom of Nanzhao in Yunnan, Guangxi was then divided into an area of Zhuang ascendancy west of Nanning and an area of Han ascendancy east of Nanning. After the collapse of the Southern Zhao, Liu Yan established the Southern Han in Xingwangfu, although this state gained minimal control over Guangxi, it was plagued by instability and annexed by the Song dynasty in 971. The name Guangxi itself can be traced to the Song, who administered the area as the Guangnanxi Circuit, harassed by both Song and the Jiaozhi in modern Vietnam, the Zhuang leader Nong Zhigao led a revolt in 1052 for which he is still remembered by the Zhuang people. His independent kingdom was short-lived, however, and the tattooed Song general Di Qing returned Guangxi to China, the Yuan dynasty established control over Yunnan during its conquest of the Dali Kingdom in 1253 and eliminated the Southern Song following the Battle of Yamen in 1279. Rather than ruling Lingnan as a territory or military district. The area nonetheless continued to be unruly, leading the Ming dynasty to employ the different local groups against one another, at the Battle of Big Rattan Gorge between the Zhuang and the Yao in 1465,20,000 deaths were reported. The Qing dynasty left the region alone until the imposition of rule in 1726. A Yao revolt in 1831 was followed by the Taiping Rebellion in 1850, the execution of St. Auguste Chapdelaine by local officials in Guangxi provoked the Second Opium War in 1858 and the legalization of foreign interference in the interior. Although Louis Brière de lIsle was unable to invade its depot at Longzhou, largely ineffective within Vietnam, it was still able to repulse the French from China itself at the Battle of Zhennan Pass on 23 March 1885. Following the Wuchang Uprising, Guangxi seceded from the Qing Empire on 6 November 1911, the Qing governor, Shen Bingdan, initially remained in place, but was subsequently removed by a mutiny commanded by General Lu Rongting. General Lus Old Guangxi clique overran Hunan and Guangdong as well, Zhuang loyalty made his Self-Government Army cohesive but reluctant to move far beyond its own provinces
7.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
8.
Taipei
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Taipei, officially known as Taipei City, is the capital city and a special municipality of the Republic of China. Sitting at the tip of the island, Taipei City is an enclave of the municipality of New Taipei City. It is about 25 km southwest of the port city Keelung. Since 1949, Taipei has been the capital of the ROC after losing the mainland to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, the name Taipei can refer either to the whole metropolitan area or the city proper. Taipei is the political, economic, educational, and cultural center of Taiwan, considered to be a global city, Taipei is part of a major high-tech industrial area. Railways, high-speed rail, highways, airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island, the city is served by two airports – Taipei Songshan and Taiwan Taoyuan. Its natural features such as Maokong, Yangmingshan, and hot springs are also known to international visitors. As the capital city, Taipei is sometimes used as a synecdoche for Taiwan, prior to the significant influx of Han Chinese immigrants, the region of Taipei Basin was mainly inhabited by the Ketagalan plains aborigines. The number of Han immigrants gradually increased in the early 18th century under Qing Dynasty rule after the government began permitting development in the area, in 1875, the northern part of the island was incorporated into the new Taipeh Prefecture. The Qing dynasty of China made Taipeh the temporary capital of Fujian-Taiwan Province in 1886 when Taiwan was separated from Fujian Province, Taipeh was formally made the provincial capital in 1894. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan became a colony of Imperial Japan with Taihoku as its capital, in which the city was administered under Taihoku Prefecture. Taiwans Japanese rulers embarked on a program of advanced urban planning that featured extensive railroad links. A number of Taipei landmarks and cultural institutions date from this period, following the Japanese surrender of 1945, control of Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China. In 1990 Taipei provided the backdrop for the Wild Lily student rallies that moved Taiwanese society from one-party rule to multi-party democracy, the city is today home to Taiwans democratically elected national government. The region known as the Taipei Basin was home to Ketagalan tribes before the eighteenth century, Han Chinese mainly from Fujian Province of Qing dynasty China began to settle in the Taipei Basin in 1709. In 1875, the part of Taiwan was separated from Taiwan Prefecture. From 1875 until the beginning of Japanese rule in 1895, Taipei was part of Tamsui County of Taipeh Prefecture, in 1885, work commenced to create an independent Taiwan Province, and Taipei City was temporarily made the provincial capital. Taipei officially became the capital of Taiwan in 1894, all that remains from the Qing era is the north gate
9.
Kuomintang
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The Kuomintang of China is a major political party in the Republic of China. It is currently the second-largest in the country, the predecessor of the KMT, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. The KMT was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, Sun was the provisional president but he did not have military power and ceded the first presidency to the military leader Yuan Shikai. After Yuans death, China was divided by warlords, while the KMT was able to only part of the south. Later led by Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT formed the National Revolutionary Army and it was the ruling party in mainland China from 1928 until its retreat to Taiwan in 1949 after being defeated by the Communist Party of China during the Chinese Civil War. In Taiwan, the KMT continued as the ruling party until the reforms in the late 1970s through the 1990s loosened its grip on power. Since 1987, the Republic of China is no longer a single-party state, however, the KMT is currently the main opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. The guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, advocated by Sun Yat-sen and its party headquarters are located in Taipei. The KMT is a member of the International Democrat Union, the previous president, Ma Ying-jeou, elected in 2008 and re-elected in 2012, was the seventh KMT member to hold the office of the presidency. Together with the People First Party and New Party, the KMT forms what is known as the Taiwanese Pan-Blue Coalition, however, the KMT has been forced to moderate its stance by advocating the political and legal status quo of modern Taiwan. However, since 2008, in order to ease tensions with the PRC, the group planned and supported the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 and the founding of the Republic of China on 1 January 1912. However, Sun did not have power and ceded the provisional presidency of the republic to Yuan Shikai. On 25 August 1912, the Nationalist Party was established at the Huguang Guild Hall in Peking, Sun, the then-President of the ROC, was chosen as the party chairman with Huang Xing as his deputy. The party opposed constitutional monarchists and sought to check the power of Yuan, the Nationalists won an overwhelming majority of the first National Assembly election in December 1912. But Yuan soon began to ignore the parliament in making presidential decisions, Song Jiaoren was assassinated in Shanghai in 1913. Yuan, claiming subversiveness and betrayal, expelled adherents of the KMT from the parliament, Yuan dissolved the Nationalists in November and dismissed the parliament early in 1914. Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in December 1915, in order tonary Party, members must take an oath of personal loyalty to Sun, which many old revolutionaries regarded as undemocratic and contrary to the spirit of the revolution. Thus, many old revolutionaries did not join Suns new organisation, Sun returned to China in 1917 to establish a military junta at Canton, in order to against the Beiyang government, but was soon forced out of office and exiled to Shanghai
10.
Pai Hsien-yung
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Kenneth Hsien-yung Pai, born July 11, 1937) is a writer who has been described as a melancholy pioneer. He was born in Guilin, Guangxi, China at the cusp of both the Second Sino-Japanese War and subsequent Chinese Civil War, Pais father was the famous Kuomintang general Bai Chongxi, whom he later described as a stern, Confucian father with some soft spots in his heart. Pai was diagnosed with tuberculosis at the age of seven, during which time he would have to live in a house from his siblings. He lived with his family in Chongqing, Shanghai, and Nanjing before moving to the British-controlled Hong Kong in 1948 as CPC forces turned the tide of the Chinese Civil War. In 1952, Pai and his family resettled in Taiwan, where the KMT had relocated the Republic of China after defeat by the Communists in 1949, Pai studied in La Salle College, a Hong Kong Catholic boys high school, until he left for Taiwan with his family. In 1956, Pai enrolled at National Cheng Kung University as an engineering major. The following year, he passed the examination for the foreign literature department of National Taiwan University. In September 1958, after completing his first year of study, two years later, he collaborated with several NTU classmates – e. g. Chen Ruoxi, Wang Wenxing, Ouyang Tzu — to launch Modern Literature, in which many of his early works were published. He was also known to frequent the Cafe Astoria in Taipei, Pai went abroad in 1963 to study literary theory and creative writing at the University of Iowa in the Iowa Writers Workshop. That same year, Pais mother, the parent with whom Pai had the closest relationship, died, and it was this death to which Pai attributes the melancholy that pervades his work. After earning his M. A. from Iowa, he became a professor of Chinese literature at the University of California, Santa Barbara, Pai retired from UCSB in 1994. Pais cousin is Hong Kong radio personality Pamela Peck, Pais most famous work of fiction, Taipei People, is a seminal work of Chinese modernism that mixes both literary Chinese and experimental modernist techniques. In terms of his choice of themes, Pais work is far ahead of its time. His novel, Crystal Boys, tells the story of a group of youths living in 1960s Taipei largely from the viewpoint of a young. Among other Taiwanese writers, Pai is appreciated for sophisticated narratives that introduce controversial and his major works, discussed above, have been widely influential. Further, Pais writings while in the US in the early 1960s have greatly contributed to an understanding of the Chinese experience in postwar America. Pleasantville explores the state of a Chinese mother in the upper-class New York suburbs who feels alienated by the Americanization of her Chinese husband. Both Death in Chicago and Pleasantville subtly criticize America as a superficial and materialistic culture that can cause immigrant Chinese to feel lonely, in recent years, Pai has gained some acclaim in Mainland Chinese literary circles
11.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
12.
Order of Blue Sky and White Sun
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The Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon is the Republic of Chinas second highest military award. Created in 1929, it is awarded for outstanding contributions to national security under foreign invasion and is only to the Order of National Glory. The name and the come from the Blue Sky with a White Sun symbol of the Republic of China. Before that it came with a ribbon that is the smaller version of the modern grand cordon. Xie Jinyuan, for his defense of the Sihang Warehouse in Shanghai during WW2, Hu Lien, Hu commanded 11th Division and defended western Hubei. This was fast way to offensive capital Chongqing for Japanese army, claire Lee Chennault, for his aid in defending China during World War II Huang Baitao, for his campaign in Henan in 1948 Albert C. 青天白日勳章 A full Chinese-language listing of the recipients of the Order of Blue Sky and White Sun
13.
Zhuge Liang
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Zhuge Liang, courtesy name Kongming, was a chancellor and regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is recognised as the most accomplished strategist of his era, and has compared to Sun Tzu. A self-avowed Legalist, he compared himself with Guan Zhong, developing Shus agriculture and he attached great importance to the works of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, refusing to indulge local elites and adopting strict, but fair and clear laws. In remembrance of his governance, local people maintained shrines to him for ages, often depicted wearing a Taoist robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers, Zhuge Liang was an important military strategist, statesman and accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, Zhuge is an uncommon two-character Chinese compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence, Zhuge Liang was born in Yangdu County, Langya Commandery, which is in present-day Yishui, Shandong. Orphaned at an age, he was raised by his uncle. Later, he followed his uncle to live in Jing Province, Zhuge Liang enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin, a folk song popular in Shandong, his birthplace. He also liked to compare himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi and he developed close friendships with members of the local literati, such as Xu Shu, Cui Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao. Zhuge Liang also maintained relations with other well-known intellectuals such as Sima Hui. Huang Chengyan once told Zhuge Liang, I heard that youre seeking a spouse, ive an ugly daughter with a yellow face and dark complexion, but her talent matches yours. Zhuge Liang agreed and married Huang Chengyans daughter, at that time, Liu Bei resided at Xinye County while he was taking shelter under Jing Provinces governor, Liu Biao. Liu Bei visited Sima Hui, who told him, Confucian academics and common scholars and those who analyse current affairs well are elites. Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix are the ones in this region. Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei again, however, Xu Shu replied, You must visit this man in person. He cannot be invited to meet you, Liu Bei succeeded in recruiting Zhuge Liang in 207 after paying three personal visits. Zhuge Liang presented the Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and left his residence to follow Liu, afterwards, Liu Bei became very close to Zhuge Liang and often had discussions with him. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were not pleased and complained, Liu Bei explained, Now that I have Kongming, I am like a fish that has found water
14.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
15.
Northern Expedition
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The Northern Expedition was a Kuomintang military campaign, led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, from 1926–28. Its main objective was to unify China under its own control by ending the rule of the Beiyang government as well as the local warlords and it led to the end of the Warlord Era, the reunification of China in 1928 and the establishment of the Nanjing government. The Northern Expedition, also known as the Northern March, began from the KMTs power base in Guangdong province, in 1925 the May 30 Movement announced plans for a strike and protest against western imperialism and its warlord agents in China. At the same time the First United Front between the KMT and the Communist Party of China was questioned after the Zhongshan Warship Incident in March 1926, subsequent events made Chiang Kai-shek the paramount military leader of the KMT. Although Chiang doubted Sun Yat-sens policy of alliance with the Soviet Union, notable military leaders and well-trained soldiers came from the Whampoa Military Academy, which was set up by Sun Yat-sen in 1924. The Academy accepted all persons regardless of party alignment, the success of the Northern Expedition can largely be attributed to both the KMT and CPC working together militarily. This unison, at the time, was encouraged by the Soviet Union. The main targets of this expedition were three notorious and powerful warlords, Zhang Zuolin, who governed Manchuria, Wu Peifu in the Central Plain region, and Sun Chuanfang on the east coast. On July 9,1926, Chiang gave a lecture to 100,000 soldiers of the National Revolutionary Army in a ceremony that was the commencement of the Northern Expedition. Following the defeat of the Zhili clique, Chiang decided to purge all Communists from the Kuomintang, in the Shanghai massacre of April 12, thousands of Communists were executed or went missing, while others were arrested and imprisoned. The purge caused a split between the KMTs left and right wings, the leftists, led by Wang Jingwei in the KMT capital at Wuhan, condemned Chiangs purge. Chiang, however, subsequently established his own capital in Nanjing, as a result, the Nationalist party and its military forces were in a state of disarray during the summer of 1927. The purge gave the warlords an opportunity to rebuild their armies, Sun Chuanfang began to marshal his forces with his ally Xu Kun, one of Chinas best generals. At the same time Sun was communicating with Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria, requesting assistance of any kind in the hopes of regaining his lost territory and he brought up an army of 100,000 men and arranged them around the Lower Yangtze River. The Nationalists were able to muster the same amount of manpower but were riven by political tensions, in addition, Sun and Xu Kun had the element of surprise on their side, for their attack was not fully expected by Chiang or his commanders. Finally, the Nationalists had stationed many of their troops north of the Yangtze in order to hold Xuzhou, leaving them exposed to the warlord armies, thus, many of Chiangs troops were in exposed and isolated positions that they could not defend properly, or with purpose. The stage was set for the last great struggle of the Warlord Era, on July 24 Sun Chuanfang ordered the counterattack to begin. His army, including Xu Kuns forces, tore through the surprised Nationalist troops, the Second Route Army, stationed in the area, was forced to withdraw south, using the Long-Hai railway as an escape route
16.
Shanghai massacre
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During the remainder of 1927 the Communists launched several revolts in an attempt to win back power, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. With the failure of the Guangzhou Uprising the Chinese Communist Partys eclipse was complete, the incident was a key moment in the complex sequence of events that set the stage for the first ten years of the Nationalist government. Depending on writers political views, the incident is sometimes referred to as the April 12 Purge, Shanghai Massacre. This alliance included both financial and military aid and a small but important group of Soviet political and military advisors, the Soviet Unions conditions for alliance and aid included cooperation with the small Chinese Communist Party. Following their admission, Communist activities within the KMT, often covert, internal conflicts between left- and right-wing leaders of the KMT with regards to the CCP problem continued right up to the launch of the Northern Expedition. Plans for a Northern Expedition originated with Sun Yat-sen, after his expulsion from the government in Peking, by 1920 he had made a military comeback, gaining control of some parts of Guangdong province. His goal was to extend his control all of China. Initial successes in the first months of the Expedition soon saw the KMTs National Revolutionary Army in control of Guangdong and large areas in Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, with the growth of KMT authority and military strength, the struggle for control of the Partys direction and leadership intensified. On March 1 the Nationalist government reorganized the Military Commission and placed Chiang under its jurisdiction, Chiang found out about this plot, which most likely led to his determination to purge the CCP from KMT. In response to the advances of the NRA, Communists in Shanghai began to plan uprisings against the warlord forces controlling the city. On March 21–22 KMT and CCP union workers led by Zhou Enlai and Chen Duxiu launched an uprising in Shanghai. On April 5 Wang Jingwei arrived in Shanghai from overseas and met with CCP leader Chen Duxiu, on April 11 Chiang issued a secret order to all provinces under the control of his forces to purge Communists from the KMT. Before dawn on April 12 gang members began to attack district offices controlled by the workers, including Zhabei, Nanshi. Under an emergency decree, Chiang ordered the 26th Army to disarm the workers militias, the union workers organized a mass meeting denouncing Chiang Kai-shek on April 13, and thousands of workers and students went to the headquarters of the 2nd Division of the 26th Army to protest. Soldiers opened fire, killing 100 and wounding many more, over 1000 Communists were arrested, some 300 were executed and more than 5,000 went missing. Western news reports later nicknamed Gen. Bai The Hewer of Communist Heads, for the Kuomintang,39 members of the Kuomintang Central Committee in Wuhan publicly denounced Chiang as a traitor to Sun Yat-sen, including Suns widow Soong Ching-ling immediately after the purge. However, Chiang was defiant, forming a new Nationalist Government at Nanjing to rival the Communist-tolerant Nationalist Government in Wuhan controlled by Wang Jingwei on April 18. More than 10,000 communists in Canton, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, Nanjing, Hangzhou, the Soviet Union officially terminated its cooperation with the KMT while Wang, fearing retribution as a Communist sympathizer, fled to Europe
17.
Central Plains War
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The Central Plains War was a civil war within the factionalised Kuomintang that broke out in 1930. It was fought between the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and the coalition of three military commanders who were allied with Chiang, Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang. The war was fought across the Central Plains, a region of China on the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It almost bankrupted Chiangs Nationalist government and cost over 300,000 total casualties, compared to other senior party officials like Hu Hanmin and Wang Jingwei, Chiang Kai-shek was a rather junior official in the Kuomintang. He began his rise to prominence in 1917 in the Guangzhou government with his military talent, in 1923 he reached the turning point of his life when Chen Jiongming launched a rebellion against Sun Yat-sen in Guangzhou. Chiang helped Sun retreat from Guangzhou, which gained Suns ultimate trust, after Suns death in 1925, cliques in the Kuomintang began to surface. A power struggle between Chiang and Wang Jingwei split the KMT, Chiang was able to use his influence as the commandant of Whampoa Academy to achieve eventual victory, and Wang was forced to leave the country for a few years. In 1926 Chiang was chosen as the commander of the National Revolutionary Army, the legitimacy of Chiangs government was thus seemingly decided. In October 1928 Chiang was elected President of the National Government by the KMT central executive committee, the objective of the Northern Expedition--unifying China--was proclaimed to be a full success. This nominal unification was soon challenged, however, Li Zongren, Bai Chongxi and Huang Shaohong of the Guangxi clique broke off relations with Chiang in March 1929, which effectively started the confrontation. In May Feng Yuxiang of the northwest clashed with Chiang, in November Li Zongren issued an anti-Chiang declaration, along with Wang Jingwei, who headed the leftist faction of the Kuomintang and was a rival of the right-wing Chiang. In December Tang Shengzhi and Zhang Fakui announced their support of the anti-Chiang coalition, the Nationalist government in Nanjing expelled Wang Jingwei from the party in March as a response to the anti-Chiang coalition. The anti-Chiang opposition moved to Beijing to set up a rival KMT government, in February 1930 Yan Xishan of the Shanxi clique demanded Chiangs resignation, which Chiang refused to give. Later that month Yan was chosen to be commander-in-chief of the coalition, while Feng, Li, in April all of them were sworn into their positions except Zhang, who was not committed to either side at the time. In 1928 a revolt led by Ma Tingxiang broke out among the Hui people in Gansu province against the Guominjun of Feng Yuxiang, Ma Tingxiang was attacked by Muslim Gen. Ma Hongbin, who was serving in Fengs administration in Ningxia. The Kuomintang incited anti-Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang sentiments among Chinese Muslims and Mongols, the revolt ended with all the Muslim generals and warlords, like Ma Qi, Ma Lin and Ma Bufang, reaffirming their allegiance to the Kuomintang government after defeating the Guominjun. The anti-Chiang coalition divided its offensive into various routes, Li Zongren led the Guangxi Army and deployed his forces from Guangxi into Hunan province and struck Wuhan. Feng Yuxiang led the Northwest Army, deploying it from Henan into Shandong province to assault Xuzhou, Yan Xishan led the Shanxi Army and cooperated with the Northwest Army from Shandong to strike Xuzhou and planned to march to Nanjing via railway
18.
Second Sino-Japanese War
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The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
19.
Battle of Xuzhou
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The Battle of Xuzhou was fought between Japanese and Chinese forces in May 1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In contemporary accounts in English, the event was referred to as the Battle of Hsuchow. In 1937, the North China Area Army had chased Song Zheyuans 29th Army to the south along the Jinpu Railway after his defeat in the Battle of Lugou Bridge, most mechanized and air forces in Eastern China were wiped out in the Battle of Shanghai in 1937. Although new equipment was purchased, it had yet to be shipped, han Fuqu, the chairman of the Shandong province, rejected orders from Chiang Kai-shek and kept retreating to preserve his force. After Qingdao was occupied in January 1938, his policy was denounced, in March 1938 Japanese forces occupied the north of Shandong, including the capital city Jinan. The defense line along the Yellow River was torn apart, due to pressure from Japanese forces,64 Chinese divisions gathered around Xuzhou in Jiangsu, the headquarters of 5th Military Region of the National Revolutionary Army. Without surrounding it, General Itagaki Seishiro moved south first to attack Taierzhuang, following this defeat, Japan intended an encirclement against Xuzhou and deployed the North China Area Army to the north and the Central China Expeditionary Army to the south. The North China Area Army had four divisions and two infantry brigades drawn from the Kwantung Army, the 5th Tank Battalion was used to support the 3rd Infantry Division advancing north along the railway to Xuzhou. Additional troops were deployed in the Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan by the North China Area Army to stop Chinese reinforcements from the west, a Chinese counterattack here resulted in the Battle of Lanfeng. However, with the approach of the Central China Expeditionary Army from the south, the situation was grim. The Japanese army won the battle and ultimately captured Xuzhou. Most of the Chinese soldiers broke through the encirclement through gaps in the Japanese lines to the west or dispersed into the countryside as guerrillas, the many Chinese troops who broke through the encirclement would play a major role in later battles. Order of battle, Battle of Xuzhou Huaihai Campaign of 1948-49, also involving a Battle of Xuzhou Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing,33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China
20.
Battle of Taierzhuang
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The Battle of Taierzhuang was a battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1938, between the armies of the Republic of China and Japan. The battle was the first major Chinese victory of the war and it humiliated the Japanese military and its reputation as an invincible force, while for the Chinese it represented a tremendous morale boost. Taierzhuang is located on the bank of the Grand Canal of China and was a frontier garrison northeast of Xuzhou. It was also the terminus of a branch railway from Lincheng. Xuzhou itself was the junction of the Jinpu Railway and the Longhai Railway and these provinces were the area of operations of the KMT 5th War Area. The Japanese planned to fight through the Jinpu Railway from the north and south, from there, they would attack Wuhan and force the KMT into surrender. At this time, the Japanese armies were very powerful, so this operation should have been done with relative ease, as a result, the commanders did not deploy their full forces to complete the task. Eventually, KMT general Liao Leis forces arrived, and the battle became tightly entangled. The Japanese were forced onto the bank of the Huai River. As a result, it was unable to launch the planned attack on Xuzhou with the Isogai division. In the northeast, the Itagaki division was advancing towards Xuzhou. However, it was halted at Linyi by KMT generals Pang Bingxun and Zhang Zizhong, although insufficiently trained and not very well equipped, the Chinese troops inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese, who retreated. This engagement not only broke the myth of Imperial Japanese invincibility, even the Tokyo headquarters were shocked. Although the 5th division picked itself back up and tried again, as a result, the Chinese victory at Linyi would later have a big impact on the actual battle in Taierzhuang. Of the three Japanese divisions driving into the 5th War Area, the Isogai division was the most successful and this division came from Hebei, crossing the Yellow River and moving southwards along the Jinpu Railway. Because of KMT general Han Fujus desertion, the division occupied Zhoucun, from there, they arrived at Taian. Here, they were faced with resistance from the forces of KMT generals Sun Tongxuan. Although the Japanese did suffer losses, the Chinese were very poorly equipped, as a result, the Chinese soldiers could only form line after line of defence in a desperate attempt to fight off the Japanese, who were backed up by planes, tanks and heavy artillery
21.
Battle of Wuhan
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The Battle of Wuhan, popularly known to the Chinese as the Defense of Wuhan, and to the Japanese as the Capture of Wuhan, was a large-scale battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War. More than one million National Revolutionary Army troops were gathered, with Chiang Kai-shek personally in command, engagements were in both the northern and southern shores of the Yangtze River, spreading across vast areas of the Anhui, Henan, Jiangxi and Hubei provinces. On 7 July 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army launched an invasion of China. With the onset of the war, Beijing and Tianjin fell to the Japanese in less one month. On 12 November, the Japanese Army captured Shanghai, Nanjing was at risk of being besieged, and the Chinese government was forced to transfer its capital to Chongqing. However, the Chinese government did not transfer its elite troops, assistance from the USSR provided additional military and technical resources, including a small band of Soviet Air Force volunteers. Wuhan, located halfway up the Yangtze River, was the second largest city at the time with a population of two million, the city was divided by the Yangtze River and Hanshui into three regions, Wuchang, Hankou and Hanyang. Wuchang was the center, Hankou was a commercial district while Hanyang was the industrial estate. After the completion of the Yuehan Railway, the importance of Wuhan as a transportation hub in inland China was further established. When Japan captured Nanjing on 13 December, the Chinese shifted structures and industries to Wuhan, the Chinese war effort was focused on protecting Wuhan from being occupied by the Japanese. The Japanese government and the headquarters of the China Expeditionary Force thereby expected that the fall of Wuhan would lead to the end of Chinese resistance, the Battle of Wuhan was preceded by a Japanese air strike on 28 February 1938. It was known as the 2.28 Air battle and the Chinese were able to repel the attack, on 24 March, the Diet of Japan passed the National Mobilization Law that authorized unlimited funding of war. As part of the law, the National Service Draft Ordinance also allowed the conscription of civilians, on 29 April, the Japanese air force launched major air strikes on Wuhan to celebrate Emperor Hirohitos birthday. The Chinese, knowing this beforehand, were well prepared and this battle was known as the 4.29 Air battle, one of the most intense air battles of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The ROCAF shot down 21 Japanese planes at a loss of 12, after the fall of Xuzhou in May 1938, the Japanese planned an extensive invasion of Hankou and the takeover of Wuhan, intending to destroy the main force of the National Revolutionary Army. The Chinese, on the hand, were preparing for the defense of Wuhan. They managed to gather up more than one million troops, around 300 planes and 50 naval ships. In an attempt to buy time for the preparation of the defense of Wuhan
22.
Battle of Changsha (1939)
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Battle of Changsha was the first of four attempts by Japan to take the city of Changsha, Hunan, during the second Sino-Japanese War. It was the first major battle of the war to fall within the frame of what is widely considered World War II. The war had reached a stalemate after two years of fighting, professor Fu Sinian noted in July 1939 that while the Chinese army had become stronger, the Japanese army had weakened. On 15 August, the 11th Army came up with the plans for a campaign south of the Yangtze. In early September, Japanese General Toshizō Nishio of the Japanese Expeditionary Forces to China and Lieutenant-General Seishirō Itagaki set out to capture Changsha, a large attack on the Chinese would therefore restore morale. Altogether, it became obvious that the 100,000 strong Japanese force was to converge on Changsha, the Chinese strategy was to counter the enemy column in northern Jiangxi and then encircle the line on the path southward. On the night of 14 September 1939, Lieutenant General Ryotaro Nakais 106th Division drove westward from north of Fengxin, Jiangxi, after fierce fighting, the defending forces abandoned Gaoan. The bulk of Japanese forces then moved northwest to assault Sandu, Ganfang, in coordination with Nakai, Lieutenant General Shigetaro Amakasus 33rd Division assaulted Guan Linzhengs 15th Army Group from the south. Having recently captured important strategic locations in Jiangxi Province, Japanese troops began their attacks on Changsha in earnest on 17 September, the Japanese 101st Division and 106th Division started marching westward towards Changsha in neighboring Hunan Province. Meanwhile, the 3rd Division, 6th Division, 13th Division, however, the Japanese stretched too far out westward and were counter-attacked by Chinese forces from the south and the north, forcing them to retreat eastward. On 19 September, Japanese forces proceeded to attack Chinese defensive positions along the Xinqiang River with poison gas, after having recovered Cunqianjie on 19 September, Wang Yaowus 74th Corps and Song Ketangs 32nd Corps retook Gaoan in a counterattack on 22 September. East of Changsha, naval vessels landed the Shanghai Special Naval Landing Forces and portions of the 3rd Division, heavy fighting continued afterwards and the Chinese retreated southward as distraction for the Japanese while supporting battalions arrived on the east and the west for an encirclement maneuver. By 29 September, vanguard troops of the Japanese 6th Division had reached the outskirts of Changsha, acting group army commander Guan Linzheng issued orders at once for 52nd and 73rd Corps to pursue the Japanese to Miluo River. General Xue Yue ordered a counterattack on 3 October in pursuit of the Japanese who were south of Chongyang and Yueyang. By 6 October, Japanese forces at Changsha were decimated and retreating, two days later, the remnants fled northward over the Miluo River while the Chinese 195th Division of the 52nd Corps pursued them across the Xinqiang River to recapture their former forward positions. At night, the Chinese launched raids into Xitang and Yaolin, by 10 October, Chinese forces had completely regained their former territories in northern Hunan Province, southern Hubei Province and northern Jiangxi Province. Changsha was the first major city to successfully repel Japanese advances, retaining the city allowed the Nationalist Chinese forces to prevent the Japanese from consolidating their territories in Southern China. The commander of the defense, General Xue Yue, was a graduate of the Republic of China Military Academy
23.
Battle of Changsha (1941)
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The Battle of Changsha was Japans second attempt at taking the city of Changsha, China, the capital of Hunan Province, as part of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The offensive was carried out by more than 120,000 Japanese troops and much better equipment all around, including supporting naval, the invading forces entered Changsha on September 27,1941. The Chinese armies successfully defended Changsha, retaking the city, then the 5th and the 6th Army Groups attacked the Japanese forces west of Hankou city in Hubei province which caused the Japanese Army to withdraw from Changsha. The Japanese Army was running low on ammunition and food, having suffered over 7,000 casualties they retreated. The battle started when a small Chinese guerrilla force clashed with the Japanese 6th Division in the mountains southeast of Yueyang on 6 September, on the 17th, the Japanese crossed the Xinqiang River at four points and made rapid advances, crossing the Miluo River on 19 September. The main Chinese force avoided confronting the enemy but marched in a parallel fashion, the Japanese also attempted to out-flank and encircle the Chinese. This caused both the Chinese and the Japanese armies to reach the Laodao River regions for an inevitable battle. On 27 September, several hundred Japanese troops in plain clothes reached the gate of Changsha but were unable to sabotage the city defenses. Unable to overcome the defenders, the Japanese began a retreat back to the Yueyang region on 30 September. Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War, translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing,33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China
24.
Battle of Changsha (1942)
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The third Battle of Changsha was the first major offensive in China by Imperial Japanese forces following the Japanese attack on the Western Allies. The offensive was intended to prevent Chinese forces from reinforcing the British Commonwealth forces engaged in Hong Kong. With the capture of Hong Kong on 25 December, however, the offensive resulted in failure for the Japanese, as Chinese forces were able to lure them into a trap and encircle them. After suffering heavy casualties, Japanese forces were forced to out a general retreat. However, the Chinese formed a deep pocket around the city, during the southward advance the Japanese encountered three Chinese army divisions that were pushed aside but not crushed, they retreated into the eastern mountains. Changsha was evacuated except for the Chinese army and some 160 civilians who wished to stay to help the defense, the defense was also stiffened by a significant number of British-supplied mortars, two batteries of French-supplied 75mm field guns and several 2 pdr anti-tank guns. Also of great importance were eight new U. S. -supplied M2A1 tanks which were deployed within the city itself and these vehicles proved to be of extraordinary value to the defense due to their all-round machine gun fire capability. On 31 December 1941, the Japanese troops attacked the defenses of the city. Subsequently, they attacked the southern and then the parts of the defenses. Meanwhile, the part of the city suffered heavy bombardment from Japanese artillery. The Japanese eventually cut through the first line of defense, but were unable to breach the line of defense near the city center. On 1 January 1942 the Chinese counter-attack surprised the Japanese with a bombardment using heavy guns, at about the same time, the army units that had retreated to the mountains during the Japanese advance swept down to attack the Japanese supply lines with the aid of local guerillas. The Japanese line collapsed on 4 January, the three Japanese divisions were besieged and requested the help of the Japanese 9th Independent Brigade stationed in Yueyang. However, on 9 January this unit faced heavy fighting with the Chinese and was unable to relieve the besieged Japanese divisions, the besieged Japanese then attempted to retreat across the Luoyang River, not knowing that an ambush party was already stationed in the region. Losing heavily at the crossing, the Japanese eventually reached the Xinqiang River on 15 January to complete the retreat. The 3rd Battle of Changsha can be thought of as decisive, just a month after Pearl Harbor and U. S. entry into the war, the battle was acclaimed to be the only major Allied victory of the Asia-Pacific theater in late-1941/early-1942. It was seen as a victory and opened the possibility that the Chinese could turn the tide of the war against Japan. It earned Generalissimo Chiang Kaisheks Government much prestige from abroad and legitimacy in China, xue Yue earned himself more prestige in China for his three victories and outstanding tactical skills
25.
Operation Ichi-Go
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It consisted of three separate battles in the Chinese provinces of Henan, Hunan and Guangxi. These battles were the Japanese Operation Kogo or Battle of Central Henan, Operation Togo 1 or the Battle of Changheng, and Operation Togo 2 and Togo 3, or the Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou, respectively. The two primary goals of Ichi-go were to open a route to French Indochina, and capture air bases in southeast China from which American bombers were attacking the Japanese homeland. In Japanese the operation was also called Tairiku Datsū Sakusen, or Continent Cross-Through Operation, there were two phases to the operation. 17 divisions, including 500,000 men,15,000 vehicles,6,000 artillery pieces,800 tanks and 100,000 horses participated in this operation. The Japanese included Kwantung Army units and equipment from Manchukuo, mechanized units, units from the North China theater and it was the largest land campaign organized by the Japanese during the entire Second Sino-Japanese War. Many of the newest American-trained Chinese units and supplies were forcibly locked in the Burmese theater under Joseph Stilwell set by terms of the Lend-Lease Agreement. In Operation Kogo,390,000 Chinese soldiers, led by General Tang Enbo, were deployed to defend the position of Luoyang. The 3rd Tank Division of the IJA crossed the Yellow River around Zhengzhou in late April and defeated Chinese forces near Xuchang, then swung around clockwise, Luoyang was defended by three Chinese divisions. The 3rd Tank Division began to attack Luoyang on May 13, the second phase of Ichigo began in May, following the success of the first phase. Japanese forces advanced southward and occupied Changsha, Hengyang, Guilin, in December 1944, Japanese forces reached French Indochina and achieved the purpose of the operation. Nevertheless, there were few practical gains from this offensive, US air forces moved inland from the threatened bases near the coast. The operation also forced British Commandos working with the Chinese as part of Mission 204 to leave China, fourteenth Air Force often disrupted the Hunan–Guangxi Railway between Hengyang and Liuzhou that had been established in Operation Ichigo. Japan continued to attack airfields where US air forces were stationed up to the spring of 1945 and this nullified the limited protection that the Japanese home islands had received from Operation Ichigo. As a result, Stilwell was replaced as Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-shek and commander of the U. S. Forces and his other command responsibilities in the China Burma India Theater were divided up and allocated to other officers. Although Chiang was successful in removing Stilwell, the public relations damage suffered by his Chinese Nationalist Party regime was irreparable, the Generalissimo naturally regards these armies as the chief threat to the country and his supremacy. Has seen no need to make sincere attempt to arrange at least a truce with them for the duration of the war, no diplomatic genius could have overcome the Generalissimos basic unwillingness to risk his armies in battle with the Japanese. Atkinson, who had visited Mao Zedong in the communist capital of Yenan, saw his Communist Chinese forces as a movement
26.
Chinese Civil War
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The Chinese Civil War was fought between forces loyal to the Kuomintang -led government of the Republic of China, and forces loyal to the Communist Party of China. The civil war began in August 1927, with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-sheks Northern Expedition and it can generally be divided into two stages, the first being from 1927 to 1937, and the second being from 1946 to 1950 with the Second Sino-Japanese War separating them. The war represented a split between the Communist CPC and the KMTs brand of Nationalism. It continued intermittently until late 1937, when the two came together to form the Second United Front to counter the Japanese threat and prevent the country from crumbling. Chinas full-scale civil war resumed in 1946, a year after the end of hostilities with Japan, to this day no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, and there is debate about whether the Civil War has legally ended. The ROC mutually claims mainland China, and they continue the fight over diplomatic recognition. The Qing Dynasty, the last of the ruling Chinese dynasties, collapsed in 1911 and finally fell in 1912 with the abdication of the last emperor, Puyi. China fell into what became known as the era, when control of much of the country was divided among a group of powerful independent warlords. Sun Yat-sens efforts to aid from the Western countries were ignored, however. Thus the struggle for power in China began between the KMT and the CPC, in 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance for Chinas unification. The Sun-Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT, Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPC joined the KMT to form the First United Front, in 1923, Sun Yat-sen sent Chiang Kai-shek, one of his lieutenants from his Tongmeng Hui days, for several months of military and political study in Moscow. By 1924 Chiang became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy, the Soviets provided the academy with much educational material, organization and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization, with this aid, Sun Yat-sen was able to raise a dedicated army of the party, with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CPC members were present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai. Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis, the CPC itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925. The KMT in 1923 had 50,000 members, however, after Sun died, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CPC, the CPC then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting
27.
Campaign to Defend Siping
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The Campaign to Defend Siping was a struggle between the Nationalists and the communists for the control of Siping during the Chinese Civil War in the post World War II era. In fact, in the Battle of Siping, Chiang’s own force did not even participated in the fights, after the defeat of Jinjiatun Campaign, the nationalists resumed their offensive with vengeance. In a short period of just two days, the nationalists were able to regroup and re-supply completely, and continued their push toward Siping. Both sides realized the campaign would be a difficult one and both sides placed one of their best field commanders in charge, Du Yuming for the nationalists. In order to fortify the city, everyone was mobilized to build bunkers inside the city, while food, ammunition, Lin Biao and personally inspected communist fortifications at important defensive positions such as Pagoda Mountain and Three Lines of Groves with Peng Zhen in preparation for a prolonged campaign. Once the attacking nationalists were checked by the force of the city in fortification. On April 17,1946, nationalist frontline commander Zheng Dongguo and his deputy Liang Huasheng moved their headquarters to Twin Temples, on April 18, the railways reaching the city was successfully severed. After the initial setback, Zheng Dongguo held a conference on April 19. The railway junctions that provided the link between the 3rd Battalion of the communist 1st Regiment and the communist 56th Regiment appeared to be a point for breakthrough. The loss of the position at the railway junction signaled that the force inside the city must be strengthened and Lin Biao immediately did so. From April 18, through April 26,3 divisions from the nationalist New 1st Army and the 71st Army took turns to assault the enemy positions, but were all beaten back by the enemy in favorable terrain. By the evening of April 26,1946, heavy casualties forced the offensive of the nationalist 71st Army to a complete stop, after failing to make significant progress, the nationalist resorted to artillery to shell the enemy, but resulted in disastrous failure. The terrain favored the defenders in that there were relatively few artillery positions outside the city for shelling the city, the nationalists enjoyed numerical superiorities in artillery so these positions were jammed with nationalist batteries. As a result, the nationalist batteries became victims of enemy counter-artillery fire, when nationalists were forced to withdraw their batteries from the few available artillery positions to avoid losses, the enemy was out of range. As a result, the nationalists lost the artillery duel. However, such success only strengthened Chiang Kai-shek’s resolve to take Changchun after Siping, third, concentrating our force to achieve victory. With the arrival of the new reinforcement, the nationalists planned to concentrate their forces to take Siping and then take the city of Eternal Auspiciousness, in addition, the nationalist air force concentrated all of its available aircraft in the region to support the offensive on the ground. On May 15, Du Yuming gave the order to launch an assault on the Siping
28.
Chinese name
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Chinese personal names are names used by those from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and the Chinese diaspora overseas. Prior to the 20th century, educated Chinese also utilized a courtesy name or style name called zi by which they were known among those outside of their family and closest friends. From at least the time of the Shang dynasty, the Han Chinese observed a number of naming taboos regulating who may or may not use a given name. In general, using the given name connoted the speakers authority, peers and younger relatives were barred from speaking it. Owing to this, many historical Chinese figures – particularly emperors – used a half-dozen or more different names in different contexts and those possessing names identical to the emperors were frequently forced to change them. Although some terms in the ancient Chinese naming system, such as xìng and míng, are used today, they were used in different. Commoners possessed only a name, and the modern concept of a surname or family name did not yet exist at any level of society.3 billion citizens. In fact, just the top three – Wang, Li, and Zhang – cover more than 20% of the population. This homogeneity results from the majority of Han family names having only one character. Chinese surnames arose from two separate traditions, the xìng and the shì. The original xìng were clans of royalty at the Shang court, the shì did not originate from families, but denoted fiefs, states, and titles granted or recognized by the Shang court. Apart from the Jiang and Yao families, the original xìng have nearly disappeared, xìng is now used to describe the shì surnames which replaced them, while shì is used to refer to maiden names. The enormous modern clans sometimes share ancestral halls with one another, nonetheless, however tenuous these bonds sometimes are, it remains a minor taboo to marry someone with the same family name. In modern mainland China, it is the norm that a woman keeps her name unchanged. A child usually inherits his/her fathers surname, though the law explicitly states that a child may use either parents or the grandparents. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to both parents surnames. In the older generations, it was common for a married woman to prepend her husbands surname to her own. This practice is now almost extinct in mainland China, though there are a few such as the name change of Gu Kailai, but survives in some Hong Kong, Macau
29.
Chinese surname
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Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames existed, namely xing or lineage names, and shi or clan names, Chinese family names are patrilineal, passed from father to children. Women do not normally change their surnames upon marriage, except in places with more Western influences such as Hong Kong, traditionally Chinese surnames have been exogamous. The colloquial expressions laobaixing and bǎixìng are used in Chinese to mean ordinary folks, prior to the Warring States period, only the ruling families and the aristocratic elite had surnames. Historically there was also a difference between clan names or xing and lineages names or shi, Xing were surnames held by the noble clans. They generally are composed of a nü radical which has taken by some as evidence they originated from matriarchal societies based on maternal lineages. Another hypothesis has been proposed by sinologist Léon Vandermeersch upon observation of the evolution of characters in oracular scripture from the Shang dynasty through the Zhou, the female radical seems to appear at the Zhou period next to Shang sinograms indicating an ethnic group or a tribe. This combination seems to designate specifically a female and could mean lady of such or such clan, prior to the Qin Dynasty China was largely a fengjian society. In this way, a nobleman would hold a shi and a xing, after the states of China were unified by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC, surnames gradually spread to the lower classes and the difference between xing and shi blurred. Many shi surnames survive to the present day, according to Kiang Kang-Hu, there are 18 sources from which Chinese surnames may be derived, while others suggested at least 24. The following are some of the sources, Xing, These were usually reserved for the central lineage of the royal family. Of these xings, only Jiang and Yao have survived in their form to modern days as frequently occurring surnames. Royal decree by the Emperor, such as Kuang, state name, Many nobles and commoners took the name of their state, either to show their continuing allegiance or as a matter of national and ethnic identity. These are some of the most common Chinese surnames, name of a fief or place of origin, Fiefdoms were often granted to collateral branches of the aristocracy and it was natural as part of the process of sub-surnaming for their names to be used. An example is Di, Marquis of Ouyangting, whose descendants took the surname Ouyang, there are some two hundred examples of this identified, often of two-character surnames, but few have survived to the present. Names of an ancestor, Like the previous example, this was also a common origin with close to 500 or 600 examples,200 of which are two-character surnames, often an ancestors courtesy name would be used. For example, Yuan Taotu took the character of his grandfathers courtesy name Boyuan as his surname. Sometimes titles granted to ancestors could also be taken as surnames, seniority within the family, In ancient usage, the characters of meng, zhong, shu and ji were used to denote the first, second, third and fourth eldest sons in a family
30.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
31.
Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
32.
Xiao'erjing
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It is used on occasion by many ethnic minorities who adhere to the Islamic faith in China, and formerly by their Dungan descendants in Central Asia. Soviet writing reforms forced the Dungan to replace Xiaoerjing with a Roman alphabet and later a Cyrillic alphabet, Xiaoerjing is written from right to left, as with other writing systems using the Perso-Arabic script. This makes it a true abugida, both of these practices are in contrast to the practice of omitting the short vowels in the majority of the languages for which the Arabic script has been adopted. This is possibly due to the importance of the vowel in a Chinese syllable. Xiaoerjing does not have a single, standard name, in Ningxia, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, western Shaanxi and the Northwestern provinces, the script is referred to as Xiǎoérjǐn. According to A. Kalimov, a famous Dungan linguist, the Dungan of the former Soviet Union called this script щёҗин, since the arrival of Islam during the Tang Dynasty, many Arabic or Persian speaking people migrated into China. Centuries later, these peoples assimilated with the native Han Chinese, many Chinese Muslim students attended madrasas to study Classical Arabic and the Quran. Because these students had a basic understanding of Chinese characters but would have a better command of the spoken tongue once assimilated. This was often done by writing notes in Chinese to aid in the memorization of surahs and this method was also used to write Chinese translations of Arabic vocabulary learned in the madrasas. Thus, a system of writing the Chinese language with Arabic script gradually developed and standardized to some extent, currently, the oldest known artifact showing signs of Xiaoerjing is a stone stele in the courtyard of Daxue Xixiang Mosque in Xian in the province of Shaanxi. The stele shows inscribed Quranic verses in Arabic as well as a note of the names of the inscribers in Xiaoerjing. The stele was done in the year AH740 in the Islamic calendar, some old Xiaoerjing manuscripts are preserved in the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Russia. Xiaoerjing can be divided into two sets, the Mosque system, and the Daily system, the Mosque system is the system used by pupils and imams in mosques and madrasahs. It contains much Arabic and Persian religious lexicon, and no usage of Chinese characters and this system is relatively standardised, and could be considered a true writing system. The Daily system is the used by the less educated for letters. Often simple Chinese characters are mixed in with the Arabic script, mostly discussing non-religious matters and this practice can differ drastically from person to person. The system would be devised by the writer himself, with ones own understanding of the Arabic and Persian alphabets, often, only the letters sender and the letters receiver can understand completely what is written, while being very difficult for others to read. Unlike Hui Muslims in other areas of China, Muslims of the northwest provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu had no knowledge of the Han Kitab or Classical Chinese, Xiaoerjing was used to annotate in Chinese, foreign language Islamic documents in languages like Persian
33.
National Revolutionary Army
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It also became the regular army of the ROC during the KMTs period of party rule beginning in 1928. It was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces after the 1947 Constitution, the NRA was founded by the KMT in 1925 as the military force destined to unite China in the Northern Expedition. Organized with the help of the Comintern and guided under the doctrine of the Three Principles of the People, other prominent commanders included Du Yuming and Chen Cheng. The end of the Northern Expedition in 1928 is often taken as the date when Chinas Warlord era ended, though smaller-scale warlord activity continued for years afterwards. In 1927, after the dissolution of the First United Front between the Nationalists and the Communists, the ruling KMT purged its leftist members and largely eliminated Soviet influence from its ranks. Chiang Kai-shek then turned to Germany, historically a great military power, the Weimar Republic sent advisors to China, but because of the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles they could not serve in military capacities. When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 and disavowed the Treaty, the anti-communist Nazi Party, with Germany training Chinese troops and expanding Chinese infrastructure, while China opened its markets and natural resources to Germany. Max Bauer was the first advisor to China, the plan was never fully realised, as the eternally bickering warlords could not agree upon which divisions were to be merged and disbanded. Furthermore, since embezzlement and fraud were commonplace, especially in understrength divisions, therefore, by July 1937 only eight infantry divisions had completed reorganization and training. These were the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 14th, 36th, 87th, 88th, throughout the Chinese Civil War the National Revolutionary Army experienced major problems with desertion, with many soldiers switching sides to fight for the Communists. Troops in India and Burma during World War II included the Chinese Expeditionary Force, after the drafting and implementation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed as the Republic of China Armed Forces. At the apex of the NRA was the National Military Council, chaired by Chiang Kai-Shek, it directed the staffs and commands. However, many divisions were formed two or more other divisions, and were not active at the same time. Also, New Divisions were created to replace Standard Divisions lost early in the war and were issued the old divisions number, therefore, the number of divisions in active service at any given time is much smaller than this. The average NRA division had 5, 000–6,000 troops, an army division had 10, 000–15,000 troops. Not even the German-trained divisions were on par in terms of manpower with a German or Japanese division, the United States Armys campaign brochure on the China Defensive campaign of 1942–45 said, The NRA only had small number of armoured vehicles and mechanised troops. At the beginning of the war in 1937 the armour were organized in three Armoured Battalions, equipped with tanks and armoured cars from various countries, after these battalions were mostly destroyed in the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanjing. The newly provided tanks, armoured cars, and trucks from the Soviet Union and Italy made it possible to create the only mechanized division in the army and this Division eventually ceased to be a mechanized unit after the June 1938 reorganization of Divisions
34.
Hui people
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According to a 2011 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people, the majority of whom are Chinese-speaking practitioners of Islam, though some may practice other religions. Hui people are ethnically and linguistically similar to Han Chinese with the exception that most of them practice Islam, engendering distinctive cultural characteristics. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in China, the Hui people are one of 56 ethnic groups recognized by China. The government defines the Hui people to include all historically Muslim communities not included in Chinas other ethnic groups, the Hui predominantly speak Chinese, while maintaining some Persian and Arabic phrases. In fact, the Hui ethnic group is unique among Chinese ethnic minorities in that it associates with non-Sinitic languages. The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China, but communities exist across the country, e. g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Hainan. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic, the term Hui applied to one of Chinas ten historically Islamic minorities, earlier the term referred to Chinese-speaking groups with Muslim ancestry. Practising Islam was not a criterion, use of the Hui category to describe foreign Muslims moving into China dates back to the Song dynasty. Hui people are of varied ancestry, many directly descending from Silk Road travelers and their ancestors include Central Asians, Arabs and Persians who married Hans. West Eurasian DNA is prevalent—6. 7% of Hui peoples maternal genetics have a West Eurasian origin, in subsequent centuries, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Hans, eventually forming the Hui. Nonetheless, included among Huis in Chinese census statistics are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities, a small Muslim minority among Yunnans Bai people are classified as Hui as well, as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims. Huihui was the generic term for Chinas Muslims during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Is thought to have its origin in the earlier Huihe or Huihu, although the ancient Uyghurs were not Muslims the name Huihui came to refer to foreigners, regardless of language or origin, by the time of the Yuan. and Ming Dynasties. By the aid of heaven we have pacified you, you are our slaves, yet you do not eat our food or drink. If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime and he issued a regulation to that effect. All the Muslims say, if someone else slaughters we do not eat, the Chinese called Muslims, Jews and Christians in ancient times by the same name, Hui Hui. Christians were called Hui who abstain from animals without the foot, Muslims were called Hui who abstain from pork. Hui Hui is presently used almost exclusively for Muslims, but Jews were still called Lan mao Hui Hui which means Blue cap Hui Hui
35.
Li Zongren
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Li Zongren or Li Tsung-jen, courtesy name Delin, was a prominent Guangxi warlord and Kuomintang military commander during the Northern Expedition, Second Sino-Japanese War and Chinese Civil War. He served as vice-president and acting president of the Republic of China under the 1947 Chinese Constitution, Li Zongren was born in Xixiang Village, near Guilin in Guangxi Province, the second eldest in a Zhuang family of five boys and three girls. Lis father, Li Peiying, was a village schoolmaster, after a patchy education Li enrolled in a provincial military school. Li joined the Tongmenghui, the party of Sun Yat-sen, in 1910 but had little understanding at that time of Suns wider goals of reform. Lis native province of Guangxi was also the province of the Taiping Gen. Li Xiucheng. Schooled under Cai E, Li graduated from the Guilin Military Cadre Training School, Lis direct superior was Lin Hu. Lu, the governor of Guangxi, was a bandit who had ambitions to expand into neighboring provinces. For the next few years the warlords of Guangxi and Guangdong were involved in mutually destructive battles, Lu and his closest associates were collectively known as the Old Guangxi Clique. During a battle with a warlord in Hunan in 1918. In 1921 Li Zongren accompanied Lin Hu and Lu Rongting in Lus second invasion of Guangdong, attacking forces under the command of Chen Jiongming, when Lus invasion suffered a disastrous defeat, Li led the rear guard when the Old Guangxi Clique forces retreated. Most of Lin Hus officers were former bandits and militia recruited earlier by Lin from the Zhuang areas of Guangdong, during the campaign many of Lins officers defected to the Guangdong forces, taking their units with them. In the face of defeat Li Zongrens battalion shrunk to about 1000 men, after Lus defeat most of his army dissolved into independent bands of soldiers, many of which resorted to banditry in order to survive. Li joined Sun Yat-sens Kuomintang after Sun established a base in Guangdong, as chaos became the norm in Guangxi, Li became the independent commander of an area several counties large on the Guangdong border, and was joined by his old friend and colleague Huang Shaoxiong. The administration of Li and Huang was credited with keeping the area they controlled relatively free of the bandits, in 1924, while Lu was besieged by rebels in Guilin, Li and his colleagues peacefully occupied the provincial capital, Nanning. Lu then fled and took refuge in French Indochina, the next month Sun Yat-sen, from his base of operations in Guangdong, recognized Li Zongren and his allies, Huang Shaoxing and Bai Chongxi, as the rulers of Guangxi. Together they became known as the New Guangxi Clique, Li reorganized his forces as the Guangxi Pacification Army. He was named the Commander in Chief, Huang Shaohong the deputy Commander, by August they had driven all other contenders out of the province. Li Zongren was military governor of Guangxi from 1924–25, and from 1925-49 Guangxi remained under his influence, in 1926 Li allowed his soldiers to enroll in Kuomintang armies, but kept personal control of his troops
36.
Chiang Kai-shek
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Chiang Kai-shek, also romanized as Jiang Jieshi and known as Jiang Zhongzheng, was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. Chiang was an member of the Kuomintang, the Chinese Nationalist Party. He became the Commandant of the Kuomintangs Whampoa Military Academy and took Suns place as leader of the KMT, having neutralized the partys left wing, Chiang then led Suns long-postponed Northern Expedition, conquering or reaching accommodations with Chinas many warlords. From 1928 to 1948, he served as chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China, unable to maintain Suns good relations with the Communists, he purged them in a massacre at Shanghai and repression of uprisings at Guangzhou and elsewhere. After the defeat of the Japanese, the American-sponsored Marshall Mission, the Chinese Civil War resumed, with the Chinese Communist Party defeating the Nationalists and declaring the Peoples Republic of China in 1949. Chiangs government and army retreated to Taiwan, where Chiang imposed martial law, after evacuating to Taiwan, Chiangs government continued to declare its intention to retake mainland China. Chiang ruled Taiwan securely as President of the Republic of China, like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used several names throughout his life. That inscribed in the records of his family is Jiang Zhoutai. This so-called register name is the one under which his relatives knew him. In deference to tradition, family members did not use the name in conversation with people outside of the family. In fact, the concept of real or original name is not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world, in honor of tradition, Chinese families waited a number of years before officially naming their offspring. In the meantime, they used a name, given to the infant shortly after his birth. Thus, the name that Chiang received at birth was Jiang Ruiyuan. In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo to be a student and this was actually the formal name of a person, used by older people to address him, and the one he would use the most in the first decades of his life. The school name that Chiang chose for himself was Zhiqing, for the next fifteen years or so, Chiang was known as Jiang Zhiqing. This is the name under which Sun Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in Guangzhou in the 1910s. In 1912, when Jiang Zhiqing was in Japan, he started to use the name Chiang Kai-shek as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded, Voice of the Army. Jieshi is the Pinyin romanization of this name, based on Mandarin, kai-shek/Jieshi soon became Chiangs courtesy name
37.
Courtesy name
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A courtesy name, also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to ones given name. This practice is a tradition in East Asian cultures, including China, Japan, Korea, formerly in China, the zi would replace a males given name when he turned twenty, as a symbol of adulthood and respect. It could be either by the parents or by the first personal teacher on the first day of family school. Females might substitute their given name for a zi upon marriage, one also may adopt a self-chosen courtesy name. In China the popularity of the custom has declined to some extent since the May Fourth Movement in 1919, a courtesy name is not to be confused with an art name, another frequently mentioned term for an alternative name in Asian culture-based context. An art name is associated with art and is more of a literary name or a pseudonym that is more spontaneous. The zì, sometimes called the biǎozì or courtesy name, is a name given to Chinese males at the age of 20. It was sometimes given to females upon marriage, the practice is no longer common in modern Chinese society. According to the Book of Rites, after a man reaches adulthood, it is disrespectful for others of the generation to address him by his given name. The zì is mostly disyllabic and is based on the meaning of the míng or given name. Yan Zhitui of the Northern Qi dynasty believed that while the purpose of the míng was to one person from another. The relation which exists between a persons zì and míng may be seen in the case of Chiang Kai-shek, whose ming was Zhōngzhèng. Thus he was also called 蔣中正（Chiang Chung-cheng）in some context, another way to form a zì is to use the homophonic character zǐ – a respectful title for a male – as the first character of the disyllabic zì. Thus, for example, Gongsun Qiaos zì was Zǐchǎn, and Du Fus and it is also common to construct a zì by using as the first character one which expresses the bearers birth order among male siblings in his family. Thus Confucius, whose name was Kǒng Qiū, was given the zì Zhòngní, the characters commonly used are bó for the first, zhòng for the second, shū for the third, and jì typically for the youngest, if the family consists of more than three sons. General Sun Jians four sons, for instance, were Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Sun Yi, the use of zì began during the Shang dynasty, and slowly developed into a system which became most widespread during the succeeding Zhou dynasty. During this period, women were also given zì, the zì given to a woman was generally composed of a character indicating her birth order among female siblings and her surname. For example, Mèng Jiāng was the eldest daughter in the Jiāng family, prior to the twentieth century, sinicized Koreans, Vietnamese, and Japanese were also referred to by their zì
38.
Sichuan
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In antiquity, Sichuan was the home of the ancient states of Ba and Shu. Their conquest by Qin strengthened it and paved the way for the First Emperors unification of China under the Qin Dynasty, during the Three Kingdoms era, Liu Beis Shu was based in Sichuan. The area was devastated in the 17th century by Zhang Xianzhongs rebellion and the areas subsequent Manchu conquest, during the Second World War, Chongqing served as the temporary capital of the Republic of China, making it the focus of Japanese bombing. It was one of the last mainland areas to fall to the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and was divided into four parts from 1949 to 1952, with Chongqing restored two years later. It suffered gravely during the Great Chinese Famine of 1959–61 but remained Chinas most populous province until Chongqing Municipality was again separated from it in 1997, the people of Sichuan speak a unique form of Mandarin, which took shape during the areas repopulation under the Ming. The family of dialects is now spoken by about 120 million people, in Modern Chinese, the name Sichuan has the meaning four rivers and this folk etymology is usually extended to list the provinces four major rivers, the Jialing, Jinsha, Min, and Tuo. In addition to its map and Wade-Giles forms, the name has also been irregularly romanized as Szű-chuan and Szechuan. In antiquity, the area of modern Sichuan was known to the Chinese as Ba and Shu, in reference to the ancient states of Ba and it was the refuge of the Tang court during the An Lushan Rebellion of the mid-8th century. The region had its own religious beliefs and worldview. The most important native states were those of Ba and Shu, Ba stretched into Sichuan from the Han Valley in Shaanxi and Hubei down the Jialing River as far as its confluence with the Yangtze at Chongqing. Shu occupied the valley of the Min, including Chengdu and other areas of western Sichuan, the existence of the early state of Shu was poorly recorded in the main historical records of China. It was, however, referred to in the Book of Documents as an ally of the Zhou and this site, believed to be an ancient city of Shu, was initially discovered by a local farmer in 1929 who found jade and stone artefacts. The Sichuan basin is surrounded by the Himalayas to the west, the Qin Mountains to the north, Qin armies finished their conquest of the kingdoms of Shu and Ba by 316 BC. Any written records and civil achievements of earlier kingdoms were destroyed, Qin administrators introduced improved agricultural technology. Li Bing, engineered the Dujiangyan irrigation system to control the Min River and this innovative hydraulic system was composed of movable weirs which could be adjusted for high or low water flow according to the season, to either provide irrigation or prevent floods. The increased agricultural output and taxes made the area a source of provisions, Sichuan was subjected to the autonomous control of kings named by the imperial family of Han Dynasty. Shu-Han claimed to be the successor to the Han Dynasty, in 263, the Jin dynasty of North China, conquered the Kingdom of Shu-Han as its first step on the path to unify China again, under their rule. Salt production becomes a business in Ziliujing District
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Cai E
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Cai E was a Chinese revolutionary leader and warlord. He was born Cai Genyin in Shaoyang, Hunan, and his name was Songpo. Cai eventually became a warlord in Yunnan, and is best known for his role in challenging the imperial ambitions of Yuan Shikai. Cais name has also been romanised as Tsai Ao, Cai studied at the prestigious and progressive Shiwu Xuetang, where he was taught by Liang Qichao and Tang Caichang, and went to Japan to study in 1899. When the rebellion failed, Cai returned to Japan, during this second sojourn in Japan, he received military training at the Tokyo Shimbu Gakko, followed by the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Cai returned to Guangxi Province, where he held military posts. While in Guangxi, he joined the Tongmenghui, a Chinese revolutionary organization dedicated to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, in 1910, he was transferred to Yunnan Province to command the 37th Brigade of the New Army and to teach at the Yunnan Military Academy in Kunming. One of his pupils at the school was Zhu De, who began studying there starting in 1909, shortly after the Xinhai Revolution began on 10 October 1911, Cai, leading the 37th Brigade, successfully occupied Yunnan. After the revolution, he served as Commander-in-Chief of the Military Government of Yunnan, Cai E was Governor of Yunnan from 1911-1913. After the revolution, Cai gained a reputation as a supporter of democracy. Tang Jiyao replaced Cai E as Military Governor of Yunnan in 1913, in 1915, Yuan Shikai announced his plans to dissolve the Republic and proclaim himself the emperor of a new dynasty. After hearing of Yuans intentions, Cai escaped detention on 11 November, first returning to Japan, after returning to Yunnan, Cai established the local National Protection Army to resist Yuan and defend the Republic. On 12 December Yuan formally accepted a petition to become emperor, on 23 December Cai sent a telegram to Beijing threatening to declare independence if Yuan did not cancel his plans within two days. When Yuan did not respond favourably, Cai declared independence on 25 December, the governor of Guizhou joined Cai in rebellion, declaring independence on 27 December. Yuan had himself inaugurated as emperor on 1 January 1916, when it became clear that Cais rebellion would be successful, numerous other provinces joined Cai in resisting Yuan. Guangxi and Shandong declared independence in March, Guangdong and Zhejiang declared independence in April, and Shaanxi, Sichuan, with several provinces behind them, the revolutionaries successfully forced Yuan to abandon monarchism on 20 March 1916. After Yuan died, on 6 June 1916, Cai held the positions of Governor-General, Cai left for Japan for medical treatment at the Kyushu Imperial University in Fukuoka for tuberculosis later in 1916, but died shortly after his arrival in Japan. He was accorded a funeral in China at Yuelu Mountain in Hunan on 12 April 1917
40.
Huang Shaohong
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Huang, a Hakka, was born in 1895, in Rong County, Guangxi, China. After the 1911 revolution he attended Guangxi Military Cadre Training School in Guilin along with Bai Chongxi, later he rose to commanded the Model Battalion, a modern professional military formation equipped with machineguns. In the confused power struggles following the Ao-Gui Wars, local military figures began to carve out territory in Guangxi, during the Ao-Gui wars, Huang, then the commander of the Model Battalion, attempted to stay neutral and relocated to Baise in the far northwest. By stages, Huang came to control Baise, and with it, later he expanded his control to Wuzhou, thus locking up the portals through which opium both entered and left Guangxi. By the spring of 1924, the new Guangxi Clique had formed and created the Guangxi Pacification Army, Li Zongren was the Commander in Chief, Huang the deputy Commander, and Bai Chongxi the Chief-of-Staff. By August they had defeated and driven the former ruler Lu Rongting and other out of the province. He was also interior and transportation minister in the National Government of Chiang Kai-shek after 1927, later he became chairman of the government of Zhejiang from 1934 to 1935 and Hubei from 1936 to 1937. Again from 1937 to 1946 he became chairman of the government of Zhejiang, during World War II, Huang was named deputy commander-in-chief of the 2nd War Zone. After the war, he was named head of the Supervisory Committee, during the Chinese Civil War in the peace talks in March 1949, Huang was one of the Kuomintang delegates. He and Zhang Zhizhong agreed to accept the cease-fire conditions submitted by the Communist Party, when the Kuomintang leadership turned them down later, Huang fled to Hong Kong and declared his revolt from the KMT and joined the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference in September 1949. After the founding of the Peoples Republic, Huang was elected a member of the State Council, National Peoples Congress and he was also a member of the Standing Committee of the Kuomintang Revolutionary Committee. During the Anti-Rightist Movement, Huang Shaohong was labeled a rightist, later, during the Cultural Revolution, he was again determined to be a rightist. Unable to stand the persecution of the Red Guards, he committed suicide at home on August 31,1966, Huang Shaohong Administrative Divisions, China THE ZHUANG AND THE1911 REVOLUTION
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Xinhai Revolution
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The Xinhai Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew Chinas last imperial dynasty, and established the Republic of China. The revolution was named Xinhai because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai stem-branch in the cycle of the Chinese calendar. The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings, the turning point was the Wuchang Uprising on October 10,1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the Railway Protection Movement. The revolution arose mainly in response to the decline of the Qing state, many underground anti-Qing groups, with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a compromise between Yuan Shikai, the late Qing military strongman, and Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Tongmenghui. After the Qing court transferred power to the newly founded republic, October 10 is commemorated in Taiwan as Double Ten Day, the National Day of the ROC. In mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau, the day is usually celebrated as the Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution. After suffering its first defeat to the West in the First Opium War in 1842, in the wars against the Taiping, Nian, Muslims of Yunnan and the Northwest, the traditional Manchu armies proved themselves incompetent and the court came to rely on local Han armies. Following defeat in the Second Opium War, the Qing tried to modernize by adopting certain Western technologies through the Self-Strengthening Movement from 1861, in 1895, China suffered a serious defeat during the First Sino-Japanese War. This demonstrated that traditional Chinese feudal society also needed to be modernized if the technological and commercial advancements were to succeed. In 1898 the Guangxu Emperor was guided by reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao for a reform in education, military. The reform was a failure, as it was ended prematurely by a coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi. The Guangxu Emperor, who had always been a dependent on Cixi, was put under house arrest in June 1898. Reformers Kang and Liang would be exiled, while in Canada, in June 1899, they tried to form the Emperor Protection Society in an attempt to restore the emperor. Empress Dowager Cixi mainly controlled the Qing dynasty from this point on, under internal and external pressure, the Qing court began to adopt some of the reforms. The Qing managed to maintain its monopoly on power by suppressing, often with great brutality. Dissidents could operate only in societies and underground organizations, in foreign concessions or in exile overseas. There were many revolutionaries and groups that wanted to overthrow the Qing government to re-establish a Han Chinese government, the earliest revolutionary organizations were founded outside of China, such as Yeung Ku-wans Furen Literary Society, created in Hong Kong in 1890
