1.
First Balkan War
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The First Balkan War, lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and comprised actions of the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, as a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albania, despite its success, Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, which provoked the start of the Second Balkan War. By 1867, Serbia and Montenegro had both secured independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin, the question of the viability of Ottoman rule was revived after the Young Turk Revolution of July 1908, which compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. Serbias aspirations to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Bosnian crisis, the Serbs directed their expansionism to the south. Following the annexation, the Young Turks tried to induce the Muslim population of Bosnia to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire and those who took up the offer were re-settled by the Ottoman authorities in districts of northern Macedonia where there were few Muslims. The experiment proved to be a catastrophe for the Empire since the immigrants readily united with the population of Albanian Muslims. They participated in the series of Albanian uprisings before and during the spring Albanian Revolt of 1912, some Albanian government troops switched sides. Serbia, which had helped arm the Albanian Catholic and Hamidian rebels and sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, things got so far out of hand that no one was satisfied with the situation in Turkey in Europe. It became unbearable for the Serbs, the Greeks and for the Albanians, by the grace of God, I have therefore ordered my brave army to join in the Holy War to free our brethren and to ensure a better future. To all of them we bring freedom, brotherhood and equality, in a search for allies, Serbia was ready to negotiate a treaty with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that, in the event of victory against the Ottomans, serbias expansion was accepted by Bulgaria as being to the north of the Shar Mountains. The intervening area was agreed to be disputed, it would be arbitrated by the Tsar of Russia in the event of a war against the Ottoman Empire. After the successful coup détat for unification with Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria began to dream that its national unification would be realized, for that purpose, it developed a large army, and identified as the Prussia of the Balkans. But Bulgaria could not win a war alone against the Ottomans and they also wanted to reverse their defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 by the Ottomans. An emergency military reorganization led by a French military mission had been started for that purpose, in the discussions that led Greece to join the Balkan League, Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on the distribution of territorial gains, unlike its deal with Serbia over Macedonia. Bulgarias diplomatic policy was to push Serbia into an agreement limiting its access to Macedonia, Bulgaria believed that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of Aegean Macedonia and the important port city of Salonica before the Greeks. In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania in present-day Libya, the Italians decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire encouraged the Balkan states to imagine they might win a war against the Ottomans
2.
Second Balkan War
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Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having engaged in territorial disputes with Romania. The Ottoman Empire also took advantage of the situation to some lost territories from the previous war. In the Treaty of Constantinople, it lost Edirne to the Ottomans, the political developments and military preparations for the Second Balkan War attracted an estimated 200–300 war correspondents from around the world. During the First Balkan War, the Balkan League succeeded in driving out the Ottoman Empire from its European provinces, leaving the Ottomans with only the Çatalca, however, the relations between the victorious Balkan allies quickly soured over the division of the spoils, especially in Macedonia. In the event, during the war, the Serbs succeeded in capturing an area far south of the agreed border, at the same time, the Greeks advanced north, occupying Thessaloniki shortly before the Bulgarians arrived, and establishing a common Greek border with Serbia. The developments essentially ended the Serbo-Bulgarian alliance and made a war between the two countries inevitable. Soon thereafter, minor clashes broke out along the borders of the zones with the Bulgarians against the Serbs. Responding to the perceived Bulgarian threat, Serbia started negotiations with Greece, with this agreement, Serbia succeeded in making Greece a part of its dispute over northern Macedonia, since Greece had guaranteed Serbias current occupation zone in Macedonia. However, his later dismissal put an end to the targeting of Serbia. Another point of friction arose, Bulgarias refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra to Romania, Romania threatened to occupy Bulgarian territory by force, but a Russian proposal for arbitration prevented hostilities. In the resulting Protocol of St. Petersburg of 8 May 1913, the resulting agreement was a compromise between the Romanian demands for the entire southern Dobruja and the Bulgarian refusal to accept any cession of its territory. However the fact that Russia failed to protect the integrity of Bulgaria made the Bulgarians uncertain of the reliability of the expected Russian arbitration of the dispute with Serbia. The Bulgarian behavior had also an impact on the Russo-Bulgarian relations. Both acts made conflict with Romania and Serbia inevitable, by mid-June Bulgaria became aware of the agreement between Serbia and Greece in case of a Bulgarian attack. On 27 June Montenegro announced that it would side with Serbia in the event of a Serbian-Bulgarian war, on 8 June, he sent an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. That caused Russia to cancel the initiative and to angrily repudiate its 1902 treaty of alliance with Bulgaria. Then Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by one fourth, as a first step to facilitate a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it
3.
Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991
4.
Battle of Prilep
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The Battle of Prilep or Battle of Pirlepe in the First Balkan War took place on November 3,1912. The Serbian army encountered Ottoman troops near the town of Prilep, the clash lasted for three days, and the Ottoman army was overwhelmed and forced to retreat. Bad weather and difficult roads hampered the 1st Army’s pursuit of the Ottomans after the battle of Kumanovo, on 3 November, in the autumn rain, forward elements of the Morava Division encountered fire from Kara Said Pasha’s 5th Corps from positions north of Prilep. This started the battle for Prilep, which was broken off that night and was renewed the next morning. When the Drina Division arrived on the battlefield, the Serbs gained an overwhelming advantage, on 5 November, as the Serbs moved south of Prilep they came again under Ottoman fire from prepared positions on the heights of the road to Bitola. Bayonets and hand grenades gave the Serbs the advantage in hand-to-hand fighting, large and strong units covered the entire plain. All the Serbian officers were seen clearly and they attacked as if on parade. One part of the Turkish officers were struck dumb by the wonder of this mathematical disposition and order and they remarked on the arrogance of the open approach and clear frontal attack. The artillery abandoned in Skoplje would have helped the Ottoman defenders south of Prilep, during this battle, the Serbian 1st Army was without the presence of its commanding general, Crown Prince Alexander. Ill from the rigors of the cold and wet campaign, he maintained contact with his army from his sickbed in Skoplje. The short, sharp battles around Prilep demonstrated that the Ottomans were still capable of opposing the Serbian march through Macedonia, even after abandoning the city of Prilep, the Ottoman 5th Corps fought stubbornly south of town. The size and enthusiasm of the Serbs overcame the Ottomans, the Ottomans suffered around 300 dead and 900 wounded, and 152 were taken prisoner, the Serbs had losses of around 2,000 dead and wounded. The road southwest to Bitola now lay open to the Serbs
5.
Adrianople Vilayet
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The Vilayet of Adrianople or Vilayet of Edirne was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. This vilayet was split between Turkey and Greece in 1923, culminating in the formation of Western and Eastern Thrace after World War I as part of the Treaty of Lausanne, a small portion of the Vilayet was given to Bulgaria in the Treaty of Bucharest after the Balkan wars. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 26,160 square miles. In the east it bordered with the Istanbul Vilayet, the Black Sea, sometimes the area is described also as Southern Thrace, or Adrianopolitan Thrace. After the city of Edirne, the towns were Tekirdağ, Gelibolu, Kırklareli, İskeçe, Çorlu, Dimetoka, Enez, Gümülcine
6.
Scutari Vilayet
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In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 5,310 square miles. The Scutari Vilayet was established in 1867 by merging the Sanjaks of Shkodra, the Sanjak of Scutari was established when Ottoman Empire acquired Shkodra after the Siege of Shkodra in 1478-9. A big part of Principality of Zeta was added to territory of Sanjak of Scutari in 1499, in 1514 this territory was separated from the Sanjak of Scutari and established as separate Sanjak of Montenegro, under the rule of Skenderbeg Crnojević. When he died in 1528, the Sanjak of Montenegro was merged with Sanjak of Scutari, in 1867, the Sanjak of Scutari merged with the Sanjak of Skopje and became the Scutari Vilayet. Its sanjaks were Sanjak of Scutari, Prizren, and Sanjak of Dibra, in 1877, Prizren passed to the Kosovo Vilayet and Debar passed to the Monastir Vilayet, while Durrës township became Durrës Sanjak. After the Russo-Turkish War Bar, Podgorica, İşpozi and Zabyak townships were ceded to Montenegro in 1878, also Ülgün one was ceded to Montenegro in 1881 In 1912 and beginning of 1913 it was occupied by members of Balkan League during the First Balkan War. In 1914 the territory of Scutari Vilayet became a part of Principality of Albania, the majority of the population spoke the Albanian language. He asserted that the Orthodox, and a number of Muslims, media related to Vilayet of Scutari at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Kosovo Vilayet
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Uskub functioned as the capital of the province and the mid way point between Istanbul and its European provinces. Uskubs population of 32,000 made it the largest city in the province, followed by Prizren, the province was renowned for its craftsmen and important cities such as İpek, where distinct Ottoman architecture and public baths were erected, some of which can still be seen today. The birthplace of the Albanian national identity was first articulated in Prizren, before the First Balkan War in 1912, the provinces shape and location denied Serbia and Montenegro a common land border. After the war, the part of the vilayet was divided between Montenegro and Serbia. These borders were all ratified at the Treaty of London in 1913, the Ottoman Empire finally recognised the new borders following a peace deal with the Kingdom of Serbia on 14 March 1914. Between 1881 and 1912, it was expanded to include other regions of present-day Republic of Macedonia, including larger urban settlements such as Štip. These regions had belonged to the former Eyalet of Nis, the Eyalet of Skopje and, after 1865, in 1868 the Vilayet of Prizren was created with the sanjaks of Prizren, Dibra, Skopje and Nis, but it ceased to exist in 1877. In 1878, the League of Prizren was created by Albanians from four vilayets including the Vilayet of Kosovo, the Leagues purpose was to resist Ottoman rule and incursions by the newly emerging Balkan nations. With the Serbian Armys liberation of Niš and Vranje, the rebellion had been activated during the event with guerrilla fighting. The rebels received aid from the Serbian government, though the uprising only lasted four months. Two major administrative changes happened in 1880 and 1902, in 1902, kazas of Mitrovica and Novi Pazar were transferred to Sanjak of Pristina, and kazas of Berane and Rožaje to Sanjak of Ipek. In the same time, Sanjak of Sjenica was created with kazas, Sjenica, Nova Varoš, Bijelo Polje, in 1901, massacres of Serbs were carried out by Albanians in North Kosovo and Pristina. In 1910, an Albanian-organised insurrection broke out in Pristina and soon spread to the vilayet of Kosovo. The Ottoman sultan visited Kosovo in June 1911 during peace settlement talks covering all Albanian-inhabited areas, there have been a number of estimates about the ethnicity and religious affiliation of the population of the heterogeneous province. The Muslims were primarily Albanians and the Christians were mostly Serbs, british journalist H. Brailsford estimated in 1906 that two-thirds of the population of Kosovo was Albanian and one-third Serbian. The most populous districts of Đakovica and Peć were said to have between 20,000 and 25,000 Albanian households, as against some 5,000 Serbian ones. A map of Alfred Stead, published in 1909, shows that similar numbers of Serbs, sûreti defter-i esami vilayeti Dibra, f. 124-176, Başbakanlık Arşivi, maliyeden müdever, nr.508, regjistri turk i vitit 1485* - Prof. As
8.
Manastir Vilayet
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The Vilayet of Manastir was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire, created in 1874, dissolved in 1877 and re-established in 1879. Administrative divisions of Manastir Vilayet until 1912, Sanjak of Manastir, Kazas of Manastir, Pirlepe, Florina, Kıraçova, Sanjak of Serfiğe, Kazas of Serfiçe, Kozana, Alasonya, Kayalar, Nasliç and Grebne. Sanjak of Dibra, Kazas of Debre-i Bala, Mat, Debre-i Zir, Sanjak of Elbasan, Kazas of İlbasan, Grameç and Peklin. Sanjak of Görice, Kazas of Görice, İstarova, Kolonya, according to Russian consul in the Manastir Vilayet, A. Encyclopædia Britannica. Media related to Vilayet of Monastir at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Salonica Vilayet
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The Vilayet of Salonica was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire from 1867 to 1912. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 12,950 square miles, the vilayet consisted of present Central and Eastern parts of Greek Macedonia and Pirin Macedonia in Bulgaria. Present Pirin Macedonia part of it was administrated as kazas of Cuma-yı Bala, Petriç, Nevrekop, Menlik, Ropçoz and it was dissolved after Balkan Wars and divided among Kingdom of Greece, Kingdom of Serbia and Tsardom of Bulgaria in 1913. v. Media related to Vilayet of Salonica at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Aegean Islands
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The ancient Greek name of the Aegean Sea, Archipelago was later applied to the islands it contains and is now used more generally, to refer to any island group. The vast majority of the Aegean Islands belong to Greece, being split among nine administrative regions, the only sizable possessions of Turkey in the Aegean Sea are Imbros and Tenedos, in the northeastern part of the Sea. Various smaller islets off Turkeys western coast are also under Turkish sovereignty, most of the islands enjoy warm summer temperatures and cold winter influenced by the Mediterranean climate. In the Treaty of Peace in 1947, these Italian-controlled islands were ceded to Greece, media related to Islands of the Aegean Sea at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Aegean Sea
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The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the Greek and Anatolian peninsulas, i. e. between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles, the Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea was known as Archipelago, but in English this words meaning has changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally. In ancient times, there were various explanations for the name Aegean, a possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word αἶγες – aiges = waves, hence wavy sea, cf. also αἰγιαλός, hence meaning sea-shore. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name Archipelago, in some South Slavic languages the Aegean is often called White Sea. The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 square kilometres in area, the seas maximum depth is 3,543 metres, east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos, many of the Aegean Islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows, On the South. In the Dardanelles. A line joining Kum Kale and Cape Helles, the dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of 23–30 metres, then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of 5–15 cm/s. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, Aegean Sea Intermediate Water – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40–50 m to 200–300 metres with temperatures ranging from 11–18 °C. Aegean Sea Bottom Water – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a uniform temperature. The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC, before that time, at the peak of the last ice age sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared c.7000 BC, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that, the subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenean Civilization of the Peloponnese, later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the Athenian Empire and Hellenic Civilization. Plato described the Greeks living round the Aegean like frogs around a pond, the Aegean Sea was later invaded by the Persians and the Romans, and inhabited by the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Seljuq Turks, and the Ottoman Empire. The Aegean was the site of the democracies, and its seaways were the means of contact among several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays, in ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland
12.
Treaty of London (1913)
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The Treaty of London was signed on 30 May during the London Conference of 1912–13. It dealt with the territorial adjustments arising out of the conclusion of the First Balkan War, the combatants were the victorious Balkan League and the defeated Ottoman Empire. Representing the Great Powers were the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, hostilities had officially ceased on 2 December 1912, except for Greece that had not participated in the first truce. Austria-Hungary and Italy strongly supported the creation of an independent Albania, in part, this was consistent with Austria-Hungarys previous policy of resisting Serb expansion to the Adriatic, Italy had designs on the territory, manifested in 1939. The balance of power struck between the members of the Balkan League had been on the assumption that no Albanian polity would be formed, the Ottoman Empire ceded Crete, while it was left to the Great Powers to determine the fate of the other islands in the Aegean Sea. The borders of Albania and all questions concerning Albania were to be settled by the Great Powers. However, the division of the territories ceded to the Balkan League was not addressed in the Treaty, as a result of Bulgarian dissatisfaction with the de facto military division of Macedonia, the Second Balkan War broke out between the combatants on 16 June 1913. A final peace was agreed at the Treaty of Bucharest on 12 August 1913, treaties of London Chronology of the 1913 London Peace Conference
13.
Treaty of Bucharest (1913)
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The Treaty of Bucharest was concluded on 10 August 1913, by the delegates of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. The Treaty was concluded in the aftermath of the Second Balkan War and amended the previous Treaty of London, about one month later, the Bulgarians signed a separate border treaty with the Ottomans, who had regained some territory west of the Enos-Midia Line during the second war. Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its gains in the First Balkan War, the attacks were driven back, and the Greek and Serbian armies invaded Bulgarian-held territory in return. Isolated and surrounded by a powerful coalition of opponents, Bulgaria was forced to agree to a truce and to peace negotiations to be held in the Romanian capital. Although the Ottomans had also participated in the Second Balkan War, instead, bilateral treaties were later concluded with Bulgaria and Greece. The territory thus obtained embraced central Vardar Macedonia, including Ohrid, Štip, Kočani, by this arrangement, Serbia increased its territory from 48,300 to 87,780 km2 and its population by more than 1.5 million. The boundary line separating Greece from Bulgaria was drawn from the crest of Belasica to the mouth of the Mesta, the territory thus annexed included large parts of Epirus and Macedonia, including Thessaloniki. The Greek-Bulgarian border was moved eastwards to beyond Kavala, thus restricting the Aegean seaboard of Bulgaria to an extent of 110 km. In addition, Crete was definitively assigned to Greece and was taken over on 14 December that year. Within this region was also Florina, bulgarias share of the spoils, although greatly reduced, was not entirely negligible. With only an outlet to the Aegean around the minor port of Dedeagach. According to Anderson and Hershey, a winner and triumphant after the acquisition of Thessaloniki and most of Macedonia up to and including the port of Kavala, italy was opposed to Greek claims to Northern Epirus, and controlled the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese islands. At the end of the war, Greece still had claims to territories inhabited, at the time, Anderson, Frank Marby, Amos Shartle Hershey. The Treaty of Bucharest, August 10,1913, handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914. Washington, DC, National Board for Historical Service, Government Printing Office
14.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
15.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
16.
Kingdom of Bulgaria
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Ferdinand I was crowned a Tsar at the Declaration of Independence, mainly because of his military plans and for seeking options for unification of all Balkan lands with an ethnic Bulgarian majority. The state was almost constantly at war throughout its existence, lending to its nickname as the Balkan Prussia, following the First World War the Bulgarian army was disbanded and forbidden to exist by the Allied powers, and all plans for national unification of the Bulgarian lands failed. In 1946, the monarchy was abolished, its final Tsar was sent into exile, to complicate matters, Serbia and Greece too made claims over parts of Macedonia, while Serbia, as a Slavic nation, also considered Macedonian Slavs as belonging to the Serbian nation. Thus began a struggle for control of these areas which lasted until World War I. In 1903, there was a Bulgarian insurrection in Ottoman Macedonia, in 1908, Ferdinand used the struggles among the Great Powers to declare Bulgaria an independent kingdom with himself as Tsar. He did this on 5 October in the St Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo, in February 1912 a secret treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Serbia, and in May 1912 a similar treaty was signed with Greece. Montenegro was also brought into the pact, the treaties provided for the partition of Macedonia and Thrace between the allies, although the lines of partition were left dangerously vague. After the Ottomans refused to implement reforms in the disputed areas, the allies had an astonishing success. The Bulgarian army inflicted several crushing defeats on the Ottoman forces and advanced threateningly against Constantinople, while the Serbs, the Ottomans sued for peace in December. Negotiations broke down, and fighting resumed in February 1913, the Ottomans lost Adrianople to a Bulgarian task force. A second armistice followed in March, with the Ottomans losing all their European possessions west of the Midia-Enos line, Bulgaria gained possession of most of Thrace, including Adrianople and the Aegean port of Dedeagach. Bulgaria also gained a slice of Macedonia, north and east of Thessaloniki, Bulgaria sustained the heaviest casualties of any of the allies, and on this basis felt entitled to the largest share of the spoils. Some circles in Bulgaria inclined toward going to war with Serbia, in June 1913 Serbia and Greece formed a new alliance, against Bulgaria. The Serbian and the Greek forces were initially on the retreat on the western border, the fighting was very harsh, with many casualties, especially during the key Battle of Bregalnica. Soon Romania entered the war and attacked Bulgaria from the north, the Ottoman Empire also attacked from the south-east. The war was now definitely lost for Bulgaria, which had to abandon most of her claims of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, Romania took possession of southern Dobruja. In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the western powers, the government of Vasil Radoslavov aligned Bulgaria with Germany and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgarias traditional enemy. But Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece, the UK, France, Italy and Russia then declared war on Bulgaria
17.
Kingdom of Montenegro
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The Kingdom of Montenegro, was a monarchy in southeastern Europe, present day Montenegro, during the tumultuous years on the Balkan Peninsula leading up to and during World War I. Legally it was a monarchy, but absolutist in practice. Prince Nicholas of Montenegro proclaimed the Kingdom of Montenegro in Cetinje on 28 August 1910, Montenegro joined the First Balkan War in 1912, hoping to win a share in the last Ottoman-controlled areas of Rumelia. Montenegro did make further territorial gains by splitting Sandžak with Serbia on 30 May 1913, when the Second Balkan War broke out in June 1913, Serbia fought against Bulgaria, and King Nicholas sided with Serbia. Once again Montenegro found itself tossed into war, in which it won substantial additional territory, during World War I Montenegro allied itself with the Triple Entente, in line with King Nicholas pro-Serbian policy. Accordingly, Austria-Hungary occupied Montenegro from 15 January 1916 to October 1918, on 20 July 1917, the signing of the Corfu Declaration foreshadowed the unification of Montenegro with Serbia. On 26 November 1918, Podgorica Assembly, an elected body claiming to represent Montenegrin people, unanimously adopted a resolution deposing king Nicholas I and unifying Montenegro with Serbia. During World War II, the forces in Yugoslavia considered turning the Italian governorate of Montenegro into a puppet kingdom. King Nikola and the expansion of Montenegro, 1914-1920. Media related to Kingdom of Montenegro at Wikimedia Commons Kingdom of Montenegro in 1918 Map Map Montenegro - World Statesmen
18.
Kingdom of Greece
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The Kingdom of Greece was a state established in 1832 at the Convention of London by the Great Powers. It was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Constantinople, where it also secured full independence from the Ottoman Empire and this event also marked the birth of the first, fully independent, Greek state since the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans in the mid-15th century. The Kingdom succeeded from the Greek provisional governments after the Greek War of Independence, in 1924 the monarchy was abolished, and the Second Hellenic Republic was established. The restored Kingdom of Greece lasted from 1935 to 1973, the Kingdom was again dissolved in the aftermath of the seven-year military dictatorship, and the Third Republic, the current Greek government, came to be. Most of Greece gradually became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, the Ottoman advance into Greece was preceded by victory over the Serbs to its north. This was followed by a draw in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, with no further threat by the Serbs and the subsequent Byzantine civil wars, the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453 and advanced southwards into Greece, capturing Athens in 1458. The Greeks held out in the Peloponnese until 1460, and the Venetians and Genoese clung to some of the islands, the mountains of Greece were largely untouched, and were a refuge for Greeks to flee foreign rule and engage in guerrilla warfare. Cyprus fell in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670, the Ionian Islands were only briefly ruled by the Ottomans, and remained primarily under the rule of Venice. In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire, following a protracted struggle, the autonomy of Greece was first recognized by the Great Powers in 1828, full independence was recognized in 1830. Count Ioannis Kapodistrias became Governor of Greece in 1827, but was assassinated in 1831, at the insistence of the Powers, the 1832 Treaty of London made Greece a monarchy. Pedro of Braganza, Prince Royal of Portugal, Brazil, Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria was chosen as its first King. Otto arrived at the capital, Nafplion, in 1833 aboard a British warship. Ottos reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia, left the way they came, nevertheless, they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, in addition, the new Kingdom tried to eliminate the traditional banditry, something that in many cases meant conflict with some old revolutionary fighters who continued to exercise this practice. But Greece still had no legislature and no constitution, Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in Athens in September 1843. Otto agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November, the new constitution created a bicameral parliament, consisting of an Assembly and a Senate. Power then passed into the hands of a group of politicians, Greek politics in the 19th century was dominated by the national question. Greeks dreamed of liberating them all and reconstituting a state embracing all the Greek lands and this was called the Great Idea, and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, particularly Crete, Thessaly and Macedonia
19.
Kingdom of Serbia
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Since 1817 the Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty. The Principality, suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, de facto achieved independence when the last Ottoman troops left Belgrade in 1867. In 1882 King Milan I proclaimed the Kingdom of Serbia and maintained a foreign policy friendly to Austria-Hungary, between 1912 and 1913 Serbia greatly enlarged its territory through engagement in the First and Second Balkan Wars - Sandžak-Raška, Kosovo Vilayet and Vardar Macedonia were annexed. As outcome of the World War I in 1918 it united with Vojvodina, the Principality of Serbia was a state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831-1833 it expanded to the east, south, in 1867 the Ottoman army left the Principality, securing its de facto independence. Serbia expanded further to the south-east in 1878, when it won international recognition at the Congress of Berlin. In 1882 it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia, the Serbo-Bulgarian War erupted on November 14,1885 and lasted until November 28 of the same year. The war ended in defeat for Serbia, as it had failed to capture the Slivnitsa region which it had set out to achieve. Bulgarians successfully repelled the Serbs after the victory at the Battle of Slivnitsa and advanced into Serbian territory taking Pirot. When Austria-Hungary declared that it would join the war on the side of Serbia, Bulgaria withdrew from Serbia leaving the Serbo-Bulgarian border precisely where it had prior to the war. The peace treaty was signed on February 19,1886 in Bucharest, as a result of the war, European powers acknowledged the act of Unification of Bulgaria which happened on September 6,1885. In 1888 Peoples Radical Party led by Sava Grujić and Nikola Pašić came to power, the lost war and the Radical Partys total electoral victory were some of the reasons why King Milan I abdicated in 1889. His son Alexander I assumed the throne in 1893 and in 1894 dismissed the constitution, King Alexander I of Serbia and his unpopular wife Queen Draga, were assassinated inside the Royal Palace in Belgrade on the night of 28–29 May 1903. Other representatives of the Obrenović family were shot as well and this act resulted in the extinction of the House of Obrenović which had been ruling Serbia since 1817. After the May Coup Serbian Skupština invited Peter Karadjorjević to assume the Serbian crown as Peter I of Serbia, a constitutional monarchy was created with the military Black Hand society operating behind the scenes. The traditionally good relations with the Austria-Hungary ended, as the new dynasty relied on the support of the Russian Empire, in April 1904 the Friendship treaty and in June 1905 the customs union with Bulgaria were signed. In response Austria-Hungary imposed a Tariff War of 1906-1909, after the 1906 elections Peoples Radical Party came to power. In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, where Serbia had hoped to expand its territory, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, Kingdom of Italy, Serbia, Principality of Montenegro, German Empire and France took an interest in these events
20.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
21.
Kingdom of Romania
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The Kingdom of Romania was a constitutional monarchy which existed between 13 March 1881 and 30 December 1947, specified by the first three Constitutions of Romania. As such, it is distinct from the Romanian Old Kingdom. From 1859 to 1877, Romania evolved from a union of two vassal principalities under a single prince to a full-fledged independent kingdom with a Hohenzollern monarchy. During 1918-20, at the end of World War I, Transylvania, Eastern Moldavia, in 1947 King Michael was compelled to abdicate and a socialist republic ruled by the Romanian Communist Party replaced the monarchy. The 1859 ascendancy of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Moldavia and Wallachia under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire united an identifiably Romanian nation under a single ruler. On 5 February 1862 the two principalities were united to form the Principality of Romania, with Bucharest as its capital. On 23 February 1866 a so-called Monstrous coalition, composed of Conservatives and radical Liberals, the German prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was appointed as Prince of Romania, in a move to assure German backing to unity and future independence. He immediately adopted the Romanian spelling of his name, Carol, on 15 March 1881, as an assertion of full sovereignty, the Romanian parliament raised the country to the status of a kingdom, and Carol was crowned as king on 10 May. Abstaining from the Initial Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Romania entered the Second Balkan War in June 1913 against the Tsardom of Bulgaria,330,000 Romanian troops moved across the Danube and into Bulgaria. One army occupied Southern Dobrudja and another moved into northern Bulgaria to threaten Sofia, Romania thus acquired the ethnically-mixed territory of Southern Dobrudja, which it had desired for years. In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the Entente side, the term came into use after World War I, when the Old Kingdom was opposed to Greater Romania, which included Transylvania, Banat, Bessarabia, and Bukovina. Nowadays, the term mainly has a historical relevance, and is used as a common term for all regions in Romania included in both the Old Kingdom and present-day borders. Romania delayed in entering World War I, but ultimately declared war on the Central Powers in 1916, War with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 resulted in the occupation of Budapest by Romanian troops and the end of Béla Kuns Bolshevik regime. At the Paris Peace Conference, Romania received territories of Transylvania, part of Banat, Bessarabia, thus, Romania in 1920 was more than twice the size it had been in 1914. Although the country was satisfied and had no territorial claims, it aroused the enmity of Bulgaria, and especially Hungary. Greater Romania now encompassed a significant minority population, especially of Hungarians, by contrast, the prewar Romanian state had only one real minority, Jews, but nonetheless anti-Semitism was widespread. Transylvania had significant Hungarian and German population, and with a contemptuous attitude towards Romanians. Both groups were excluded from politics as the postwar Romanian regime passed an edict stating that all personnel employed by the state had to speak Romanian
22.
Mehmed V
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Mehmed V Reşâd was the 35th and penultimate Ottoman Sultan. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I and he was succeeded by his half-brother Mehmed VI. He was born at the Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, like many other potential heirs to the throne, he was confined for 30 years in the Harems of the palace. For nine of those years he was in solitary confinement, during this time he studied poetry of the old Persian style and was an acclaimed poet. On his ninth birthday he was circumcised in the special Circumcision Room of Topkapı Palace. Under his rule, the Ottoman Empire lost all its territory in North Africa to Italy in the Italo-Turkish War. He was actually said to look with disfavor on the policy of Enver Pasha. This was the last genuine proclamation of jihad in history by a Caliph, the proclamation had no noticeable effect on the war, despite the fact that many Muslims lived in Ottoman territories. The Arabs eventually joined the British forces against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916, Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Constantinople on 15 October 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on 27 January 1916, Mehmed V died at Yıldız Palace on 3 July 1918 at the age of 73, only four months before the end of World War I. Thus, he did not live to see the downfall of the Ottoman Empire and he spent most of his life at the Dolmabahçe Palace and Yıldız Palace in Istanbul. His grave is in the Eyüp district, circassian HIM Empress Mihrengiz Kadın, married at Istanbul, Ortaköy Palace in 1876, and had, HIH Prince Şehzade Ömer Hilmi, married five times and had one son and one daughter. Abkhazian HIM Empress Dürrüaden Kadın, married at Istanbul, Veliahd Palace in 1877, abkhazian HIM Empress Nazperver Kadın, married at Istanbul, Veliahd Palace in 1888, and had, HIH Princess Refia Sultan. Circassian HIM Empress Dilfirib Kadın, married at Istanbul, Veliahd Palace in 1907, the Ottomans, Europes Muslim Emperors Media related to Mehmed V at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Enver Pasha
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Ismail Enver Pasha was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He became the leader of the Ottoman Empire in both the Balkan Wars and in World War I. As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief, Enver Pasha was the most powerful figure of the government of the Ottoman Empire and he decided to involve the Empire in World War I on the side of Germany. Along with Talaat and Djemal, he was one of the perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide. Prior to World War I, he was hailed at home as the hero of the revolution, Enver was born in Istanbul on 22 November 1881. Envers father, Ahmed, was an Albanian either a bridge-keeper in Monastir or a town public prosecutor in the Balkans. Enver had two brothers, Nuri and Mehmed Kamil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He studied for different degrees in military schools in the empire and he became a major in 1906. He was sent to the Third Army, which was stationed in Salonica, during his service in the city, he became a member of the Committee of Union and Progress. In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution broke out in Salonica, the successful revolt brought the CUP to power, ushering in the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. During the course of the year, a reactionary conspiracy to organize a countercoup culminated in the 31 March Incident. Enver Bey took a role in the suppression of the countercoup. In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania, Enver decided to join the defense of the province and left Berlin for Libya. There, he assumed the command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops. Because of the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Istanbul and this allowed Italy to take control of Libya. In 1912, thanks to his role in the war. However, the loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity, the defeated CUP assumed an ideology favoring more centralization under Enver. In October 1912, the First Balkan War broke out, where the Ottoman armies suffered defeats at the hands of the Balkan League
24.
Zeki Pasha
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He graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy in 1883 and the Staff College in 1887. In 1894, as Commandant of the IV Corps, he was decorated for his participation during the Sassoun massacre, during the massacres, he reportedly stated, not finding any rebellion we cleared the country so none should occur in the future. In 1912–1913, he was commander of the Vardar Army during the First Balkan War, following the orders of Nazim Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, Zeki Pasha initiated the Battle of Kumanovo. His failure to emplace key artillery hindered the forces under his command, during the frantic Ottoman retreat from Kumanovo, a disgruntled Ottoman soldier attempted to assassinate him, contributing to the panic. Zeki Pasha established a defensive position on the Oblakovo heights northwest of Monastir prior to the battle. However, during the Battle of Monastir, Serbian artillery and infantry managed to defeat the Ottomans, fethi Pasha was among the casualties. On 21 November 1914, he was assigned the Ottoman liaison officer to Kaiser Wilhelm II and was sent to German Empire, after armistice, he returned to Constantinople and served as the Ottoman Chief of General Staff between 23 October 1920 and 1 November 1922. He retired from the army in 1923
25.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
26.
Hasan Tahsin Pasha
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Hasan Tahsin Pasha was a senior Ottoman military officer, who served in Yemen and in the First Balkan War. Hasan Tahsin was an Albanian born in Messaria back then administratively belonging to the Kaza of Leskovik, during his youth, he attended and graduated from the Greek Zosimaia School at Ioannina, and spoke Greek fluently. He began service as a gendarme ca.1870 in Katerini and he soon received a commission as an officer, and by 1881 he commanded the Ottoman Gendarmerie at Ioannina. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, he commanded the 6th Trabzon Division, in 1908–1910, he served as the governor of Yemen before returning to Thessaloniki, where he assumed the post of CO of the III Corps with the rank of Ferik. After his retirement in 1912, he was persuaded to return to duty as governor of the vilayet, as tensions with the Balkan League grew however over the summer of 1912, he was switched to command the VIII Provisional Corps at Thessaloniki. After the outbreak of the First Balkan War, he led his forces against the Greek Army of Thessaly under Crown Prince Constantine, the Greek army, better prepared and outnumbering his own forces, defeated VIII Corps in the battles of Sarantaporo and Yenidje. After a few days of negotiations, a protocol was signed on 8 November 1912. The Ottoman side immediately considered him a traitor and the court gave a death sentence. After his release from Greek captivity, he went into exile, first in France and he died in Lausanne in 1918 and was buried there. In 1937, his remains were transferred to the Albanian cemetery of Thessaloniki, out of his seven children only three lived long lives, two sons and a daughter who got married in Turkey. One of his sons, Kenan Messare, who was his adjutant during the war, became a Greek citizen, nikoltsios, Vassileios, Gounaris, Vassilis K. Από το Σαραντάπορο στη Θεσσαλονίκη, Η ελληνοτουρκική αναμέτρηση του1912 μέσα από τις αναμνήσεις του Στρατηγού Χασάν Ταχσίν πασά. Christodoulou, Christos K. Οι τρεις ταφές του Χασάν Ταχσίν Πασά
27.
Rauf Orbay
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Hüseyin Rauf Orbay was an Ottoman born Turkish naval officer, statesman and diplomat. Hüseyin Rauf was born in Istanbul in 1881 to an Abkhazian family Ashkharua, as an officer in the Ottoman Navy, he achieved fame for his actions as the captain of the cruiser Hamidiye during the First Balkan War. He was Chief of Naval Staff during World War I and by October 1918 was Minister of Marine, Rauf Orbay also played a role in assisting Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in a near court-martial during a feud with Djemal Pasha and Enver Pasha. On 31 October 1918, he signed Armistice of Mudros as the Minister of Navy, when the Turkish War of Independence began, he resigned from his position and went to Ankara to collaborate with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. He was elected as a member of the committee in the Congress of Erzurum on 23 July 1919. He joined the Congress of Sivas as a delegate for Sivas on 4 September 1919 and was elected deputy chairman, when the War of Independence ended he became the first Prime Minister of the new provisional Government of the Grand National Assembly on 11 August 1922. When this party was closed down in 1925 after Atatürk found that Islamist reactionaries had infiltrated its ranks, later, he was cleared of all accusations and became a member of the Turkish parliament. During World War II, Rauf Orbay was the Turkish ambassador in London, cehennem Değirmeni, Emre Publishing, September 1993 Rauf Orbay, Siyasi Hatiralar, Örgün Yayinevi, İstanbul,2003. Works by or about Rauf Orbay at Internet Archive Mustafa Alkan, Hüseyin Rauf Orbay’ın Hayatı, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Sayı59, Cilt, XX, Temmuz 2004, Kafkas Foundation Rauf Orbay
28.
Danilo, Crown Prince of Montenegro
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Danilo Aleksandar Petrović-Njegoš was the Crown Prince of Montenegro. He was the eldest son of King Nicholas I of Montenegro, during the Balkan Wars and World War I he led the Montenegrin Army with his father, Janko Vukotić, and Mitar Martinović. His reputation was undermined by announcing his renunciation on 5 March only to retract this the following day. His decision was met with dismay amongst the Montenegrin expatriate community. Prince Danilo was married to Duchess Jutta of Mecklenburg the daughter of Adolf Friedrich V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, after his renunciation in 1921, he spent most of his life living in Nice. Prince Danilo resurfaced in 1934 when he sued Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for libel, in the film, Prince Danilo of Montenegro seduces a commoner and then rejects her because it could impoverish the royal treasury. He then regrets his actions and tries to win her back, the film bears no relation to reality. The film was re-shot after the lawsuit, in addition to demoting the Prince to a Captain, the date of the action was changed from 1905 to 1885, when the real Prince was a young boy. Danilo died in Vienna in 1939 without issue, Danilo is famous as a one-time composer, composing the music for the Serb patriotic song of his predecessor King Nikola Onamo, namo. which he published in Prague. Family of King Nikola Petrovic Njegos The New Pictures, Time Magazine
29.
Ferdinand I of Bulgaria
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Ferdinand I, born Ferdinand Maximilian Karl Leopold Maria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was the ruler of Bulgaria from 1887 to 1918, firstly as knyaz and later as tsar. He was also an author, botanist, entomologist and philatelist, Ferdinand was born on 26 February 1861 in Vienna, a prince of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry. He was baptised in St. Stephens Cathedral, Vienna on 27 February, having as godparents Emperor Maximilian of Mexico and he grew up in the cosmopolitan environment of Austro-Hungarian high nobility and also in their ancestral lands in Slovakia and in Germany. The Koháry descended from an immensely wealthy Upper Hungarian noble family, the familys property was augmented by Clémentine of Orléans remarkable dowry. These last two, Leopold and Carlota, were also first cousins of Ferdinand Is through his mother and this made the Belgian siblings his first cousins, as well as his first cousins once removed. Indeed, the family of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha had contrived to occupy, either by marriage or by direct election. Following the family trend, Ferdinand was himself to found the dynasty of Bulgaria. The first Prince of the Third Bulgarian State, Alexander of Battenberg, abdicated in 1886 after a Pro-Russian coup, Ferdinand, who was an officer in the Austro-Hungarian army was elected Prince of autonomous Bulgaria by its Grand National Assembly on 7 July 1887 in the Gregorian calendar. The Russian tsar himself had nominated his aide, Nichols Dadian of Mingrelia, Ferdinands accession was greeted with disbelief in many of the royal houses of Europe. Queen Victoria, his fathers first cousin, stated to her Prime Minister, to the amazement of his initial detractors, Ferdinand generally made a success during the first two decades of his reign. However, this earned him the animosity of his Catholic Austrian relatives, particularly that of his uncle. On 5 October 1908, Ferdinand proclaimed Bulgarias de jure independence from the Ottoman Empire and he also proclaimed Bulgaria a kingdom, and assumed the title of tsar—a deliberate nod to the rulers of the earlier Bulgarian states. The Bulgarian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed by him at the Holy Forty Martyrs Church in Turnovo and it was accepted by Turkey and the other European powers. Ferdinand was known for being quite a character, Ferdinand was affronted by the gesture and the Emperor apologised. Ferdinand however exacted his revenge by awarding a valuable arms contract he had intended to give to the Krupps factory in Essen to French arms manufacturer Schneider-Creusot, another incident occurred on his journey to the funeral of his second cousin, King Edward VII in 1910. A tussle broke out over where his private railway carriage would be positioned in relation to the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the Archduke won out, having his carriage positioned directly behind the engine. Realising the dining car of the train was behind his own carriage, on 15 July the same year during a visit to Belgium Ferdinand also became the first head of state to fly in an airplane. Like many other rulers before him, Ferdinand desired the creation of a new Byzantium, in 1912, Ferdinand joined the other Balkan states in an assault on the Ottoman Empire to free occupied territories
30.
Mihail Savov
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Mihail Savov was a Bulgarian general, twice Minister of Defence, second in command of the Bulgarian army during the Balkan Wars. He was twice dismissed from the army and twice reassigned with the help of Tsar Ferdinand, Mihail Savov and Ferdinand are considered the main characters responsible for the Second Balkan War. Mihail Savov was born on 14 November 1859 in Eski Zagra and he studied in Hasköy, Filibe, in the Aprilov National High School in Gabrovo and then in the Imperial lyceum Galatasaray in Istanbul. He graduated the Military School in Sofia in 1879 as lieutenant, on 9 July 1881 he was promoted to first lieutenant and then continued his education in the Nicolas General Staff Academy in Saint Petersburg. After his return to Bulgaria, he was appointed in the Eastern Rumelia militia, on 9 September 1885 he was promoted to captain and with Order №4 of Knyaz Alexander Batenberg in the same day he was appointed for adjutant in the army. During the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885 he was appointed as head of one of the departments of the Ministry of Defence and he had contributions for the defeat of the Serbian Morava Division and the successful battle of Pirot. He was awarded with Order of Bravery III grade, in 1886 he participated in the commission for the settlement of the Bulgarian-Ottoman border in the Rhodope Mountains and served in the headquarters of the Minister of Defence. Between 1886 and 1887 he was assistant of the Defence Minister, on 17 April 1887 he was promoted to major and worked in the Department of the General Stuff as officer in the 5th infantry brigade. In 1887 Mihail Savov was appointed for Fligel Adjutant of Knyaz Ferdinand, on 16 February he became Minister of Defence in the cabinet of Stefan Stambolov and on 2 August in the same year was promoted to lieutenant colonel. After the fall of Stambolov in 1894, he was dismissed from the army, on 1 January 1899 he was promoted to colonel. On 1 January 1904 he was promoted to major general, in 1907 he was charged for corruption and malpractice with the supply of weapons. On 30 October 1908 he was promoted to lieutenant general and left the army for the second time, after the First Balkan War broke out in 1912 General Savov was restored on service and was appointed on the newly created position Assistant of the Commander. He also issued the attack against the Serb and Greek armies which flamed the Second Balkan War in 1913, on 29 June 1913 he was put in command of the united 4th and 5th Armies and on 14 July 2nd Army was also joined. He was one of the commanders in the battle of Kresna Gorge, after the war he was again dismissed trialed by the State Court in 1914. In the next years Mihail Savov lived in France, after the First World War he became Minister Phenipotentiary in France and Belgium. Lieutenant General Mihail Savov died on 21 July 1928 in Saint-Vallier-de-Thiey in France and was buried on 18 August in Sofia, Командването на българската войска през войните за национално обединение, София,1993, Военноиздателски комплекс „Св. Георги Победоносец“, стр.56 Димитров, И, Съединението1885 - енциклопедичен справочник, София,1985, Държавно издателство „д-р Петър Берон“, стр.182
31.
Ivan Fichev
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Ivan Fichev was a Bulgarian general, Minister of Defense, military historian and academician. Ivan Fichev was born in 1860 in Tırnova, at that part of the Ottoman Empire. He was a grandson of the architect from the National Revival. Fichev studied in Tarnovo, Gabrovo and in Robert College in Istanbul, during the Russo-Turkish War he participated in the Bulgarian volunteer corps and later served as translator for the temporary Russian governors in Gabrovo and Tarnovo. During the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885 he was a commander of 2nd Company in the 5th Danube Regiment, in January 1887 he was promoted to the rank of Captain and in 1898 graduated the Military Academy in Torino, Italy. On 1 January 1892 he was promoted a Major and on 1 January 1903 - a Colonel, from the beginning of 1907 he was appointed a commander of the Second Thracian Infantry Division based in Plovdiv and on 1 January 1908 Ivan Fichev was promoted a Major General. He was one of the Bulgarian delegates during the negotiations that lead to the signing of the Chataldja Armistice on 3 December 1912. In May 1913 Fichev resigned from his post as an act of protest but his resignation was not accepted and he also signed the Bucharest Peace Treaty as part of the Bulgarian delegation during the negotiations. After the Balkan Wars he continued to serve as Chief of the General Staff of the Army, on 1 January 1914 he was promoted a Lieutenant General and two weeks later was appointed commander of the 3rd Military District. On 14 September that year he was appointed a Minister of War, after the First World War he was a Minister Plenipotentiary in the Romanian capital Bucharest. Ivan Fiched died on 13 November 1931 in Sofia, Командването на българската войска през войните за национално обединение, София,1993, Военноиздателски комплекс „Св. Георги Победоносец“ Симеон Радев, “Конференцията в Букурещ и Букурещския мир от1913 г, Избрани произведения, София,1988, Военно издателство
32.
Vasil Kutinchev
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Vasil Ivanov Kutinchev was a Bulgarian officer. He began his career in 1879 after graduating from the Military School in Sofia. On 13 September 1885 he was commander of the 1st battalion of the 5th Dunav infantry regiment. He took part in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of the same year, captain Kutinchev fought in the Battle of Slivnitsa, Dragoman, Tsarevbrod and Pirot. After the war he served as commander of infantry regiments and was promoted to Major General in 1904. Four years later Kutinchev was appointed commander of the First Army Region which comprised the western parts of Bulgaria, on 2 August 1912 Tsar Ferdinand in honour of the 25th anniversary of his arrival to Bulgaria promoted six Major Generals to the rank of Lieutenant General. One of those generals was Kutinchev and this is the first time in the history of the Bulgarian Kingdom when such high ranks were awarded to officers of the Active Army. Until then it was given to officers of the reserve, with the outbreak of the First Balkan War General Kutinchev was made commander of the First Army which took part in the important battles of Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas and Chataldzja. After the end of war the entire army had to be transferred to Northwestern Bulgaria were during the Second Balkan War it saw service against the Serbs. Meanwhile, on 16 July 1913 Kutinchev took the command of Second Army, on this post he remained until the end of hostilities. During the First World War he was a general in the General Staff of the Active Army and he died in Sofia in 1941. List of Bulgarian generals in the Kingdom of Bulgaria
33.
Nikola Ivanov
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Nikola Ivanov was a Bulgarian general, Chief of the Headquarters of the Bulgarian Army between 10 May 1894 and 29 November 1896, Minister of war between 29 November 1896 -30 January 1899. He is prominent for capturing Adrianople in the First Balkan War, Nikola Ivanov was born on 2 March 1861 in Kalofer. He studied in the Aprilov National High School in Gabrovo and then in the Imperial lyceum Galasaray in Istanbul and he participated in the Russo-Turkish War as a volunteer. After the war he stayed for a time in Plovdiv before going to the Military School in Sofia in 1878 which he graduated in the next year. On 22 May 1879 he was promoted to lieutenant, in the same year he was appointed in the Eastern Rumelia militia as a junior officer and served in 1st and 2nd Plovdiv Company. On 9 February 1881 he was promoted to first lieutenant and he participated in the Unification of Bulgaria. On 9 September 1885 he was promoted to captain and with Order No.4 was appointed for commander of the Tarnovo-Seymen Detachment on the same day, during the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885 he worked for the chief of the Central Column of the Western Detachment. He participated in the Battle of Pirot on 14–15 November, after the war in 1886 he was appointed as Fligel Adjutant of Knyaz Alexander Batenberg and after that as Chief of the Building-Inspection department on the Ministry of Defense. On 1 April 1887 he was promoted to major, in 1888 he was commander of the 10th Infantry Regiment, in 1889 he was chief of staff of the 4th Brigade and in 1890 of the 4th Cavalry Regiment. On 2 August he was promoted to lieutenant colonel, after that he was assistant to the Chief of the Headquarters of the Army and then Chief of the Headquarters. On 2 August 1895 he was promoted to colonel, between 17 November and 29 November 1896 he was temporarily in charge of the Ministry of Defense. Nikola Ivanov was a Minister of Defense in the Government of Konstantin Stoilov, commanded the 4th Preslav Infantry Division, on 15 November 1900 he was promoted to major general. From 1907 he was appointed as head of the 2nd Military inspection region, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of his arrival in Bulgaria, Tsar Ferdinand promoted six major generals to lieutenant general on 2 August 1912, and Ivanov was one of them. This was the first time in the Third Bulgarian Kingdom when that rank was given to active officers, during the First Balkan War, Nikola Ivanov commanded 2nd Army between September 1912 and July 1913. He was in charge of the siege and capture of Adrianople, Ivanov was substituted in the command of the 2nd Army in July 1913 and on 7 August after the cease-fire he resigned from the army. During the First World War, he remained in the reserve, at that time he acted as a public figure and publicist. He was elected for chairman of the club of the officers in Sofia. On 6 May 1936 he was promoted to General of the Infantry, General Nikola Ivanov died on 10 September 1940 in Sofia
34.
Radko Dimitriev
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Radko Dimitriev was a Bulgarian general, Head of the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army from 1 January 1904 to 28 March 1907, as well as a general in the Russian Army during the First World War. He was born in the village of Gradets and was raised by his grandmother in Kotel and he later studied in the Aprilov Gymnasium in Gabrovo and participated in the organization of the April Uprising. During the Russo-Turkish War he was a translator in the 2nd Guards Division of the Russian Army, in 1879 he graduated the Military School in Sofia, in 1881 Dimitriev was promoted to a Lieutenant and in 1884 he became Captain after graduating the Saint Petersburg Academy. He then served for ten years in the Russian army, during the Serbo-Bulgarian War Dimitriev was one of the commanders of the Western Corps and participated in the successful battle of Pirot. After the war he took part in an unsuccessful coup détat, emigrated to Romania, later he emigrated to Russia and served in the Russian Army. He returned to Bulgaria in 1898 and became a second in command in the 5th Danube Infantry Division, on 18 May 1900 he was promoted a Colonel and was the Head of the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army from 1904 to 1907. On 2 August 1912 Radko Dimitriev was promoted a Lieutenant General, during the First Balkan War he was in command of the 3rd Army which decisively defeated the Turks at Lozengrad and Lule Burgas in Thrace. During the Second Balkan War in 1913 he replaced general Mihail Savov as deputy commander-in-chief, later that year after the end of the war he was sent as a Minister Plenipotentiary to Saint Petersburg, Russia. During the First World War he served in the Russian Army as a commander of a corps, at the beginning of spring 1915, Radko-Dmitriev commanded the 3rd Army in Galicia facing the Austrians along the line of Gorlice-Tarnów. His role was to hold the line while the Russian 11th and 12th armies in Bukovina renewed the offensive through the Carpathians towards Hungary, the trenches in his sector were crude and in many places there was no second line of defence. A Russian counterattack was ordered by Stavka and took place at Dokra Pass on 7 May 1915, Radko-Dmitriev claimed correctly that his army had been “bled white” but was removed from command 2 June 1915 and replaced by General Lesh. He talks quickly and shortly, sometimes drums on the table with his fingers, the daily visit of the Chief of the Staff is short, because, as the General says on his return, simple business is done quickly. Every piece of his incisive conversation holds together as part of a single and clear view of the military position. Radko-Dimitriev resigned and went with family to the town of Pyatigorsk in Caucasus. There on 18 October 1918 he was shot down by communist soldiers together with 100 generals, Командването на българската войска през войните за национално обединение, София,1993, Военноиздателски комплекс „Св. Съединението1885 – енциклопедичен справочник, София,1985, Държавно издателство „д-р Петър Берон“, Как болгарский посол стал русским генералом
35.
Constantine I of Greece
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Constantine I was King of Greece from 1913 to 1917 and from 1920 to 1922. He succeeded to the throne of Greece on 18 March 1913 and his disagreement with Eleftherios Venizelos over whether Greece should enter World War I led to the National Schism. Constantine forced Venizelos to resign twice, but in 1917 he left Greece, after threats of the Entente forces to bombard Athens, his son, Alexander. After Alexanders death, Venizelos defeat in the 1920 legislative elections, and he abdicated the throne for the second and last time in 1922, when Greece lost the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, and was succeeded by his eldest son, George II. Constantine died in four months later, in Sicily. Born on 2 August 1868 in Athens, Constantine was the eldest son of King George I and his birth was met with an immense wave of enthusiasm, the new heir apparent to the throne was the first Greek-born member of the family. As the ceremonial cannon on Lycabettus Hill fired the salute, huge crowds gathered outside the Palace shouting what they thought should rightfully be the newborn princes name. He was inevitably christened Constantine on 12 August, and his style was the Diádochos. An additional nickname adopted mainly by the royalists for Constantine was the son of the eagle, on 30 October 1882 he enrolled in the Hellenic Military Academy. After graduation he was sent to Berlin for further military education, Constantine also studied political science and business in Heidelberg and Leipzig. In 1890 he became a Major General, and assumed command of the 3rd Army Headquarters in Athens, in January 1895, Constantine caused political turmoil when he ordered army and gendarmerie forces to break up a street protest against tax policy. Constantine had previously addressed the crowd and advised them to submit their grievances to the government, Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis asked the King to recommend that his son avoid such interventions in politics without prior consultation with the government. King George responded that the Crown Prince was, in dispersing protesters, merely obeying orders. The incident caused a debate in Parliament, and Trikoupis finally resigned as a result. In the following elections Trikoupis was defeated, and the new Prime Minister, Theodoros Deligiannis, the organization of the first modern Olympics in Athens was another issue which caused a Constantine-Trikoupis confrontation, with Trikoupis opposed to hosting the Games. After Deligiannis electoral victory over Trikoupis in 1895, those who favored a revival of the Olympic Games, including the Crown Prince, coubertin assured that the King and the Crown Prince will confer their patronage on the holding of these Games. Constantine later conferred more than that, he assumed the presidency of the 1896 organizing committee. At the Crown Princes request, wealthy businessman George Averoff agreed to pay one million drachmas to fund the restoration of the Panathinaiko Stadium in white marble
36.
Panagiotis Danglis
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Panagiotis Danglis was a Greek Army general and politician. Panagiotis Danglis was born in Agrinio in 1853, the son of Major General Georgios Danglis and he entered the Hellenic Army Academy and graduated on 8 February 1878 top of his class, being commissioned as a Second Lieutenant of Artillery. Danglis subsequently served in a regiment and taught at the Army Academy as Artillery instructor. He was promoted to Major in 1892, and in the next year invented the Schneider-Danglis mountain gun, during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 he served as chief of staff of I Brigade in the Army of Epirus, and fought at the Battle of Gribovo. A Lieutenant Colonel since 1902, he was transferred to the newly founded General Staff Corps in 1904, in March 1913 he was placed in command of Epirus Army Corps, and later promoted to Lieutenant General. In late 1914, he left the army and went into politics, joining the Liberal Party of Eleftherios Venizelos in 1915 and he served as Minister for Military Affairs in Venizelos short-lived cabinet in 1915, and supported Venizelos during his struggle against King Constantine in 1915–16. In August 1916, along with Venizelos and admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis, he formed the triumvirate of the Provisional Government of National Defence. In 1917, Greece formally joined the Entente Powers in the First World War, Danglis was appointed nominal commander-in-chief of the Greek Army, a position he retained until near the wars end, when he returned to his parliamentary office. He was formally discharged from the Army on 7 October 1920, in 1921, Danglis succeeded the self-exiled Venizelos as president of the Liberal Party. He died in Athens on 9 March 1924
37.
Pavlos Kountouriotis
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Pavlos Kountouriotis was a Greek rear admiral during the Balkan Wars, regent, and the first and third President of the Second Hellenic Republic. Pávlos Kountouriotis was born on the island of Hydra to Theodoros Kountouriotis, Consul and Member of the Greek Parliament, from his mothers side he was descended from the Negreponte family, a prominent family from Chios and was great-grandson of Constantine Hangerli, Prince of Wallachia. He was the second of nine children, including Ioannis Kountouriotis, little is known of Pávlos childhood. In 1875, following his familys long-standing naval tradition, he joined the Royal Hellenic Navy, in 1886 he took part in the naval operations at Preveza as a Lieutenant. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, serving as Lt. Commander he commanded the ship Alfeios and his ship took part in at least two landings of Greek troops on the island of Crete. In 1901, commanding the training ship Miaoulis, he was sent to Boston and this was reported as the first transatlantic trip of a Greek war vessel. Kountouriotis served as an aide-de-camp to King Geórgios I from 1908 until 1911, in June 1911, Kountouriotis was sent to Britain, to take control of the newly commissioned Averof, following the blue cheese mutiny. As he was esteemed, he quickly reimposed discipline and set sail for Greece. He was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1912, on the outbreak of the First Balkan War and his victories, due in large part to his daring but successful tactics, earned him the status of a national hero. He was promoted to Vice Admiral for exceptional war service, the first Greek career officer since Constantine Kanaris to reach the rank, Konstantínos was deposed, and replaced on the throne by his second-eldest son, The Prince Aléxandros. Kountouriotis subsequently retired from the navy with the rank of full Admiral. On the death of the young King Aléxandros of the Hellenes in 1920, the following month, King Konstantínos was restored. He was reelected President in May 1929, but due to health complications he resigned in December of the same year. Admiral Pávlos Kountouriotis died in 1935, Α World War II Greek destroyer and a Standard-class frigate, the F462 Kountouriotis, are named after him. One of the two gold 100-Euro coins issued by Greece in 2012 to commemorate the centenary of the Balkan Wars featured Kountouriotis and the Averof
38.
Radomir Putnik
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Radomir Putnik GOLH, KCMG was the first Serbian Field Marshal and Chief of the General Staff of the Serbian army in the Balkan Wars and in the First World War. He took part in all of the wars that Serbia waged from 1876 to 1917, Putniks father, Dimitrije, was a teacher in Kragujevac, and Radomir completed his basic schooling there. He attended the Artillery School in Belgrade, where he graduated in 1863, contemporaries describe Putnik as an ascetic, introverted man, and a heavy smoker, however, he also had decided views on professional issues. He proved himself on the battlefield during Serbias wars against the Ottomans fought between 1876 and 1877 and it was a military force under his command that took Gnjilane and Gračanica from the Ottomans in Kosovo, during the closing stages of the second Serbo-Ottoman War (1877-1878. The Serbian troops, under Major Putnik, were obliged to back to Merdare in order to meet a stipulation in the general armistice between Russian and the Ottomans. Putnik was noted for being a self-righteous and demanding officer prone to strongly defending his point of view, Putnik became a professor in the Military Academy, holding that position from 1886 to 1895. In 1889, he was appointed as the Deputy Chief of the General Staff, however, he soon came into conflict with King Milan I, partly for not allowing a protégé of the king to pass an examination. Political intrigue and latent conflict with King Milan Obrenović and his successor, King Alexander I, in 1895 he was forced to retire by the king, under suspicion of sympathy for the Radical party of Nikola Pašić. He then proceeded to reorganize the Serbian army by retiring old and promoting new officers. Putnik was Serbian Minister of War three times,1904, 1906-1908,1912, Putnik appointed General Živojin Mišić as his deputy. Despite occasional personality clashes, the two men had deep respect for each other, Putnik was the first officer to be appointed to the highest rank of Field Marshal. In 1912, he led the Serbian Army into spectacular victories in the First Balkan War against the Ottomans, after a troublesome trip, Putnik returned to Serbia and offered his resignation to King Peter I of Serbia on the grounds of age and ill health. Putnik had to spend most of his time in a well-heated room, however, his impaired health did not prevent him from successfully organizing the campaign. Serbia defeated the Austro-Hungarian Armys offensives in August and September 1914 and his demand was rejected due to the wishes of the Allies, who were still hoping to isolate Bulgaria from joining the Triple Alliance. Despite heroic resistance, the Serbian troops were obliged to retreat towards Kosovo, on October 31, Putnik ordered a general retreat onto Kragujevac, attempting to keep his exhausted army together as it sought to escape into friendly territory. Many of Putniks soldiers were farmers, who slipped away from the retiring army to resume their rural lives. The Germans felt that the war against Serbia was won, with most of the nation under the control of the Central Powers, regarding the Russian Empire as the main threat in the East, Mackensen was eager to move his forces back to the Russian front. The final confrontation occurred in Kosovo, the Field of the Blackbirds, the Serbs were afflicted by a new outbreak of typhus, while food and ammunition was in extremely short supply
39.
Carol I of Romania
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Carol I, born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was the ruler of Romania from 1866 to 1914. He was elected Ruling Prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 after the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup détat, in May 1877, he proclaimed Romania an independent and sovereign nation. The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War secured Romanian independence and he was proclaimed King of Romania on 26 March 1881. He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a republic in 1947, during his reign, Carol I personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo/Romanian army during the siege of Plevna. The country achieved internationally recognized independence via the Treaty of Berlin,1878 and he married Princess Elisabeth of Wied in Neuwied on 15 November 1869. They only had one daughter, Maria, who died at the age of three, Carol never produced a male heir, leaving his elder brother Leopold next in line to the throne. In October 1880 Leopold renounced his right of succession in favour of his son William, who in turn surrendered his claim six years later in favour of his younger brother, after finishing his elementary studies, Karl entered the Cadet School in Münster. In 1857 he was attending the courses of the Artillery School in Berlin, up to 1866, when he accepted the crown of Romania, he was a Prussian officer. He took part in the Second Schleswig War, including the assault of the Fredericia citadel and Dybbøl, an experience which would be very useful to him later in the Russo-Turkish war. Although he was frail and not very tall, prince Karl was reported to be the perfect soldier, healthy and disciplined. He was familiar with several European languages and his family was closely related to the Bonaparte family, they enjoyed very good relations with Napoleon III of France. The former Domnitor of united Romania, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, had expelled from the country by the leading noblemen. Cuzas double election, both in Wallachia and in Moldavia) had been the basis on which the Romanian Principalities unification was recognized by the European powers, with him gone, the country was in danger of disintegration. As Romanian politicians searched for a successor, Napoleon suggested Karl, napoleons recommendation weighed heavily with Romanian politicians of the time, since Romania was strongly influenced by French culture. Another factor was Karls blood relation to the ruling Prussian family, ion Brătianu was the Romanian politician who was sent to negotiate with Karl and his family the possibility of installing him on the Romanian throne. Due to the conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Empire, Karl travelled incognito by railroad from Düsseldorf to Baziaș. He received there a Swiss passport from a Swiss public clerk, friend of his family, from Baziaș he travelled by boat to Turnu Severin, as there was no railroad to Romania. As he crossed the border onto Romanian soil, he was met by Brătianu and he was elected Domnitor on 20 April
Austria-Hungary
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Bulgaria Commander
Ottoman Empire Commander
Greece Commander
Serbia Commander
Serbia Commander
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