1.
Sphere
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A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is twice the radius. While outside mathematics the terms sphere and ball are used interchangeably. The ball and the share the same radius, diameter. The surface area of a sphere is, A =4 π r 2, at any given radius r, the incremental volume equals the product of the surface area at radius r and the thickness of a shell, δ V ≈ A ⋅ δ r. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ A ⋅ δ r. In the limit as δr approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫0 r A d r ′, substitute V,43 π r 3 = ∫0 r A d r ′. Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r,4 π r 2 = A. Which is generally abbreviated as, A =4 π r 2, alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. In Cartesian coordinates, the element is d S = r r 2 − ∑ i ≠ k x i 2 ∏ i ≠ k d x i, ∀ k. For more generality, see area element, the total area can thus be obtained by integration, A = ∫02 π ∫0 π r 2 sin θ d θ d φ =4 π r 2. In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere is derived to be V =43 π r 3 where r is the radius of the sphere, archimedes first derived this formula, which shows that the volume inside a sphere is 2/3 that of a circumscribed cylinder. In modern mathematics, this formula can be derived using integral calculus, at any given x, the incremental volume equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the disk at x and its thickness, δ V ≈ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. The total volume is the summation of all volumes, V ≈ ∑ π y 2 ⋅ δ x. In the limit as δx approaches zero this equation becomes, V = ∫ − r r π y 2 d x. At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin, hence, applying the Pythagorean theorem yields, thus, substituting y with a function of x gives, V = ∫ − r r π d x. Which can now be evaluated as follows, V = π − r r = π − π =43 π r 3
2.
Oval
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An oval is a closed curve in a plane which loosely resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in areas it is given a more precise definition. In common English, the term is used in a broader sense, the three-dimensional version of an oval is called an ovoid. The term oval when used to describe curves in geometry is not well-defined, many distinct curves are commonly called ovals or are said to have an oval shape. Generally, to be called an oval, a plane curve should resemble the outline of an egg or an ellipse, the adjectives ovoidal and ovate mean having the characteristic of being an ovoid, and are often used as synonyms for egg-shaped. In the theory of planes, an oval is a set of n +1 points in a projective plane of order n. An ovoid in the projective geometry PG is a set of q2 +1 points such that no three points are collinear. At each point of an all the tangent lines to the ovoid lie in a single plane. The shape of an egg is approximated by long half of a spheroid, joined to a short half of a roughly spherical ellipsoid. These are joined at the equator and sharing a principal axis of rotational symmetry, although the term egg-shaped usually implies a lack of reflection symmetry across the equatorial plane, it may also refer to true prolate ellipsoids. It can also be used to describe the 2-dimensional figure that, if revolved around its major axis, in technical drawing, an oval is a figure constructed from two pairs of arcs, with two different radii. The arcs are joined at a point in which lines tangential to both joining arcs lie on the line, thus making the joint smooth. Any point of an oval belongs to an arc with a constant radius, but in an ellipse, in common speech, oval means a shape rather like an egg or an ellipse, which may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. It also often refers to a figure that resembles two semicircles joined by a rectangle, like a cricket infield, speed skating rink or an athletics track, however, this is more correctly called a stadium or archaically, an oblong. Sometimes, it can refer to any rectangle with rounded corners. The shape lends its name to many well-known places, ellipse Stadium Vesica piscis – a pointed oval
3.
Marble (toy)
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A marble is a small spherical toy often made from glass, clay, steel, plastic or agate. Most commonly, they are about 1 cm in diameter, but they may range from less than 1 mm to over 8 cm, Marbles can be used for a variety of games called marbles. They are often collected, both for nostalgia and for their aesthetic colors, in the North of England the objects and the game are called taws, with larger taws being called bottle washers after the use of a marble in Codd-neck bottles. In the early century, small balls of stone, identified by archaeologists as marbles, were found on excavation near Mohenjo-daro. Marbles are often mentioned in Roman literature, as in Ovids poem Nux and they were commonly made of clay, stone or glass. Marbles arrived in Britain, imported from the Low Countries, during the medieval era, Marbles were first manufactured in Germany in the 1800s. The game has become popular throughout the U. S. ceramic marbles entered inexpensive mass production in the 1870s. A German glassblower invented marble scissors, a device for making marbles, the first mass-produced toy marbles made in the U. S. were made in Akron, Ohio, by S. C. Some of the first U. S. -produced glass marbles were also made in Akron, in 1903, Martin Frederick Christensen—also of Akron, Ohio—made the first machine-made glass marbles on his patented machine. His company, The M. F. Christensen & Son Co. manufactured millions of toy, the next U. S. company to enter the glass marble market was Akro Agate. This company was started by Akronites in 1911, but was located in Clarksburg, today, there are only two American-based toy marble manufacturers, Jabo Vitro in Reno, Ohio, and Marble King, in Paden City, West Virginia. In Australia, games were played with marbles of different sizes, the smallest and most common was about 15 mm in diameter. The two larger, more valuable sizes were referred to as semi-bowlers and tom-bowlers, being about 20 mm and 25 mm in diameter respectively. They were used in much the way as ordinary marbles, although sometimes they would be declared invalid because of the advantage of their larger mass. Owners of large marbles were also afraid to use them lest they be lost to another player as keepsies and they were usually of the clear cats eye or milk glass type, just bigger. Firing a marble meant that a player had to flick his/her marble from a position of his hand. No part of the firing the marble was permitted to be in front of the position where the marble had been resting on the ground. Using that hand, he would flick or fire the marble from his/her hand, usually with the knuckle on the back of his/her hand resting on the ground, and usually using the thumb of that hand to do so
4.
Juggling
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Juggling is a physical skill, performed by a juggler, involving the manipulation of objects for recreation, entertainment, art or sport. The most recognizable form of juggling is toss juggling, Juggling can be the manipulation of one object or many objects at the same time, using one or many hands. Jugglers often refer to the objects they juggle as props, the most common props are balls, clubs, or rings. Some jugglers use more dramatic objects such as knives, fire torches or chainsaws, the term juggling can also commonly refer to other prop-based manipulation skills, such as diabolo, devil sticks, poi, cigar boxes, contact juggling, hooping, yo-yo, and hat manipulation. The words juggling and juggler derive from the Middle English jogelen, there is also the Late Latin form joculare of Latin joculari, meaning to jest. In the 21st century, the term juggling usually refers to toss juggling, david Levinson and Karen Christensen describe juggling as the sport of tossing and catching or manipulating objects keeping them in constant motion. Juggling, like music, combines abstract patterns and mind-body coordination in a pleasing way, the earliest record of juggling is suggested in a panel from the 15th Beni Hasan tomb of an unknown Egyptian prince, showing female dancers and acrobats throwing balls. Juggling has been recorded in early cultures including Egyptian, Nabataean, Chinese, Indian, Greek, Roman, Norse, Aztec. Juggling in ancient China was an art performed by some warriors, one such warrior was Xiong Yiliao, whose juggling of nine balls in front of troops on a battlefield reportedly caused the opposing troops to flee without fighting, resulting in a complete victory. In Europe, juggling was an acceptable diversion until the decline of the Roman Empire, Jugglers in this era would only perform in marketplaces, streets, fairs, or drinking houses. They would perform short, humorous and bawdy acts and pass a hat or bag among the audience for tips, some kings and noblemen’s bards, fools, or jesters would have been able to juggle or perform acrobatics, though their main skills would have been oral. In 1768, Philip Astley opened the first modern circus, a few years later, he employed jugglers to perform acts along with the horse and clown acts. Since then, jugglers have been associated with circuses, in the early 19th century, troupes from Asia, such as the famous Indian Jugglers referred to by William Hazlitt, arrived to tour Britain, Europe and parts of America. In the 19th century, variety and music hall theatres became more popular, performers started specializing in juggling, separating it from other kinds of performance such as sword swallowing and magic. The Gentleman Juggler style was established by German jugglers such as Salerno, rubber processing developed, and jugglers started using rubber balls. Previously, juggling balls were made from balls of twine, stuffed leather bags, wooden spheres, solid or inflatable rubber balls meant that bounce juggling was possible. Inflated rubber balls made ball spinning easier and more readily accessible, soon in North America, vaudeville theatres employed jugglers, often hiring European performers. In the early to mid-20th century, variety and vaudeville shows decreased in popularity due to competition from motion picture theatres, radio and television, Music and comedy transferred very easily to radio, but juggling could not
5.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
6.
Ball bearing
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A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation between the bearing races. The purpose of a bearing is to reduce rotational friction. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls, in most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating assembly. As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well, because the balls are rolling they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were sliding against each other. Ball bearings tend to have lower capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races and his was the first modern ball-bearing design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly. There are several designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be made many different materials, including, stainless steel, chrome steel. A hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal, an angular contact ball bearing uses axially asymmetric races. An axial load passes in a line through the bearing. So the angle of contact on the race is the same as that on the outer race. Angular contact bearings better support combined loads and the angle of the bearing should be matched to the relative proportions of each. The larger the angle, the higher the axial load supported. In high speed applications, such as turbines, jet engines, and dentistry equipment, ceramics such as silicon nitride are now regularly used in such applications due to their low density. These materials significantly reduce centrifugal force and function well in high temperature environments and they also tend to wear in a similar way to bearing steel—rather than cracking or shattering like glass or porcelain. Most bicycles use angular-contact bearings in the headsets because the forces on these bearings are in both the radial and axial direction, an axial ball bearing uses side-by-side races. An axial load is transmitted directly through the bearing, while a radial load is supported and tends to separate the races. In a deep-groove radial bearing, the dimensions are close to the dimensions of the balls that run in it
7.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
8.
Projectile
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A projectile is any object thrown into space by the exertion of a force. Although any object in motion through space may be called a projectile, mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory. Blowguns and pneumatic rifles use compressed gases, while most other guns and cannons utilize expanding gases liberated by sudden chemical reactions, light-gas guns use a combination of these mechanisms. Railguns utilize electromagnetic fields to provide a constant acceleration along the length of the device. Some projectiles provide propulsion during flight by means of an engine or jet engine. In military terminology, a rocket is unguided, while a missile is guided, note the two meanings of rocket, an ICBM is a guided missile with a rocket engine. An explosion, whether or not by a weapon, causes the debris to act as high velocity projectiles. An explosive weapon, or device may also be designed to produce high velocity projectiles by the break-up of its casing. Many projectiles, e. g. shells, may carry a charge or another chemical or biological substance. Aside from explosive payload, a projectile can be designed to cause damage, e. g. fire. Typical kinetic energy weapons are blunt projectiles such as rocks and round shots, pointed ones such as arrows, among projectiles that do not contain explosives are those launched from railguns, coilguns, and mass drivers, as well as kinetic energy penetrators. Other types of weapons are accelerated over time by a rocket engine. In either case, it is the energy of the projectile that destroys its target. Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-satellite weapons, since in order to reach an object in orbit it is necessary to attain an extremely high velocity, their released kinetic energy alone is enough to destroy their target, explosives are not necessary. For example, the energy of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg, and this saves costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This method, however, requires direct contact with the target, some hit-to-kill warheads are additionally equipped with an explosive directional warhead to enhance the kill probability. With regard to weapons, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot PAC-2 have explosives, while the Kinetic Energy Interceptor, Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile. A kinetic projectile can also be dropped from aircraft and this is applied by replacing the explosives of a regular bomb with a non-explosive material, for a precision hit with less collateral damage
9.
Rubber
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Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers, forms of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the tree or others. The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark, the latex then is refined into rubber ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup, the coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for marketing. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials, in most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely waterproof. The major commercial source of rubber latex is the Pará rubber tree. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation, a properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber, formerly a source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia. These cannot be cultivated, and the drive to collect latex from wild plants was responsible for many of the atrocities committed under the Congo Free State. The latex exhibits the quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low, in Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility, many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more processing to produce anything like usable rubber. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha and chicle from Manilkara species, the term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of latex from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture. The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South America, charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736
10.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
11.
Mesoamerican ballgame
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The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played since 1400 BCE by the pre-Columbian peoples of Ancient Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, the rules of ōllamaliztli are not known, but judging from its descendant, ulama, they were probably similar to racquetball, where the aim is to keep the ball in play. The stone ballcourt goals are an addition to the game. In the most common theory of the game, the struck the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms, rackets, bats. The ball was made of rubber and weighed as much as 4 kg. The game had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, Late in the history of the game, some cultures occasionally seem to have combined competitions with religious human sacrifice. The sport was also played casually for recreation by children and may have played by women as well. Pre-Columbian ballcourts have been found throughout Mesoamerica, as for example at Copán, as far south as modern Nicaragua and these ballcourts vary considerably in size, but all have long narrow alleys with slanted side-walls against which the balls could bounce. It is not known precisely when or where ōllamaliztli originated, although it is likely that the game originated earlier than 1400 BCE in the tropical zones home to the rubber tree. One candidate for the birthplace of the ballgame is the Soconusco coastal lowlands along the Pacific Ocean, here, at Paso de la Amada, archaeologists have found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered, dated to approximately 1400 BCE. The other major candidate is the Olmec heartland, across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec along the Gulf Coast, the Aztecs referred to their Postclassic contemporaries who then inhabited the region as the Olmeca since the region was strongly identified with latex production. The earliest-known rubber balls come from the bog at El Manatí. Villagers, and subsequently archaeologists, have recovered a dozen balls ranging in diameter from 10 to 22 cm from the spring there. Five of these balls have been dated to the occupational phase for the site. These rubber balls were found with other ritual offerings buried at the site, indicating that even at this early date ōllamaliztli had religious, excavations at the nearby Olmec site of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán have also uncovered a number of ballplayer figurines, radiocarbon-dated as far back as 1250–1150 BCE. A rudimentary ballcourt, dated to an occupation at San Lorenzo. From the tropical lowlands, ōllamaliztli apparently moved into central Mexico, starting around 1000 BCE or earlier, ballplayer figurines were interred with burials at Tlatilco and similarly styled figurines from the same period have been found at the nearby Tlapacoya site. It was about this period, as well, that the so-called Xochipala-style ballplayer figurines were crafted in Guerrero and it is known in Spanish as juego de pelota, in Classic Maya as pitz, and in modern Nahuatl as ōllamaliztli
12.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
13.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
14.
Proto-Germanic
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Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. The end of the Common Germanic period is reached with the beginning of the Migration Period in the fourth century, the Proto-Germanic language is not directly attested by any coherent surviving texts, it has been reconstructed using the comparative method. Fragmentary direct attestation exists of Common Germanic in early runic inscriptions, the Proto-Germanic language developed in southern Scandinavia, the Urheimat of the Germanic tribes. Proto-Germanic developed out of pre-Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe, Proto-Germanic itself was likely spoken after c. Early Germanic expansion in the Pre-Roman Iron Age placed Proto-Germanic speakers in contact with the Continental Celtic La Tène horizon, a number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic have been identified. By the 1st century AD, Germanic expansion reaches the Danube and the Upper Rhine in the south, at about the same time, extending east of the Vistula, Germanic speakers come into contact with early Slavic cultures, as reflected in early Germanic loans in Proto-Slavic. By the 3rd century, LPGmc speakers had expanded over significant distance, the period marks the breakup of Late Proto-Germanic and the beginning of the Germanic migrations. The earliest coherent text in Proto-Norse become available c.400 in runic inscriptions, the delineation of Late Common Germanic from Proto-Norse about then is largely a matter of convention. Early West Germanic becomes available in the 5th century with the Frankish Bergakker inscription, between the two points, many sound changes occurred. Phylogeny as applied to historical linguistics involves the descent of languages. The Germanic languages form a tree with Proto-Germanic at its root that is a branch of the Indo-European tree, borrowing of lexical items from contact languages makes the relative position of the Germanic branch within Indo-European less clear than the positions of the other branches of Indo-European. In the course of the development of linguistics, various solutions have been proposed, none certain. In the evolutionary history of a family, philologists consider a genetic tree model appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. The internal diversification of West Germanic developed in an especially non-treelike manner, Proto-Germanic is generally agreed to have begun about 500 BC. Its hypothetical ancestor between the end of Proto-Indo-European and 500 BC is termed Pre-Proto-Germanic, whether it is to be included under a wider meaning of Proto-Germanic is a matter of usage. The fixation of the led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the boundary was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables, for example, post-PIE *wóyd-e > Gothic wait. Antonsen agreed with Lehmann about the boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not dropped, ékwakraz … wraita, I, Wakraz
15.
Old High German
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Old High German is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 700 to 1050. Coherent written texts do not appear until the half of the 8th century. There are, however, a number of Elder Futhark inscriptions dating to the 6th century, as well as single words, during the migration period, the Elbe Germanic tribes settled in what became Alamannia, the Duchy of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Lombardy. Old High German comprises the dialects of these groups which underwent the Second Sound Shift during the 6th Century, namely all of Elbe Germanic, in the south, the Langobards, who had settled in Northern Italy, maintained their dialect until their conquest by Charlemagne in 774. This area did not become German-speaking again until the German eastward expansion of the early 12th century, though there was some attempt at conquest, Old High German literacy is a product of the monasteries, notably at St. Gallen, Reichenau and Fulda. Its origins lie in the establishment of the German church by Boniface in the mid 8th century, einhard tells how Charlemagne himself ordered that the epic lays should be collected for posterity. It was the neglect or religious zeal of later generations that led to the loss of these records, thus, it was Charlemagnes weak successor, Louis the Pious, who destroyed his fathers collection of epic poetry on account of its pagan content. Hrabanus Maurus, a student of Alcuins and abbot at Fulda from 822, was an important advocate of the cultivation of German literacy, among his students were Walafrid Strabo and Otfrid of Weissenburg. Notker Labeo towards the end of the Old High German period was among the greatest stylists in the language, the main difference between Old High German and the West Germanic dialects from which it developed is that it underwent the High German consonant shift. This is generally dated approximately to the late 5th and early 6th centuries—hence dating its start to around 500, the result of this sound change is that the consonantal system of German remains different from all other West Germanic languages, including English and Low German. Grammatically, however, Old High German remained very similar to Old English, Old Dutch, by the mid 11th century the many different vowels found in unstressed syllables had all been reduced to /ə/. Since these vowels were part of the endings in the nouns and verbs. For these reasons,1050 is seen as the start of the Middle High German period, for this reason the dialects may be termed monastery dialects. It declined after the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by the Franks in 774 and it is classified as Upper German on the basis of evidence of the Second Sound Shift. The continued existence of a West Frankish dialect in the Western, claims that this might have been the language of the Carolingian court or that it is attested in the Ludwigslied, whose presence in a French manuscript suggests bilingualism, are controversial. The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of the East Franconian dialect in the 9th century and this is the dialect of the monastery of Fulda, and specifically of the Old High German Tatian. Old High German had five long vowels and six phonemic short vowels. Both occurred in stressed and unstressed syllables, notes, All back vowels likely had front-vowel allophones as a result of Umlaut
16.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
17.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
18.
Human baby
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An infant is the more formal or specialised synonym for baby, the very young offspring of a human or other animal. A newborn is, in use, an infant who is only hours, days. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth, the term applies to premature, full term, and postmature infants, before birth, the term fetus is used. The term infant is typically applied to children under one year of age, however, definitions may vary. When a human child learns to walk, the toddler may be used instead. In British English, infant is a term that can be applied to children aged between four and seven. As a legal term, infancy continues from birth until age 18, a newborns shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to the rest of their body. In first world nations, the total body length of newborns are 35. 6–50.8 cm. The Apgar score is a measure of a transition from the uterus during the first minutes after birth. In developed countries, the birth weight of a full-term newborn is approximately 3.4 kg. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/day, a newborns head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is one seventh of the total body length. Normal head circumference for an infant is 33–36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the skull have not yet been converted to bone. The two largest are the anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular-shaped posterior fontanel. Later in the life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein called noggin is responsible for the delay in an infants skull fusion, during labour and birth, the infants skull changes shape to fit through the birth canal, sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks, special exercises sometimes advised by physicians may assist the process
19.
Kitten
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A kitten, also known as a kitty or kitty cat, is a juvenile cat. After being born, kittens are totally dependent on their mother for survival, after about two weeks, kittens quickly develop and begin to explore the world outside the nest. After a further three to four weeks, they begin to eat food and grow adult teeth. Domestic kittens are highly social animals and enjoy human companionship, the word kitten derives from the Middle English word kitoun, which in turn came from the Old French chitoun or cheton. A feline litter usually consists of two to five kittens born after a gestation lasting between 64 and 67 days, with a length of 66 days. Kittens emerge in a sac called the amnion, which is bitten off, for the first several weeks, kittens are unable to urinate or defecate without being stimulated by their mother. They are also unable to regulate their temperature for the first three weeks, so kittens born in temperatures less than 27 °C can die from hypothermia if their mother does not keep them warm. The mothers milk is very important for the nutrition and proper growth. This milk transfers antibodies to the kittens, which protect them against infectious disease. Newborn kittens are unable to produce concentrated urine, and so have a high requirement for fluids. Kittens open their eyes about seven to ten days after birth, at first, the retina is poorly developed and vision is poor. Kittens are not able to see as well as adult cats until about ten weeks after birth, Kittens develop very quickly from about two weeks of age until their seventh week. They play-fight with their litter-mates and begin to explore the world outside the nest or den and they learn to wash themselves and others as well as play hunting and stalking games, showing their inborn ability as predators. These innate skills are developed by the mother or other adult cats. Later, the adult cats demonstrate hunting techniques for the kittens to emulate, as they reach three to four weeks old, the kittens are gradually weaned and begin to eat solid food, with weaning usually complete by six to eight weeks. Kittens generally begin to lose their baby teeth around three months of age, and have a set of adult teeth by nine months. Kittens live primarily on solid food after weaning, but usually continue to suckle from time to time until separated from their mothers, some mother cats will scatter their kittens as early as three months of age, while others continue to look after them until they approach sexual maturity. The sex of kittens is usually easy to determine at birth, by six to eight weeks they are harder to sex because of the growth of fur in the genital region
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Puppy
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A puppy is a juvenile dog. Some puppies can weigh 1–3 lb, while larger ones can weigh up to 15–23 lb, all healthy puppies grow quickly after birth. A puppys coat color may change as the puppy grows older, in vernacular English, puppy refers specifically to dogs, while pup may often be used for other mammals such as seals, giraffes, guinea pigs, or even rats. Born after an average of 63 days of gestation, puppies emerge in an amnion that is bitten off, puppies begin to nurse almost immediately. As they reach one month of age, puppies are gradually weaned, the mother may regurgitate partially digested food for the puppies or might let them eat some of her solid food. The mother dog usually refuses to nurse at this stage, though she might let them occasionally nurse for comfort, at first, puppies spend the large majority of their time sleeping and the rest feeding. They instinctively pile together into a heap, and become distressed if separated from physical contact with their littermates, puppies are born with a fully functional sense of smell but cant open their eyes. During their first two weeks, a puppys senses all develop rapidly, during this stage the nose is the primary sense organ used by puppies to find their mothers teats, and to locate their littermates, if they become separated by a short distance. Puppies open their eyes about nine to eleven days following birth, at first, their retinas are poorly developed and their vision is poor. Puppies are not able to see as well as adult dogs, in addition, puppies ears remain sealed until about thirteen to seventeen days after birth, after which they respond more actively to sounds. Between two and four weeks old, puppies usually begin to growl, bite, wag their tails, puppies develop very quickly during their first three months, particularly after their eyes and ears open and they are no longer completely dependent on their mother. Their coordination and strength improve, they spar with their littermates and they play wrestling, chase, dominance, and tug-of-war games. Puppies are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with either their mother or littermates, when puppies are socialized with humans, particularly between the ages of eight and twelve weeks, they develop social skills around people. Those that do not receive adequate socialization during this period may display fearful behavior around humans or other dogs as adults, the practice of docking began primarily as a preventive measure for injury among working dogs. Docking is now performed for purely cosmetic reasons, and some breeds traditionally have their tails cropped anywhere from slightly to almost entirely. Many countries now ban cropping and docking for cosmetic purposes, like Australia, parts of Canada, as of 2008, the practice is opposed by the American Veterinary Medical Association. Some breeders also prefer to declaw the dogs to prevent future injuries caused by scratching, or in the case of dewclaws, ingrown, Docking and declawing procedures are usually performed within the first few days after birth, by a veterinarian, or by an experienced breeder. Puppies Companion dog Canine Developmental Diet Docking Sell a pup, buy a pup Kitten Cunliffe, the New Encyclopedia of the Dog
21.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
22.
Homer
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Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
23.
Nausicaa
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Nausicaa is a character in Homers Odyssey. She is the daughter of King Alcinous and Queen Arete of Phaeacia and her name, in Greek, means burner of ships. In Book Six of the Odyssey, Odysseus is shipwrecked on the coast of the island of Scheria, Nausicaä and her handmaidens go to the sea-shore to wash clothes. Awoken by their games, Odysseus emerges from the forest completely naked, scaring the servants away, Nausicaä gives Odysseus some of the laundry to wear, and takes him to the edge of the town. Realizing that rumors might arise if Odysseus is seen with her, she, but first she advises Odysseus to go directly to Alcinous house and make his case to Nausicaäs mother, Arete. Arete is known as even than Alcinous, and Alcinous trusts her judgment. Odysseus follows this advice, approaching Arete and winning her approval, during his stay, Odysseus recounts his adventures to Alcinous and his court. This recounting forms a portion of the Odyssey. Alcinous then generously provides Odysseus with the ships that finally bring him home to Ithaca, Nausicaä is young and very pretty, Odysseus says that she resembles a goddess, particularly Artemis. Nausicaä is known to have several brothers, according to Aristotle and Dictys of Crete, Nausicaä later married Telemachus, the son of Odysseus, and had a son named Ptoliporthus. Homer gives an account of love never expressed. Nausicaä is also a figure for Odysseus, she ensures Odysseus return home. Odysseus never tells Penelope about his encounter with Nausicaä, out of all the women he met on his journey home. Some suggest this indicates a level of feeling for the girl. The 2nd century BC grammarian Agallis attributed the invention of games to Nausicaä. An asteroid discovered in the year 1879,192 Nausikaa, is named after her, friedrich Nietzsche, in Beyond Good and Evil, said, One should part from life as Odysseus parted from Nausicaa—blessing it rather than in love with it. His theory that the Odyssey was written by a woman was further developed in his 1897 book The Authoress of the Odyssey, an episode in James Joyces Ulysses echoes the Nausicaa story to a degree, the character Gerty McDowell tempts Bloom. In 1907, the Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály wrote the song Nausikaa to a poem by Aranka Bálint, only one song, Nausikaa, survived from this opera plan
24.
Odysseus
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Odysseus, also known by the Latin name Ulysses, was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homers epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homers Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle. Husband of Penelope, father of Telemachus, and son of Laërtes and Anticlea, Odysseus is renowned for his brilliance, guile, and versatility and he is most famous for the Odyssey, ten eventful years he took to return home after the decade-long Trojan War. The name has several variants, in Greek the character was called Olysseus, Oulixeus, Oulixes, hence, there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus, the other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality. The etymology of the name is unknown, ancient authors linked the name to the Greek verbs odussomai to be wroth against, to hate, or to oduromai to lament, bewail. Homer in references and puns, relates it to various forms of this verb and it has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, probably not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology, R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseuss early childhood is recounted, Euryclea tries to guide him to naming the boy Polyaretos, for he has much been prayed for. Autolycus apparently in a sardonic mood, decided to give the child a name that would commemorate his own experience in life. Because I got odium upon myself before coming here, let the childs name be Odysseus to signify this. The pun was prophetic as well as commemorative, Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades, son of Laërtes. In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several epithets used to describe Odysseus and his name and stories were adopted into Etruscan religion under the name Uthuze. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes, according to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumor went that Laertes bought Odysseus from the conniving king, Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in Book 15 of the Odyssey. Homers Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a hero, but the Romans. In Virgils Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is referred to as cruel Odysseus or deceitful Odysseus. Turnus, in Aeneid ix, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring, You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear. While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. His attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, the majority of sources for Odysseus pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries
25.
Scheria
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Before leaving Ogygia, Odysseus builds a raft and sails eastwards, instructed by Calypso to navigate using the stars as a celestial reference point. On the eighteenth day appear the shadowy mountains of the land of the Phaeacians, but Poseidon spots his raft and seeking vengeance for his son Polyphemus who was blinded by Odysseus, produces a storm that torments Odysseus. After three days of struggle with the waves, he is washed up on Scheria. The next morning, Nausicaa and her maids go to the seashore, Odysseus, who was exhausted from his adventure and was sleeping nearby, is awakened by the shouts. He covers his nakedness with leaves and goes to ask for help from the team. Upon seeing the unkempt Odysseus in this state, the run away. To excuse the maids, she admits that the Phaeacians are the farthermost of men, Nausicaa, being hospitable, provides clothes, food and drink to Odysseus, and then directs him to the palace of King Alcinous. Following Nausicaas orders, Odysseus sought to enter the palace of King Alcinous and plead for mercy from the queen, Arete, on his way to the palace, Odysseus meets Athena disguised as a local girl. In her disguised state, Athena advises him about how to enter the palace, Athena, knowledgeable that the Phaeacians were hostile towards men from the outlands, cloaked Odysseus in a mist that hid him from the Phaeacians gaze. Under Athenas protection, Odysseus passes through all of the systems of the palace. Odysseus throws his arms around the legs and supplicates her. Naturally, Alcinous and his court are surprised to see a stranger walking into their secured palace, the walls of the palace are made of bronze that shines like the sun and is secured with gates made of gold. Within the walls, there is a magnificent garden with apple, pear, the palace is even equipped with a lighting system comprising golden statues of young men bearing torches. After Odysseus tells Alcinous and his court the story of his adventures after the Trojan War and they were quite different from the penteconters, the ships used during the Trojan War, and they were steered by thought. King Alcinous says that Phaeacians carried Rhadamanthus to Euboea, which is the furthest of any place and he also explains to Odysseus what sort of information the Phaeacian ships require in order to take him home to Ithaca. Tell me also your country, nation, and city, that our ships may shape their purpose accordingly, Homer describes the Phaeacian ships as fast as a falcon and gives a vivid description of the ships departure. The ship bounded forward on her way as a four in hand chariot flies over the course when the horses feel the whip and her prow curvetted as it were the neck of a stallion, and a great wave of dark blue water seethed in her wake. She held steadily on her course, and even a falcon, swiftest of all birds, many ancient and modern interpreters favour identification of Scheria with the island of Corfu, which is within 110 km of Ithaca
26.
Alcinous
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Alcinous was, in Greek mythology, a son of Nausithous, or of Phaeax, and father of Nausicaa, Halius, Clytoneus and Laodamas with Arete. His name literally means mighty mind and he married his brother Rhexenors daughter after Rhexenor was killed. In the myth of Jason and the Argonauts, Alcinous is represented as living with his wife Arete in Drepane, the Argonauts, on their return from Colchis, came to his island, and were hospitably received. The Colchians were obliged, by the contrivance of Arete, to depart without their princess, and he was also the King of the Phaeacians. According to Homer, Alcinous is the ruler of the Phaiacians in the island of Scheria. JC Loudon on the Garden of Alcinous
27.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
28.
Episkyros
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Episkyros was an ancient Greek ball game. Highly teamwork oriented, the game was played two teams of usually 12 to 14 players each, with one ball and the rules of the game which allowed using hands. Although it was a game, it was violent, at least in Sparta. The teams would try to throw the ball over the heads of the other team, there was a white line called the skuros between the teams and another white line behind each team. Teams would change the ball often until one of the team was forced behind the line at their end, in Sparta a form of episkyros was played during an annual city festival that included five teams of 14 players. It was played primarily by men but women also practiced it, a depiction in low relief on the belly of the vase displayed at the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Shows a Greek athlete balancing a ball on his thigh and this image is reproduced on the European Cup football trophy. Although it has argued that the σφαιρομαχία is in fact a boxing competition. It is likely that this is the same as the game with the small ball, which takes its name from harpazein and perhaps one would call the game with the soft ball by the same name
29.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
30.
Gauntlet (glove)
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Gauntlet /ˈɡɔːntlɪt/ is a name for several different styles of glove, particularly those with an extended cuff covering part of the forearm. Gauntlets exist in forms, ranging from flexible fabric and leather gloves, to mail. Historically, gauntlets were used by soldiers and knights and it was considered an important piece of armour, since the hands and arms were particularly vulnerable in hand-to-hand combat. With the rise of easily reloadable and effective firearms, hand-to-hand combat fell into decline along with personal armour, some medieval gauntlets had a built-in knuckle duster. When the hand was bunched into a fist the backhand protection becomes pronounced from the fist just above the knuckles and this allowed the user to utilize the gauntlet as a melee weapon while still protecting the hand from damage when punching. A Demi-gauntlet is a type of plate armour gauntlet that only protects the back of the hand, the advantages of the demi-gaunt are that it allows better dexterity and is lighter than a full gauntlet, but the disadvantage is that the fingers are not as well protected. Today, gauntlets are mostly used as armour in contact sports, such as fencing, sword fighting reenactments, in industry, gauntlets are commonly used to protect workers from sparks when welding or grinding metal or when handling potentially harmful substances. Protective gauntlets are also worn by automotive technicians and butchers. Furthermore, they are a part of pressure suits and spacesuits, usually made of kevlar or other materials that combine toughness, environmental protection. Gauntlets are also provided on some motorcyclists leather gloves and on snowmobile drivers nylon mittens, marching band and drum corps uniforms often include an item called a gauntlet which includes no glove for the hand, but is just a flared cuff. Some versions are closer to bracers or vambraces in style, in the clothing industry gauntlet can refer to a fashion accessory which is just an extended cuff with little or no hand covering. Very popular with fans of Heavy Metal music, in the Roman Catholic Church the gloves traditionally worn by the pope or other bishops are also known as gauntlets, or episcopal gloves, though their use had largely been relaxed since Paul VI. To throw down the gauntlet is to issue a challenge, a gauntlet-wearing knight would challenge a fellow knight or enemy to a duel by throwing one of his gauntlets on the ground. The opponent would pick up the gauntlet to accept the challenge, running the gauntlet was a military punishment in which a soldier or sailor had to pass between a double row of comrades armed with cudgels. The expression is now generally used metaphorically, gauntlet in this context is unrelated to the protective glove meaning, but is instead derived from the Swedish gatlopp. Because of this difference in the derivation of the word, the expression is sometimes written running the gantlet, supposedly, if the prisoner could successfully navigate the gauntlet, he was allowed to go free. Usually, however, prisoners had to run for their lives, media related to Gauntlets at Wikimedia Commons
31.
Harpastum
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Harpastum, also known as harpustum, was a form of ball game played in the Roman Empire. The Romans also referred to it as the ball game. The ball used was small and hard, probably about the size, the word harpastum is the latinisation of the Greek ἁρπαστόν, the neuter of ἁρπαστός, carried away, from the verb ἁρπάζω, to seize, to snatch. This game was apparently a version of a Greek game called phaininda. It involved considerable speed, agility and physical exertion, little is known about the exact rules of the game, but sources indicate the game was a violent one with players often ending up on the ground. In Greece, a spectator once had his leg broken when he got caught in the middle of play, athenaeus writes, Harpastum, which used to be called phaininda, is the game I like most of all. Great are the exertion and fatigue attendant upon contests of ball-playing, hence Antiphanes, Damn it, what a pain in the neck Ive got. He describes the game thus, He seized the ball and passed it to a team-mate while dodging another and he pushed it out of the way of another. Another fellow player he raised to his feet, all the while the crowd resounded with shouts of Out of bounds, Too far, Right beside him, Over his head, On the ground, Up in the air, Too short, Pass it back in the scrum. Galen, in On Exercise with the Small Ball, describes harpastum as, better than wrestling or running because it exercises every part of the body, takes up little time and it was profitable training in strategy, and could be played with varying degrees of strenuousness. To watch such play the populace remains stockstill, and the crowd suddenly abandons its own games. It is likely that this is the same as the game with the ball, which takes its name from harpazein. More than once he fell prone, and had to pick himself up from such collapses as best he could, the general impression from these descriptions is of a game quite similar to rugby. Additional descriptions suggest a line was drawn in the dirt, and this seems rather like an inverted form of football. If the opponents had the ball on their side of the line, the ancient accounts of the game are not precise enough to enable the reconstruction the rules in any detail. In the Croatian town of Sinj, a Roman tombstone found in the ruins of the military camp Tilurium, near the modern day Trilj, the ball that is shown on this monument has hexagonal and pentagonal patterns, similar to a modern-day football
32.
Polo
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Polo is a team sport played on horseback. The objective is to score goals against an opposing team, players score by driving a small white plastic or wooden ball into the opposing teams goal using a long-handled mallet. The traditional sport of polo is played on a grass field up to 300 by 160 yards, each polo team consists of four riders and their mounts. Field polo is played with a plastic ball which has replaced the wooden version of the ball in much of the sport. In arena polo, only three players are required per team and the game involves more maneuvering and shorter plays at lower speeds due to space limitations of arenas. Arena polo is played with a small air-filled ball, similar to a small football, the modern game lasts roughly two hours and is divided into periods called chukkas. Polo is played professionally in 16 countries and it was formerly an Olympic sport. Its invention is dated variously from the 6th century BC to the 1st century AD, Persian Emperor Shapur II learnt to play polo when he was seven years old in 316 AD. The game was learnt by the neighbouring Byzantine Empire at an early date, a tzykanisterion was built by emperor Theodosius II inside the Great Palace of Constantinople. Emperor Basil I excelled at it, Emperor Alexander died from exhaustion while playing, naqsh-i Jahan Square in Isfahan is a polo field which was built by king Abbas I in the 17th century. Qutubuddin Aibak, the Turkic slave from Central Asia who later became the Sultan of Delhi in Northern India, ruled as a Sultan for only four years, from 1206 to 1210, but died accidentally in 1210. While he was playing a game of polo on horseback, his horse fell and he was buried near the Anarkali bazaar in Lahore. Aibaks son Aram died in 1211 CE, so Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, another ex-slave of Turkic ancestry who was married to Aibaks daughter, after the Muslim conquests to the Ayyubid and Mameluke dynasties of Egypt and the Levant, their elites favoured it above all other sports. Notable sultans such as Saladin and Baybars were known to play it, Polo sticks were features on the Mameluke precursor to modern day playing cards. Valuable for training cavalry, the game was played from Constantinople to Japan by the Middle Ages. It is known in the East as the Game of Kings, the name polo is said to have been derived from the Balti word pulu, meaning ball. The modern game of polo is derived from Manipur, India and it was the anglicised form of the last, referring to the wooden ball that was used, which was adopted by the sport in its slow spread to the west. The first polo club was established in the town of Silchar in Assam, India, the origins of the game in Manipur are traced to early precursors of Sagol Kangjei. This was one of three forms of hockey in Manipur, the ones being field hockey and wrestling-hockey
33.
Cricket
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Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket at each end. One team bats, attempting to score as many runs as possible, each phase of play is called an innings. After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a number of overs have been completed, the innings ends. The winning team is the one that scores the most runs, including any extras gained, at the start of each game, two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play. The striker takes guard on a crease drawn on the four feet in front of the wicket. His role is to prevent the ball hitting the stumps by use of his bat. The other batsman, known as the non-striker, waits at the end of the pitch near the bowler. A dismissed batsman must leave the field, and a teammate replaces him, the bowlers objectives are to prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman. An over is a set of six deliveries bowled by the same bowler, the next over is bowled from the other end of the pitch by a different bowler. If a fielder retrieves the ball enough to put down the wicket with a batsman not having reached the crease at that end of the pitch. Adjudication is performed on the field by two umpires, the laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council and the Marylebone Cricket Club. Traditionally cricketers play in all-white kit, but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours. In addition to the kit, some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball. Although crickets origins are uncertain, it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century and it spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire, leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century. ICC, the governing body, has over 100 members. The sport is followed primarily in Australasia, Britain, the Indian subcontinent, southern Africa, womens cricket, which is organised and played separately, has also achieved international standard. A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term cricket, in the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett. One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff, in Samuel Johnsons Dictionary, he derived cricket from cryce, Saxon, a stick
34.
Football
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Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball with the foot to score a goal. Unqualified, the football is understood to refer to whichever form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears. Sports commonly called football in certain places include, association football, gridiron football, Australian rules football, rugby football and these different variations of football are known as football codes. Various forms of football can be identified in history, often as popular peasant games, contemporary codes of football can be traced back to the codification of these games at English public schools during the nineteenth century. The expanse of the British Empire allowed these rules of football to spread to areas of British influence outside of the directly controlled Empire, in 1888, The Football League was founded in England, becoming the first of many professional football competitions. During the twentieth century, several of the kinds of football grew to become some of the most popular team sports in the world. They tend to use throwing and running as the ways of moving the ball. Body tackling is a skill, and games typically involve short passages of play of 5–90 seconds. Association football, Australian rules football and Gaelic football tend to use kicking to move the ball around the pitch, body tackles are less central to the game, and players are freer to move around the field. Common rules among the sports include, Two teams of usually between 11 and 18 players, some variations that have fewer players are also popular, a clearly defined area in which to play the game. Scoring goals or points by moving the ball to an opposing teams end of the field and either into a goal area, goals or points resulting from players putting the ball between two goalposts. The goal or line being defended by the opposing team, players being required to move the ball—depending on the code—by kicking, carrying, or hand-passing the ball. Players using only their body to move the ball, in all codes, common skills include passing, tackling, evasion of tackles, catching and kicking. In most codes, there are rules restricting the movement of players offside, there are conflicting explanations of the origin of the word football. It is widely assumed that the word refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball. There is an explanation, which is that football originally referred to a variety of games in medieval Europe. There is no evidence for either explanation. The Ancient Greeks and Romans are known to have played ball games
35.
Ball (association football)
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A football, soccer ball, or association football ball is the ball used in the sport of association football. The name of the ball according to whether the sport is called football, soccer. The balls spherical shape, as well as its size, weight, additional, more stringent, standards are specified by FIFA and subordinate governing bodies for the balls used in the competitions they sanction. Early footballs began as animal bladders or stomachs that would fall apart if kicked too much. Improvements became possible in the 19th century with the introduction of rubber, the modern 32-panel ball design was developed in 1962 by Eigil Nielsen, and technological research continues today to develop footballs with improved performance. In 1863, the first specifications for footballs were laid down by the Football Association, previous to this, footballs were made out of inflated leather, with later leather coverings to help footballs maintain their shapes. In 1872 the specifications were revised, and these rules have been essentially unchanged as defined by the International Football Association Board. Differences in footballs created since this rule came into effect have been to do with the used in their creation. Footballs have gone through a change over time. During medieval times balls were made from an outer shell of leather filled with cork shavings. Another method of creating a ball was using animal bladders for the inside of the making it inflatable. However, these two styles of creating footballs made it easy for the ball to puncture and were inadequate for kicking and it was not until the 19th century that footballs developed into what a football looks like today. In 1838, Charles Goodyear introduced the use of rubber and their discoveries of vulcanisation, Vulcanization is the treatment of rubber to give it certain qualities such as strength, elasticity, and resistance to solvents. Vulcanization of rubber also helps the football resist moderate heat and cold, Vulcanization helped create inflatable bladders that pressurise the outer panel arrangement of the football. Charles Goodyears innovation increased the ability of the ball and made it easier to kick. Most of the balls of this time had tanned leather with eighteen sections stitched together and these were arranged in six panels of three strips each. During the 1900s, footballs were made out of rubber and leather which was perfect for bouncing and kicking the ball, however, when heading the football it was usually painful. This problem was most probably due to absorption of the leather from rain
36.
Handball
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Handball is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each pass a ball using their hands with the aim of throwing it into the goal of the other team. A standard match consists of two periods of 30 minutes, and the team scores more goals wins. Modern handball is played on a court 40 by 20 metres, the goals are surrounded by a 6-meter zone where only the defending goalkeeper is allowed, goals must be scored by throwing the ball from outside the zone or while diving into it. The sport is played indoors, but outdoor variants exist in the forms of field handball and Czech handball. The game is fast and high-scoring, professional teams now typically score between 20 and 35 goals each, though lower scores were not uncommon until a few decades ago, body contact is permitted by the defenders trying to stop the attackers from approaching the goal. The game was codified at the end of the 19th century in northern Europe, the modern set of rules was published in 1917 in Germany, and had several revisions since. The first international games were played under rules for men in 1925. Mens handball was first played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin as outdoors, and the time at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich as indoors. Womens team handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics, the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946 and, as of 2016, has 197 member federations. The sport is most popular in the countries of continental Europe, in the womens world championships, only two non-European countries have won the title, South Korea and Brazil. The game also enjoys popularity in the Far East, North Africa, There is evidence of ancient Roman women playing a version of handball called expulsim ludere. There are records of games in medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of håndbold from Denmark, házená in the Czech Republic, handbol in Ukraine, the team handball game of today was codified at the end of the 19th century in northern Europe—primarily in Denmark, Germany, Norway and Sweden. The first written set of team handball rules was published in 1906 by the Danish gym teacher, lieutenant and Olympic medalist Holger Nielsen from Ordrup grammar school, north of Copenhagen. The modern set of rules was published on 29 October 1917 by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, after 1919 these rules were improved by Karl Schelenz. The first international games were played under rules, between Germany and Belgium by men in 1925 and between Germany and Austria by women in 1930. In 1926, the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics Federation nominated a committee to draw up rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in 1928 and later the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946, Mens field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin
37.
Bandy ball
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A bandy ball is a rubber ball used for playing bandy. The core of the ball is made of cork and this is surrounded by rubber or rubber-like plastic, the ball should be manufactured in a diameter of 62.4 mm or 63.8 mm and the colour was originally red, later orange or cerise. According to the Bandy Playing Rules set up by the Federation of International Bandy, any of these is allowed, Bandy balls are manufactured by companies such as Jofa, Kosa, and Reebok. The same type of ball is used in rink bandy while a similar ball but blue in its colour is used in rinkball
38.
Baseball (ball)
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A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name, baseball. The ball features a rubber or cork center, wrapped in yarn and it is 9. 00–9.25 inches in circumference, and masses from 5.00 to 5.25 ounces. The yarn or string used to wrap the baseball can be up to one mile in length, some are wrapped in a plastic-like covering. A significant characteristic of the baseball is the stitching that holds together the covering of the ball, after a ball has been pitched, these raised stitches act like wings on a plane, catching the wind and causing the ball to swerve slightly on its way to the catcher. See, for example, curveball, slider, two-seam fastball, four-seam fastball, in the early, mid-1800s days of baseball, there was a great variety in the size, shape, weight, and manufacturing of baseballs. Early baseballs were made from a core from old, melted shoes, wrapped in yarn. Fish eyes were used as cores in some places. Pitchers usually made their own balls, which were used throughout the game, one of the more popular earlier ball designs was the lemon peel ball, named after its distinct four lines of stitching design. Lemon peel balls were darker, smaller, and weighed less than other baseballs, prompting them to further and bounce higher. In the mid-1850s, teams in New York met in attempt to standardize the baseball and they decided to regulate baseballs to weighing between 5. 5-6 oz and having a circumference of 8-11 inches. There were still many variations of baseballs since they were completely handmade, balls with more rubber and a tighter winding went further and faster, and balls with less rubber and a looser winding did not travel as far or fast. This is generally true for all baseballs, teams often used this knowledge to their advantage, as players from the team usually manufactured their own baseballs to use in games. There is no agreement on who invented the commonplace figure-8 stitching on baseballs, some historians say that it was invented by Ellis Drake, a shoemakers son, to make the cover stronger and more durable. Others say it was invented by Colonel William A. Cutler, Harwood built a factory in Natick, Massachusetts, and was the first to popularize and mass-produce baseballs with the figure-8 design. In 1876, the National League was created, and standard rules, a. G. Spalding, a well-known baseball pitcher who made his own balls, convinced the NL to adopt his ball as the official baseball for the NL. It remained that way for 100 years, in 1910, the cork-core ball was introduced. They outlasted rubber core baseballs, and for the first few years they were used and it eventually went back to normal. Pitchers adapted with the use of the spitball, which is now illegal, in 1920, a couple of important changes were made to baseballs
39.
Basketball (ball)
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A basketball is a spherical inflated ball used in basketball games. Basketballs typically range in size from very small promotional items only a few inches in diameter to extra large balls nearly a foot in diameter used in training exercises. For example, a basketball in school would be about 27 inches in circumference. The actual standard size of a basketball in the NBA is 29.5 to 29.85 inches in circumference, aside from the court and the baskets, the basketball is the only piece of equipment necessary to play the game of basketball. During the game, the ball must be bounced continuously, thrown through the air to other players, therefore, the ball must be very durable and easy to hold on to. Nearly all basketballs have an inflatable rubber bladder, generally wrapped in layers of fiber and then covered with a surface made either from leather, rubber. As in most inflatable balls, there is an opening that allows the pressure to be increased or decreased. The surface of the ball is nearly always divided by ribs that are recessed below the surface of the ball in a variety of configurations and are generally a contrasting color. An orange surface with black ribs and a logo is the traditional color scheme of basketballs. Balls are generally designated for indoor, or all-surface use, indoor balls tend to be considerably more expensive than all-surface balls due to cost of materials. In addition, brand new all-leather indoor balls must be broken in first to achieve optimal grip before use in competition. Outdoor balls are made from rubber to cope with rougher conditions. Different sizes are used for different age groups, the common standards are, Note that the ball used for all competitions in the formalized halfcourt game of 3x3 combines characteristics of the size 6 and size 7 balls. Its circumference is that of a size 6 ball, but its weight is that of a size 7, the first purpose-built basketballs were made from panels of leather stitched together with a rubber bladder inside. A cloth lining was added to the leather for support and uniformity, a molded version of the early basketball was invented in 1942. From 1967 through 1976, the American Basketball Association used a red, white. Spalding was the first company to produce a basketball for official use, Company founder A. G. Spalding made the first dedicated basketball in the last years of the 19th century at the behest of James Naismith. It has produced basketballs since that time and has produced the NBA’s official game ball since 1983 and they also produce the balls for the Womens National Basketball Association and NBA Development League
40.
Billiard ball
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A billiard ball is a small, hard ball used in cue sports, such as carom billiards, pool, and snooker. The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of the balls differ depending upon the game being played. Various particular ball properties such as hardness, friction coefficient and resilience are important to accuracy, early balls were made of various materials, including wood and clay. The billiard industry realized that the supply of elephants was endangered, inventors were challenged to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured, with a US$10,000 prize being offered by a New York supplier, Phelan and Collender. Although not the first artificial substance to be used for the balls and it is unclear if the cash prize was ever awarded, and there is no evidence suggesting he did in fact win it. By 1870 it was commercially branded Celluloid, the first industrial plastic, unfortunately, the nature of celluloid made it volatile in production, occasionally exploding, which ultimately made this early plastic impractical. Urban legend has it that celluloid billiard balls themselves would occasionally explode during rough play, the exacting requirements of the billiard ball are met today with balls cast from plastic materials that are strongly resistant to cracking and chipping. Currently Saluc, under the brand names Aramith and Brunswick Centennial, other plastics and resins such as polyester and clear acrylic are also used, by competing companies such as Elephant Balls Ltd. and Frenzy Sports. Ivory balls remained in use in artistic billiards competition until the late 20th century, the predominantly Asian game four-ball uses four balls. Carom balls are not numbered, and at 61–61.5 mm in diameter are larger than pool balls, the 61.5 mm size are more common. In North America, they are referred to simply as billiard balls. According to WPA/BCA equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6 oz with a diameter of 2.250 inch and these are often referred to as 2 1⁄4 inch balls. Balls 1 through 7 are often referred to as solids and 9 through 15 as stripes though there are many colloquial terms for each suit of balls. Though it looks similar to the solids, the 8 ball is not considered a solid because it is the ball that is black. Some games such as nine-ball do not distinguish between stripes and solids, but rather use the numbering on the balls to determine which object ball must be pocketed, in other games such as three-ball and straight pool neither type of marking is of any consequence. In eight-ball, straight pool, and related games, all sixteen balls are employed, in the games of seven-ball, nine-ball, ten-ball and related, only object balls 1 through 7,9 and 10, respectively are used. Some balls used in televised games are colored differently in order to make them distinguishable on television monitors. The TV is also the genesis of the cue ball with numerous spots on its surface so that spin placed on it is evident to viewers
41.
Bowling ball
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A bowling ball is a piece of sporting equipment used to hit bowling pins in the sport of bowling. Ten-pin bowling balls are hard spheres with three holes drilled in them, one each for the ring and middle fingers, and one for the thumb. Other bowling balls, such as used in five-pin bowling, candlepin bowling, and duckpin bowling are smaller, lighter. Most bowling alleys provide balls for patrons to use within the establishment, key properties of ten-pin bowling balls include surface friction, porosity, and mass distribution, which affect the motion of the ball as it rolls. Friction and porosity are variables of the surface of the ball, known as the stock, while mass distribution is determined by the shape. The USBC and FIQ specifies that bowling balls may only be made from uniform, the weight of the ball must not exceed 16.00 pounds, with no lower bound for weight. The hardness of the ball must be at least 72, as measured by a Type D Shore durometer at room temperature. A ball may have a circumference between 26.704 inches and 27.002 inches, and a diameter in the range of 8.500 inches to 8.595 inches, additionally, markings must include an individual serial number and the logo of the USBC. Holes are allowed to be drilled into a ball for a variety of reasons. Up to five holes may be drilled for the fingers for one hand. A balance hole may be added to alter the mass distribution, the USBC recently changed their rules that affect no-thumb bowlers more than those using a conventional grip. Now any hole not used explicitly for gripping during the approach is to be considered a balance hole and this means that no-thumb bowlers would have to take out their thumb hole or their balance hole if they have both. This is because it may give them the advantage of special weighting, a mill hole may also be used for inspection purposes. There are special scales designed to weigh/compare different halves of the ball, the radius of gyration must fall between 2.460 inches and 2.800 inches, and the differential radius of gyration must not exceed 0.060 inches. The coefficient of friction must not exceed 0.320, historically, bowling balls were often made from dense hardwoods such as Lignum Vitae, but starting in the early 20th century, hard rubber became the primary material for bowling balls. The first bowling balls to be made from polyester were produced in the late 1950s and this would become the predominant material in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, polyurethane bowling balls were introduced and this is desirable, as a greater entry angle tends to provide a higher striking percentage. In the early 1990s, a new material known as reactive resin was introduced, reactive resin is still made from polyurethane, but has been treated with additives while in a liquid state that create pores in the coverstock that allow it to absorb oil
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Bowling pin
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Bowling pins are the target of the bowling ball in various bowling games including tenpins, five-pins, duckpins, and candlepins. Pin specifications are set by the United States Bowling Congress, World Bowling, formerly World Tenpin Bowling Association has adopted the USBC specifications. Pins are 4.75 inches wide at their widest point and 15 inches tall and they weigh 3 pounds 6 ounces, pins weighing up to 3 lb 10 oz are approved. Duckpins are shorter and squatter than standard tenpins, canadian fivepins are between duckpins and tenpins in size, but have a thick, inch-wide rubber band around the widest part of the pin to increase pin action when struck. Candlepins are dissimilar to the others, being the tallest of all at 15-3/4 inches and they are nearly cylindrical in shape with a slight taper toward either end, making them vaguely resemble candles. Unlike other bowling pins, because they are vertically symmetrical candlepins may be set on either end, Bowling pins are constructed by gluing blocks of rock maple wood into the approximate shape, and then turning on a lathe. After the lathe shapes the pin, it is coated with a material, painted. Because of the scarcity of wood, bowling pins can be made from approved synthetics. Currently there are synthetic pins sanctioned for play in five-pin, duckpin, there is one synthetic ten pin model approved by the USBC. When hit by the ball, synthetic pins usually sound different from wooden pins, juggling clubs could be mistaken for bowling pins due to their similar shape. The two differ greatly in construction and weight, Bowling pin shooting Ten-pin bowling Nine-pin bowling Candlepin bowling Duckpin bowling Five-pin bowling How bowling pins are made Bowlinglinks all over the World, sorted by categories
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Cricket ball
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A cricket ball is a hard, solid ball used to play cricket. A cricket ball consists of cork covered by leather, and manufacture is regulated by law at first-class level. The manipulation of a ball, through employment of its various physical properties, is a staple component of bowling and dismissing batsmen. In test cricket, professional games that spread over a multitude of days, and almost the entirety of amateur cricket. Training balls of white, red and pink are also common, during cricket matches, the quality of the ball changes to a point where it is no longer usable, and during this decline its properties alter and thus can influence the match. Injuries and fatalities have been caused by cricket balls during matches, the hazards posed by cricket balls were a key motivator for the introduction of protective equipment. British Standard BS5993 specifies the details, dimensions, quality. A cricket ball is made with a core of cork, which is layered with tightly wound string, the equator of the ball is stitched with string to form the balls prominent seam, with six rows of stitches. The remaining two joins between the pieces are stitched internally. Lower-quality balls with a two-piece covering are also popular for practice, the nature of the cricket ball slightly varies with its manufacturer. Cricket balls are red, and red balls are used in Test cricket. Manufacturers claim that white and red balls are manufactured using the methods and materials. Before October 2007, except during 1992 and 1996 World Cups, only one ball was used during an innings of an ODI, pink balls were developed in the 2000s to enable Tests and first-class matches played at night. It has performed well enough in testing and first-class cricket to be approved for use in international cricket, other colours were also experimented with, such as yellow and orange, for improved night visibility, but pink proved to be the preferred option. As of 2014, the used in Test match cricket in England has a recommended retail price of 100 pounds sterling. In test match cricket this ball is used for a minimum of 80 overs, in professional one day cricket, at least two new balls are used for each match. There are three main manufacturers of ball used in international matches, Kookaburra, Dukes and SG. The manufacturer of the red used for Tests varies depending on location, India uses SG, England and the West Indies use Dukes
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ball". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "