1.
Croatian language
–
It is the official and literary standard of Croatia and one of the official languages of the European Union. Croatian is also one of the languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a recognized minority language in Serbia. Croatian is written in Gajs Latin alphabet, besides the Shtokavian dialect, on which Standard Croatian is based, there are two other main dialects, Chakavian and Kajkavian. It is still used now in parts of Istria, which became a crossroads of various mixtures of Chakavian with Ekavian/Ijekavian/Ikavian dialects, the cultural apex of this 17th century idiom is represented by the editions of Adrianskoga mora sirena by Petar Zrinski and Putni tovaruš by Katarina Zrinska. However, this first linguistic renaissance in Croatia was halted by the execution of Petar Zrinski. Subsequently the Croatian elite in the 18th century gradually abandoned this combined Croatian standard, specifically, three major groups of dialects were spoken on Croatian territory, and there had been several literary languages over four centuries. The leader of the Illyrian movement Ljudevit Gaj standardized the Latin alphabet in 1830–1850, the uniform Neo-Shtokavian then became common in the Croatian elite. In the 1860s, the Zagreb Philological School dominated the Croatian cultural life, drawing upon linguistic, while it was dominant over the rival Rijeka Philological School and Zadar Philological Schools, its influence waned with the rise of the Croatian Vukovians. Croatian is commonly characterized by the Ijekavian pronunciation, the use of the Latin alphabet. Some differences are absolute, while some appear mainly in the frequency of use, Croatian, although technically a form of Serbo-Croatian, is sometimes considered a distinct language by itself. Differences between various forms of Serbo-Croatian are often exaggerated for political reasons. Most Croatian linguists regard Croatian as a language that is considered key to national identity. The issue is sensitive in Croatia as the notion of a language being the most important characteristic of a nation is widely accepted. The terms Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat are still used as a term for all these forms by foreign scholars. Within ex-Yugoslavia, the term has largely replaced by the ethnic terms Serbian, Croatian. In 2013, the EU started publishing a Croatian language version of its official gazette, Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and, along with Standard Bosnian and Standard Serbian, one of three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also official in the regions of Burgenland, Molise, additionally, it has co-official status alongside Romanian in the communes of Carașova and Lupac, Romania. Croatian is officially used and taught at all the universities in Croatia, there is no regulatory body that determines the proper usage of Croatian
Croatian language
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Features
Croatian language
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Traditional extent of Serbo-Croatian dialects in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina
2.
Zagreb, Croatia
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Zagreb is the capital and the largest city of Croatia. It is located in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately 122 m above sea level. In the last official census of 2011 the population of the City of Zagreb was 792,875, the wider Zagreb metropolitan area includes the City of Zagreb and the separate Zagreb County bringing the total metropolitan area population up to 1,237,887. It is the biggest metropolitan area in Croatia, and the one with a population of over one million. Zagreb is a city with a history dating from the Roman times to the present day. The oldest settlement located in the vicinity of the city was the Roman Andautonia, the name Zagreb is recorded in 1134, in reference to the foundation of the settlement at Kaptol in 1094. Zagreb became a royal town in 1242. In 1851 Zagreb had its first mayor, Janko Kamauf, and in 1945 it was made the capital of Croatia when the demographic boom, the city extends over 30 kilometres east-west and around 20 kilometres north-south. The transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific, and research institutions, Zagreb is the seat of the central government, administrative bodies, and almost all government ministries. Almost all of the largest Croatian companies, media, and scientific institutions have their headquarters in the city and it is a city known for its diverse economy, high quality of living, museums, sporting, and entertainment events. Its main branches of economy are high-tech industries and the service sector, the etymology of the name Zagreb is unclear. It was used of the city only from 1852, but it had been in use as the name of the Zagreb dioecese since the 12th century. The name is first recorded in a charter by Ostrogon archbishop Felician, dated 1134, the older form of the name is Zagrab, the modern Croatian form Zagreb is first recorded in a 1689 map by Nicolas Sanson. An even older form is reflected in Hungarian Zabrag, for this, Desy proposes the etymology of Chabrag, a well-attested hypocorism of the name Cyprian. The same form is reflected in a number of Hungarian toponyms, the name Agram was used in German in the Habsburg period, this name has been classified as probably of Roman origin but according to Desy it could be an Austrian German reanalysis of *Zugram. In Middle Latin and Modern Latin, Zagreb is known as Agranum, in Croatian folk etymology, the name of the city has been derived from either the verb za-grab-, meaning to scoop or to dig. One folk legend illustrating this derivation ties the name to a drought of the early 14th century, in another legend, a city governor is thirsty and orders a girl named Manda to scoop water from Manduševac well, using the imperative, zagrabi, Mando. The oldest settlement located near todays Zagreb was a Roman town of Andautonia, now Šćitarjevo, Gradec and Kaptol were united in 1851 by ban Josip Jelačić, who was credited for this, with the naming the main city square, Ban Jelačić Square in his honour
Zagreb, Croatia
Zagreb, Croatia
Zagreb, Croatia
Zagreb, Croatia
3.
Ban (title)
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Ban /ˈbɑːn/ was a noble title used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 20th century. In English, common term for the province governed by ban is banate, in the 30th chapter, describing how the Croatian state was divided into eleven ζουπανίας, the ban βοάνος, καὶ ὁ βοάνος αὐτῶν κρατεῖ τὴν Κρίβασαν, τὴν Λίτζαν καὶ τὴν Γουτζησκά. In 1029 was published a Latin charter by Jelena, sister of ban Godemir, in Obrovac, in it she is introduced as Ego Heleniza, soror Godemiri bani. Franjo Rački noted that if is not an original, then is certainly a transcript from the same 11th century, in the 12th century, the title was mentioned by Byzantine historian John Kinnamos, anonymous monk of Dioclea, and in the Supetar Cartulary. The Byzantine historian John Kinnamos wrote the title in the form μπάνος. In the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, which is dated to 12th and 13th century, in the Latin redaction is written as banus, banum, bano, and in the Croatian redaction only as ban. The Supetar Cartulary includes information until the 12th century, but the writing about bans is dated to the late 13th and early 14th century. It mentions that there existed seven bans and they were elected by the six of twelve Croatian noble tribes, the Late Proto-Slavic word *banъ is not of native Slavic lexical stock and is generally considered to be a borrowing from a Turkic language. The titles origin among medieval Croats is not completely understood, and as much is hard to determine the exact source and to reconstruct the primal form of the Turkic word it is derived from. It is generally explained as a derivation from the Avar name Bayan, the Proto-Turkic root *bāj- is sometimes explained as a native Turkic word, however, it is generally considered a borrowing from the Iranian bay. Within the Altaic theory, the Turkic word is inherited from the Proto-Altaic *bēǯu numerous, the title word ban was also derived from the name Bojan, and there were additionally proposed Iranian, and Indo-European, language origin. Some scholars assume that the name was a possible misinterpretation of a title, but Bayan already had a title of khagan, however, the title ban among the Avars has never been attested to in the historical sources. It was used as evidence throughout the history of historioraphy to prove ideological assumptions on Avars, the starting point of the debate was year 1837, and the work of historian and philologist Pavel Jozef Šafárik, whose thesis has influenced generations of scholars. However, modern scholars until now proved the opposite, that Avars never lived in Dalmatia proper, and that statement occurred somewhere in Pannonia. Franc Miklošič wrote that the word, of Croatian origin, probably was expanded by the Croats among the Bulgarians and Serbs, Đuro Daničić decided for an intermediate solution, by origin is Avar or Persian from bajan. Bury derived the title from the name of Avar khagan Bayan I, tadija Smičiklas and Vatroslav Jagić thought that the title should not derive from bajan, but from bojan, as thus how it is written in the Greek historical records. He mentioned both thesis, as well the German-Gothic theory derivation, ferdo Šišić considered that is impossible it directly originated from a personal name of an Avar ruler because the title needs a logical continuity. He doubted its existence among Slavic tribes during the great migration, the thesis of alleged Avar governor title Šišić based on his personal derivation of bajan from the title khagan
Ban (title)
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The Seal of
Paul I Šubić of Bribir, ban of Croatia (1275–1312).
Ban (title)
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Ban of Croatia 's
standard
Ban (title)
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Josip Jelačić, ban of Croatia (1848–1859).
4.
Gradec, Zagreb
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Gradec or Grič is a part of Zagreb, Croatia, and together with Kaptol it is the medieval nucleus of the city. It is situated on the hill of Gornji Grad, Gradec was given a royal charter by King Béla IV in 1242. The royal charter, also called the Golden Bull, was an important document by which Gradec was declared and proclaimed a free royal city on Gradec. This act made Gradec a feudal holding responsible directly to the king, the citizens were given rights of different kinds, among other things they were entitled to elect their own city magistrate fulfilling the role of mayor. They were also entitled to manage their own affairs, the citizens engaged in building defensive walls and towers around their settlement, fearing a new Mongol invasion. They completed the system at a time between 1242 and 1261. It could be assumed that by building its fortification walls in the middle of the 13th century. In some places, rectangular and semicircular towers fortified the defensive walls, kamenita vrata is the only gate still preserved to date. Gornji Grad is a government unit, encompassing a population of 3,432. Undoubtedly, the point of Gornji Grad is the square around St. Marks Church that had been called St, marks Church is the parish church of Old Zagreb. When guilds developed in Gradec in the 15th, and later in the 17th century, being the societies of craftsmen, their members including masters, journeymen, on the opposite side of the Square at the corner of Basaričekova Street lies the St. The house has been standing there since the 16th century, although it underwent reconstruction in the 18th century and had an extension added in the 19th century. At the west end of St. Banski dvori, along with the Baroque mansion beside it, is the seat of the Government of the Republic of Croatia, since 1734, the Croatian Parliament has taken up the east side of St. Gornji Grad was recently closed to car traffic except for residents, making it a primarily pedestrian zone
Gradec, Zagreb
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Gradec
Gradec, Zagreb
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Gradec Stone Gate
Gradec, Zagreb
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Dverce
Gradec, Zagreb
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St. Mark's Square
5.
Kaptol, Zagreb
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Kaptol is a part of Zagreb, Croatia in the upper town and it is the seat of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Zagreb. The existence of Kaptol, the settlement on the east slope, was confirmed in 1094 when King Ladislaus founded the Zagreb diocese, the bishop, his residence and the Cathedral had their seat in the southeast part of the Kaptol hill. VIaška Ves was situated in the vicinity of the Cathedral. Being under the jurisdiction, it was first mentioned in 1198. Kaptol Street ran from the south to the north across the Kaptol terrace with canons residences arranged in rows alongside, as the Latin word for a group or body of canons is capitulum, it is clear how Kaptol got its name. The canons also ruled this settlement, the Cathedral was consecrated in 1217, but later in 1242 it was badly damaged during the Mongol invasion. After 1263 it was restored and rebuilt, as a settlement, Kaptols shape was an unsymmetrical rectangle, which had a southern entrance in Bakačeva Street, and ended at its north end near the present day Kaptol School. In the Middle Ages, Kaptol had no fortifications and it was merely enclosed with wooden fences or palisades, which were repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. The defensive walls and towers around Kaptol were built between 1469 and 1473, the Prislin Tower near the Kaptol School is one of the best-preserved from those times. In 1493 the Turks reached Sisak trying to capture it but were defeated there, therefore, fearing the Turkish invasion, the Bishop of Zagreb had the fortifications built around the Cathedral and his residence. The defensive towers and walls built between 1512 and 1520 have been preserved until the present day except those that faced the front of the Cathedral situated at Kaptol Square. This section of the wall was pulled down in 1907, in Opatovina, small dwelling houses of former Kaptol inhabitants can still be seen, but at Dolac a number of little and narrow streets were torn down in 1926 when the todays market was built. In 1334 the canons of Zagreb established a colony of Kaptol serfs in the vicinity of their residences and that was the beginning of a new settlement called Nova Ves. Kaptol is today part of the Gornji Grad - Medveščak city district and it mainly faces the Kaptol Street, lying atop of the Ribnjak Park in the east. The Kaptol Centar shopping mall is located in Nova Ves, the central part of Kaptol is part of the local government August Cesarec that has a total population of 1,523. History of Croatia History of Zagreb Ban Jelačić Square Gradec St, marks Church Zagreb Cathedral Kaptol manors in Zagreb guide. ndo. co. uk
Kaptol, Zagreb
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Kaptol
Kaptol, Zagreb
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Miniature model of
Zagreb Cathedral on Kaptol with the old bell-tower
Kaptol, Zagreb
Kaptol, Zagreb
6.
Dolac Market
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Dolac is a farmers market located in Gornji Grad - Medveščak city district of Zagreb, Croatia. Dolac is the most visited and the best known farmers market in Zagreb, well known for its combination of open market with stalls. It is located only a few meters away from the main city square, Ban Jelačić Square. The Dolac market Zagreb is centrally located right behind the main square. The daily market, on a square a set of stairs up from Jelačić, has been the city’s major trading place since 1926. Farmers from surrounding villages come to sell their home-made foodstuffs and very fresh fruit, in the covered market downstairs are butchers, fishmongers and old ladies selling the local speciality sir i vrhnje. Flowers and lace are also widely available, alongside, the renovated fish market, ribarnica, sells fresh produce every day but Monday. Dolački vremeplov Karlo Vajda i Vjekoslav Bastl, Izgradnja tržnice na Dolcu u Zagrebu,1928. -1936
Dolac Market
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Dolac
Dolac Market
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Bronze statue of a market woman at Dolac Market
7.
Ilica (street)
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Ilica street is one of the longest streets in Zagreb and considered to be the most expensive residential street in the city. The busy street is home to shops and cultural sites and spans through most of the northwestern part of the city. The street is 5.66 km long, making it the third longest street in the city, the name was first recorded in 1431, while the street itself retained its present shape at the end of the 18th century. During a part of its timeline, the street appeared under the name Lončarska ves.01 Ilica St. - British Council Zagreb 17 Ilica St, - The Tošo Dabac Archive 36 Ilica St. - Plavi telefon -helpline for children and youth 48 Ilica St. - Democratic Centre party headquarters 85 Ilica St. - Zagreb Academy of Fine Arts 208 Ilica St. - EXIT Theater Bilić, Josip, Ivanković, Hrvoje, Zagreb, Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography and Masmedia. Article about the history of Ilica street Špoljarić, Branimir, iako ne i najduža, Ilica je ostala najvažnijom ulicom u Zagrebu. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13
Ilica (street)
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Ilica near Ban Jelačić Square
8.
Zagreb Cathedral
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The Zagreb Cathedral on Kaptol is a Roman Catholic institution and not only the tallest building in Croatia, but also the most monumental sacral building in Gothic style southeast of the Alps. It is dedicated to the Assumption of Mary and to kings Saint Stephen, the cathedral is typically Gothic, as is its sacristy, which is of great architectural value. Its prominent spires are considered to be landmarks as they are visible from most parts of the city, in 1093 when king Ladislaus moved the bishops chair from Sisak to Zagreb, he proclaimed the existing church as a cathedral. Construction on the cathedral started shortly after his death and was finished in 1217, the building was destroyed by the Mongols in 1242 but rebuilt by bishop Timotej a few years later. At the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded Croatia, triggering the construction of walls around the cathedral. In the 17th century, a fortified renaissance watchtower was erected on the south side, the cathedral was severely damaged in the 1880 Zagreb earthquake. The main nave collapsed and the tower was damaged beyond repair, the restoration of the cathedral in the Neo-Gothic style was led by Hermann Bollé, bringing the cathedral to its present form. The cathedral is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 1000 kuna banknote issued in 1993, when facing the portal, the building is 46 meters wide and 108 meters high. The cathedral contains a relief of Cardinal Aloysius Stepinac with Christ done by the Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović, the cathedral was visited by Pope Benedict XVI on 5 June 2011 where he celebrated Sunday Vespers and prayed before the tomb of Blessed Aloysius Stepinac. History of Zagreb History of Croatia St
Zagreb Cathedral
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Zagreb Cathedral
Zagreb Cathedral
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1880 pre-earthquake view from
Jelačić Square with old square
spire
Zagreb Cathedral
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19th Century view with
fortifications intact
Zagreb Cathedral
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Mary column in front of the Cathedral
9.
1880 Zagreb earthquake
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The 1880 earthquake which struck Zagreb, and is also known as The Great Zagreb earthquake, occurred with a moment magnitude of 6.3 on 9 November. Its epicenter was in the Medvednica mountain north of Zagreb, although only one person was killed in the earthquake, it destroyed or damaged many buildings. According to the Zagreb Meteorological Station data, the earthquake struck at 07,33, city authorities formed a commission to assess the damage, and their official report said that a total of 1,758 buildings were affected, out of which 485 were heavily damaged. However, the damage brought by the earthquake spurred construction and many buildings in the Lower Town area of the city were built in the following years. List of historical earthquakes Horvat, Rudolf
1880 Zagreb earthquake
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The damage to
Zagreb Cathedral 's interior was photographed by
Ivan Standl. A skeleton is visible in a crypt
10.
Anton Dominik Fernkorn
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Anton Dominick Ritter von Fernkorn was a German-Austrian sculptor. Fernkorn studied sculpture under the sculptors Johann Baptist Stiglmaier and Ludwig Michael Schwanthaler in Munich, for the Cathedral of Speyer, in 1858 he completed six of the eight free-stone statues of the German emperors buried there. He rediscovered Baroque sculpture and used it as the basis for his statue of Archduke Charles. In this work Fernkorn skillfully executed the task of creating a monumentally sized equestrian statue with the horse successfully balanced on the horses two rear legs. His equestrian monument of Prince Eugene of Savoy is less successful and by the time of its unveiling in 1865, Fernkorns mental illness made it impossible for him to produce any more work. Fernkorn is well remembered for his portraits, and these include a bust of the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and he was also a noted animalier, producing works such as the Lion of Aspern in Vienna. His statue of ban Josip Jelačić stands at the central Zagreb square, the square features a large equestrian statue of the Baron, created by Fernkorn. The statue was installed on 19 October 1866 by the Austrian authorities. It was oriented towards the north at the time, the statue was removed in 1947, as the new Communist government of Yugoslavia denounced Jelačić as an Austrian collaborator. In 1990, the statue was reinstated after Croatia regained independence, Fernkorn created the oldest representative public monument in Ljubljana, a bust of the field marshal Joseph Radetzky. It was almost two meters high and made of bronze, the field marshal was depicted highly realistically in his suit with decorations and a laurel wreath as a symbol of victory and glory. The statue was meant to reflect the loyalty to the Habsburg crown and was the place of all events on a level in Ljubljana. The statue was removed by patriots in the night of 30 December 1918, after the collapse of the Austria-Hungary and the end of World War I, in 1864, he also created four iron cast dogs, still on display in Tivoli Park in Ljubljana. As the dogs dont have tongues, it has been rumoured that Fernkorn committed suicide by shooting himself due to this mistake. Fernkorns own cemetery monument, created by the sculptor Josef Beyer, is located in the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna, among his students was Theodor Friedl. Janson, H. W. 19th-Century Sculpture, Harry N. Abrams, anton Dominik Fernkorn at Find a Grave
Anton Dominik Fernkorn
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Anton Dominik Fernkorn
Anton Dominik Fernkorn
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Archduke Charles, Vienna, Austria
Anton Dominik Fernkorn
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The Lion of Aspern (
Details)
Anton Dominik Fernkorn
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Statue of
ban Josip Jelačić in
Zagreb
11.
Horsecar
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A horsecar, or horse-drawn tram, is an animal-powered tram or streetcar. These were local versions of the lines and picked up and dropped off passengers on a regular route. The horse-drawn streetcar combined the low cost, flexibility, and safety of power with the efficiency, smoothness. The first tram services in the world were started by the Swansea and Mumbles Railway in Wales, fare-paying passengers were carried on a line between Oystermouth, Mumbles and Swansea Docks from 1807. The Gloucester and Cheltenham Tramroad carried passengers although its purpose was freight. Many companies adopted a design of a partly enclosed double-decker carriage hauled by two horses, the last horse-drawn tram was retired from London in 1915. Horses continued to be used for light shunting well into the 20th century, the last horse used for shunting on British Railways was retired on 21 February 1967 in Newmarket, Suffolk. In the United States the very first streetcar appeared on November 26,1832, on the New York, the cars were designed by John Stephenson of New Rochelle, New York and constructed at his company in New York City. The earliest streetcars used horses and sometimes mules, usually two as a team, to haul the cars, rarely, other animals were tried, including humans in emergency circumstances. By the mid-1880s, there were 415 street railway companies in the USA operating over 6,000 miles of track, by 1890 New Yorkers took 297 horsecar rides per capita per year. The average street car horse had a life expectancy of two years. In 1861, Toronto Street Railway horsecars replaced horse driven omnibuses as a public transit mode in Toronto, starting in 1892, electric streetcars emerged in Toronto and by 1894 the TSR stopped operating horsecars in Toronto. The first horse-drawn rail cars on the continent of Europe were operated from 1828 by the České Budějovice - Linz railway, Europe saw a proliferation of horsecar use for new tram services from the mid-1860s, with many towns building new networks. Tropical plantations made extensive use of animal-powered trams for passengers and freight, often employing the Decauville narrow-gauge portable track system. In some cases these systems were extensive and evolved into interurban tram networks. Surviving examples may be found in both the Yucatan and Brazil, since a typical horse pulled a streetcar for about a dozen miles a day and worked for four or five hours, many systems needed ten or more horses in stable for each horsecar. Horsecars were largely replaced by electric-powered streetcars following the invention by Frank J. Sprague of a trolley system on streetcars for collecting electricity from overhead wires. His spring-loaded trolley pole used a wheel to travel along the wire, in late 1887 and early 1888, using his trolley system, Sprague installed the first successful large electric street railway system in Richmond, Virginia
Horsecar
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Manchester,
New Hampshire 's first horsecar, dating from 1877, and on display about 1908
Horsecar
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Mule-drawn streetcar, 1870s
Horsecar
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The
Welsh Swansea and Mumbles Railway ran the world's first passenger tram service
Horsecar
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London Tramways two-horse tram, about 1890
12.
SFRY
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Covering an area of 255,804 km², the SFRY was bordered with Italy to the west, Hungary to the north, Bulgaria and Romania to the east and Albania and Greece to the south. In addition, it included two autonomous provinces within Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina, the SFRY traces back to 29 June 1943 when the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia was formed during World War II. On 29 November 1945, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed after the deposal of King Peter II thus ending the monarchy. Following the death of Tito on 4 May 1980, rising ethnic nationalism in the late 1980s led to dissidence among the multiple ethnicities within the constituent republics. This led to the federation collapsing along the borders, followed by the final downfall and breakup of the federation on 27 April 1992. The term former Yugoslavia is now commonly used retrospectively, the name Yugoslavia, an Anglicised transcription of Jugoslavija, is a composite word made-up of jug and slavija. The Serbo-Croatian, Slovene and Macedonian word jug means south, while slavija denotes a land of the Slavs, thus, a translation of Jugoslavija would be South-Slavia or Land of the South Slavs. The term is intended to denote the lands occupied by the six South Slavic nations, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Slovenes, the full official name of the federation varied significantly between 1945 and 1992. Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, the name deliberately left the republic-or-kingdom question open. In 1963, amid pervasive liberal constitutional reforms, the name Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was introduced, the state is most commonly referred to by the latter name, which it held for the longest period of all. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though SFR Yugoslavia was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media. On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany, by 17 April 1941, Yugoslav resistance was soon established in two forms, the Royal Yugoslav Army and the Yugoslav Partisans. The Partisan supreme commander was Josip Broz Tito, and under his command the movement soon began establishing liberated territories which attracted the attentions of the occupying forces. The coalition of parties, factions, and prominent individuals behind the movement was the Peoples Liberation Front. The Front formed a political body, the Anti-Fascist Council for the Peoples Liberation of Yugoslavia. The AVNOJ, which met for the first time in Partisan-liberated Bihać on 26 November 1942, during 1943, the Yugoslav Partisans began attracting serious attention from the Germans. In two major operations of Fall Weiss and Fall Schwartz, the Axis attempted to stamp-out the Yugoslav resistance once, on both occasions, despite heavy casualties, the Group succeeded in evading the trap and retreating to safety. The Partisans emerged stronger than before and now occupied a significant portion of Yugoslavia
SFRY
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U.S.-Yugoslavia summit, 1978
SFRY
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Flag
SFRY
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The parliament building of
Bosnia and Herzegovina burns amid the
Yugoslav wars.
SFRY
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Vukovar water tower during the
Siege of Vukovar. The tower came to symbolize the town's resistance to Serb forces.
13.
Car-free zone
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Pedestrian zones are areas of a city or town reserved for pedestrian-only use and in which most or all automobile traffic may be prohibited. Converting a street or an area to use is called pedestrianisation. However, pedestrianisation can sometimes lead to reductions in business activity, property devaluation, in some cases traffic in surrounding areas may increase, due to displacement rather than substitution of car traffic. Pedestrian zones have a variety of approaches to human-powered vehicles such as bicycles, inline skates, skateboards. Some have a ban on anything with wheels, others ban certain categories, others segregate the human-powered wheels from foot traffic. Many Middle Eastern kasbahs have no wheeled traffic, but use donkey-driven or hand-driven carts for freight transport, the idea of separating pedestrians from wheeled traffic is an old one, dating back at least to the Renaissance. However, the earliest modern implementation of the idea in cities seems to date from about 1800, separated shopping arcades were constructed throughout Europe in the 19th century, precursors of modern shopping malls. The first pedestrianisation of an existing street seems to have taken place around 1929 in Essen and this was in a very narrow shopping street that could not accommodate both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Two other German cities followed this model in the early 1930s, by 1955 twenty-one German cities had closed at least one street to traffic, although only four were true pedestrian streets, designed for the purpose. At this time pedestrianisation was not seen as a traffic restraint policy, pedestrianisation was also common in the United States during the 1950s and 60s as downtown businesses attempted to compete with new suburban shopping malls. However, most of these initiatives were not successful in the long term, a car-free zone is different from a typical pedestrian zone, in that it implies a development largely predicated on modes of transport other than the car. A pedestrian zone may be more limited in scope, for example a single square or street being for pedestrians. A number of towns and cities in Europe have never allowed motor vehicles, archetypal examples are, Venice, which occupies many islands in a lagoon, divided by and accessed from canals. The city has been car-free for more than three decades, motor traffic stops at the car park at the head of the viaduct from the mainland, and water transport or walking takes over from there. However, motor vehicles are allowed on the nearby Lido, mount Athos, an autonomous monastic state under the sovereignty of Greece, does not permit automobiles on its territory. Trucks and work-related vehicles only are in use there, the medieval city of Mdina in Malta does not allow automobiles past the city walls. It is known as the Silent City because of the absence of traffic in the city. Sark, an island in the English Channel, is a zone where only bicycles, carriages
Car-free zone
–
Strøget,
Copenhagen 's pedestrian zone.
Car-free zone
–
Promenade in
Bielsko-Biała,
Poland.
Car-free zone
–
Marktplatz in
Karlsruhe,
Germany, coexistent with a tramline.
Car-free zone
–
Knez Mihailova pedestrian zone at night with New Year decoration in
Belgrade,
Serbia
14.
1987 Summer Universiade
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The 1987 Summer Universiade, also known as the XIV Summer Universiade, took place in Zagreb, SR Croatia, SFR Yugoslavia. It involved participants from 111 countries and over 6,000 individual sportspersons, the city of Zagreb used the event to renovate and revitalize the city. The citys main square was repaved with stone blocks and made part of the pedestrian zone. A part of the Medveščak stream, which had been running under the sewers since 1898, was uncovered by workers and this part formed the Manduševac fountain that was also covered in 1898. The mascot of the 1987 Summer Universiade is a squirrel, named Zagi and it is a resident of Zagrebs parks, amiable and always in a good mood. Its nonchalance and gaiety are but a cover for diligence, always on the move and reaching for the seemingly impossible, the squirrel embodies the dynamism of athletic endeavour. Its origin is shown by the black hat, characteristic of the folk costumes in the region of Zagreb. – drugi ilirski preporod U Beogradu nisu htjeli da Dražen otvori Univerzijadu
1987 Summer Universiade
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Slogan: World of the young for a World of peace!
1987 Summer Universiade
–
Zagi, the XIV Summer Universiade mascot, was created by Croatian animator Nedjeljko Dragić.
15.
Pedestrian zone
–
Pedestrian zones are areas of a city or town reserved for pedestrian-only use and in which most or all automobile traffic may be prohibited. Converting a street or an area to use is called pedestrianisation. However, pedestrianisation can sometimes lead to reductions in business activity, property devaluation, in some cases traffic in surrounding areas may increase, due to displacement rather than substitution of car traffic. Pedestrian zones have a variety of approaches to human-powered vehicles such as bicycles, inline skates, skateboards. Some have a ban on anything with wheels, others ban certain categories, others segregate the human-powered wheels from foot traffic. Many Middle Eastern kasbahs have no wheeled traffic, but use donkey-driven or hand-driven carts for freight transport, the idea of separating pedestrians from wheeled traffic is an old one, dating back at least to the Renaissance. However, the earliest modern implementation of the idea in cities seems to date from about 1800, separated shopping arcades were constructed throughout Europe in the 19th century, precursors of modern shopping malls. The first pedestrianisation of an existing street seems to have taken place around 1929 in Essen and this was in a very narrow shopping street that could not accommodate both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Two other German cities followed this model in the early 1930s, by 1955 twenty-one German cities had closed at least one street to traffic, although only four were true pedestrian streets, designed for the purpose. At this time pedestrianisation was not seen as a traffic restraint policy, pedestrianisation was also common in the United States during the 1950s and 60s as downtown businesses attempted to compete with new suburban shopping malls. However, most of these initiatives were not successful in the long term, a car-free zone is different from a typical pedestrian zone, in that it implies a development largely predicated on modes of transport other than the car. A pedestrian zone may be more limited in scope, for example a single square or street being for pedestrians. A number of towns and cities in Europe have never allowed motor vehicles, archetypal examples are, Venice, which occupies many islands in a lagoon, divided by and accessed from canals. The city has been car-free for more than three decades, motor traffic stops at the car park at the head of the viaduct from the mainland, and water transport or walking takes over from there. However, motor vehicles are allowed on the nearby Lido, mount Athos, an autonomous monastic state under the sovereignty of Greece, does not permit automobiles on its territory. Trucks and work-related vehicles only are in use there, the medieval city of Mdina in Malta does not allow automobiles past the city walls. It is known as the Silent City because of the absence of traffic in the city. Sark, an island in the English Channel, is a zone where only bicycles, carriages
Pedestrian zone
–
Strøget,
Copenhagen 's pedestrian zone.
Pedestrian zone
–
Promenade in
Bielsko-Biała,
Poland.
Pedestrian zone
–
Marktplatz in
Karlsruhe,
Germany, coexistent with a tramline.
Pedestrian zone
–
Knez Mihailova pedestrian zone at night with New Year decoration in
Belgrade,
Serbia
16.
Sanitary sewer
–
A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers are part of a system called sewerage or sewage system. Sewage may be treated to water pollution before discharge to surface waters. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater, separate sanitary sewer systems are designed to transport sewage alone. In municipalities served by sewers, separate storm drains may be constructed to convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. Sanitary sewers are distinguished from combined sewers, which combine sewage with stormwater runoff in the same pipe, sanitary sewer systems are considered beneficial because they avoid combined sewer overflows. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater, the decision between a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on need for sewage treatment and cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built prior to sewage treatment have not replaced those sewer systems, in the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the pipes for inspection and maintenance. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines, pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street, larger cities may have sewers called interceptors receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers. Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production. Commercial and industrial flows are considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers. Pumps may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the treatment plant. A lift station is a gravity sewer sump with a pump to lift accumulated sewage to a higher elevation, the pump may discharge to another gravity sewer at that location or may discharge through a pressurized force main to some distant location. Most of the solids are removed by the tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, because the wastestream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the lands contour
Sanitary sewer
–
PVC Sanitary Sewer Installation. Sanitary sewers are sized to carry the amount of sewage generated by the collection area. Sanitary sewers are much smaller than combined sewers designed to also carry
surface runoff.
Sanitary sewer
–
Schematic of a conventional sanitary sewer to convey
blackwater and
greywater from households to a centralized
sewage treatment facility
Sanitary sewer
–
A
manhole cover for a sanitary sewer access point.
Sanitary sewer
–
View looking down into an open manhole showing two converging sanitary sewer lines. The larger line enters from the right and changes direction within the manhole to exit from the top of the photo. A smaller line enters from the bottom of the photo under the access steps. The concrete floor of the manhole has channels to minimize accumulation of solids.
17.
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
–
Parliamentary elections were held in the Socialist Republic of Croatia between 22 and 23 April 1990, the second round of voting occurred on 6–7 May. These were the first free, multi-party elections held in Croatia since 1938, voters elected candidates for 356 seats in the tri-cameral parliament, the turnout in the first round ranged between 76. 56% and 84. 54% for various parliamentary chambers. In the second round, the turnout was 74. 82%, the Croatian Democratic Union won 205 seats, ousted the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Reform from power and ended 45 years of communist rule in Croatia. The new parliament convened for the first time on 30 May, elected Franjo Tuđman as President of the Croatian Presidency and soon after renamed the office to President of Croatia. The election took place during a crisis in the Balkans, the disintegration of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Though the SKH-SDP was widely expected to win the elections, the HDZ took advantage of questions of nationality and political reform becoming the dominant issues of concern, and won by a wide margin. After the election, SKH-SDP lost a proportion of its membership, many of whom crossed the party lines. The electoral campaign exacerbated ethnic rivalries, and mutually provocative actions led to deep mistrust, fear was further fomented by authorities in the neighbouring Socialist Republic of Serbia. On 10 December 1989, one day before the partys 11th Congress, the body adopted a decision, by a majority of seven to six, that the next election, due to be held in early 1990, would be a free, multiparty election. At the Congress, Ivica Račan, who supported the Central Committees decision, won the position of SKH Chairman by a small margin, Račans victory gave support to liberal and reformist initiatives in the sphere of political administration. The Congress also supported the release of all prisoners and the termination of all political trials. Encouraged by this change in SKH policy, the Croatian Parliament amended legislation to permit the establishment of parties other than the SKH on 11 January 1990. It was based on the SKHs wish to achieve greater power, the SKHs plans for liberalization and reform extended further. All the ZKSs proposals were rejected and the Slovene delegates left in protest, in turn, SKH representatives demanded the Congress be adjourned, but the Serbian and Montenegrin delegates preferred to continue the Congress without the Slovenes. In response, the SKH delegates also left the Congress, effectively marking the end of the SKJ, elections were scheduled for all 356 seats in the tricameral parliament consisting of the Socio-Political Council, the Council of Associated Labour and the Council of Municipalities. The electoral legislation established constituencies for each chamber, whose sizes varied greatly. The eighty Socio-Political Council constituencies encompassed many small municipalities or parts of large ones, Council of Municipalities constituencies corresponded to municipalities with greater population variations of fewer than 1,000 to more than 150,000. The Associated Labour Council members were to be elected in 160 constituencies whose populations also varied greatly, there was no universal suffrage for the Associated Labour Council elections, voting was restricted to the employed, the self-employed and students
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
–
All 80 seats to the Social-Political Council All 116 seats to the Council of Municipalities All 160 seats to the Council of Associated Labour
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
–
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
Croatian parliamentary election, 1990
18.
Tram
–
A tram is a rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets, and also sometimes on a segregated right of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcars are called tramways, Tramways powered by electricity, the most common type historically, were once called electric street railways. However, trams were used in urban areas before the universal adoption of electrification. Tram lines may run between cities and/or towns, and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities. Very occasionally, trams also carry freight, Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter than conventional trains and rapid transit trains, but the size of trams is rapidly increasing. Some trams may also run on railway tracks, a tramway may be upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line. For all these reasons, the differences between the modes of rail transportation are often indistinct. In the United States, the tram has sometimes been used for rubber-tired trackless trains. Today, most trams use electrical power, usually fed by a pantograph, in some cases by a sliding shoe on a third rail. If necessary, they may have dual power systems — electricity in city streets, trams are now included in the wider term light rail, which also includes segregated systems. The English terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram, referring respectively to a type of truck used in coal mines and the tracks on which they ran. The word tram probably derived from Middle Flemish trame, a Romanesque word meaning the beam or shaft of a barrow or sledge, the identical word la trame with the meaning crossbeam is also used in the French language. The word Tram-car is attested from 1873, although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they are not used universally in English, North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar. The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars, when electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later, trolleys. The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was replaced by other more reliable devices. The terms trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller, Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage to connect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether. Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US, the term may also apply to an aerial ropeway, e. g. the Roosevelt Island Tramway. Over time, the trolley has fallen into informal use
Tram
–
Trams in Vienna, one of the largest existing networks in the world
Tram
–
The
Welsh Swansea and Mumbles Railway ran the world's first passenger tram service
Tram
–
Steam hauled tram in
Italy c 1890s
Tram
–
A
San Francisco cable car: a cable pulled system, still operating as of 2015 [update]
19.
ZET
–
The Zagrebački električni tramvaj is the major transit authority responsible for public transport in Zagreb, the capital of Croatia, and parts of the surrounding Zagreb County. It is one of the companies controlled by Zagreb Holding. ZET operates a bus system,19 tram lines, a gondola lift. Historically, ZET workshops also produced trams, the first tram line was opened on September 5,1891, setting off a vital part of the Zagreb mass transit system. Zagreb today features an extensive tram network with 15 day and 4 night lines running over 117 km of tracks through 255 stations, during the day every line runs on average every 5–10 minutes, but almost every station serves at least two routes. Nighttime lines have exact timetables averaging at about every 40 minutes, daytime lines also have timetables, but they dont usually abide to them due to traffic fluctuations that can prolong a trip by more than 30 minutes, leading to frequent gaps at and after rush hour. It currently includes around 240 motor units of 6 different tram types, on a normal work day there are over 193 units used in traffic. ZET currently runs 134 bus lines, providing not only to the city of Zagreb. Bus service frequencies vary depending on the number of passengers on a certain line- some bus lines have 5 minute intervals, others 15, or even 50-minute intervals, timetables are given only for the first and the last stops, although putting timetables on every stop is in process. Buses generally serve as feeders for tram system, current stock is around 300 units, and it consists of MAN, Mercedes-Benz and Irisbus-Iveco buses. Buses are mostly low-floor, with buses in use only on suburban-regional routes. In June,2007 ZET started using biodiesel in 11 busses, ZET is planning to use biodiesel and CNG50, 50% in their buses in early future. Urban bus system consists of 78 routes, 101-110, 112-116, 118-143,146,150, 201-210, 212-234, 236-238, although routes 112,132,208,209, City buses and trams are entirely in the 1st tariff zone. The network is expanding, and new routes to neighborhoods Donje Svetice, Podbrežje. Out of 56 suburban routes,23 of them run in the City of Zagreb administrative area, numbers 159-164,166,168, 261-263, 269-280. Since tariff system change put in service on January 1,2006 and these 35 lines go to following areas in Zagreb County, cities Velika Gorica and Zaprešić and municipalities of Luka, Bistra, Jakovlje, Klinča Sela and Stupnik. The longest route is the 35-km route 311, though most of suburban routes are about 20 km long, see also, List of bus lines The only funicular in Zagreb is operated by ZET, connecting the Tomićeva Street with Strossmayerovo Promenade to the north. The funicular was built in 1890 and has been in operation since April 23,1893 and it has two cars for 28 passengers each
ZET
–
TMK 2200
ZET
–
Zagrebački električni tramvaj
ZET
–
Modern ZET tram and bus
ZET
–
MAN NG 313 in Špansko
20.
Classicism
–
Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate. Classicism is a genre of philosophy, expressing itself in literature, architecture, art, and music, which has Ancient Greek and Roman sources. It was particularly expressed in the Neoclassicism of the Age of Enlightenment, Classicism is a recurrent tendency in the Late Antique period, and had a major revival in Carolingian and Ottonian art. Until that time the identification with antiquity had been seen as a history of Christendom from the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Renaissance classicism introduced a host of elements into European culture, including the application of mathematics and empiricism into art, humanism, literary and depictive realism, importantly it also introduced Polytheism, or paganism, and the juxtaposition of ancient and modern. The classicism of the Renaissance led to, and gave way to and this period sought the revival of classical art forms, including Greek drama and music. Opera, in its modern European form, had its roots in attempts to recreate the combination of singing and dancing with theatre thought to be the Greek norm, examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals, studying Ancient Greek became regarded as essential for a well-rounded education in the liberal arts. They also began reviving plastic arts such as bronze casting for sculpture, for example, the painting of Jacques-Louis David which was seen as an attempt to return to formal balance, clarity, manliness, and vigor in art. Various movements of the period saw themselves as classical revolts against a prevailing trend of emotionalism and irregularity. The 20th century saw a number of changes in the arts, thus, both pre-20th century disciplines were labelled classical and modern movements in art which saw themselves as aligned with light, space, sparseness of texture, and formal coherence. Examples of classicist playwrights are Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Moliere, the influence of these French rules on playwrights in other nations is debatable. In the English theatre, Restoration playwrights such as William Wycherly and those of Shakespeares plays that seem to display the unities, such as The Tempest, probably indicate a familiarity with actual models from classical antiquity. Classicism in architecture developed during the Italian Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of Leon Battista Alberti and this style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France, Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped codify the classical orders, building off of these influences, the 17th-century architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren firmly established classicism in England. For the development of classicism from the mid-18th-century onwards, see Neoclassical architecture, for Greek art of the 5th century B. C. E. See Classical art in ancient Greece and the Severe style Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are marked by their renewal of classical forms, motifs and subjects. In the 15th century Leon Battista Alberti was important in theorizing many of the ideas for painting that came to a fully realised product with Raphaels School of Athens during the High Renaissance
Classicism
–
Fountain of the Four Rivers,
Bernini, 1651.
Classicism
–
Classicist door in
Olomouc, The
Czech Republic.
Classicism
–
Molière in classical dress, by
Nicolas Mignard, 1658.
Classicism
–
Villa Rotonda,
Palladio, 1591
21.
Vienna Secession
–
The Vienna Secession was an art movement formed in 1897 by a group of Austrian artists who had resigned from the Association of Austrian Artists, housed in the Vienna Künstlerhaus. This movement included painters, sculptors, and architects, the first president of the Secession was Gustav Klimt, and Rudolf von Alt was made honorary president. Its official magazine was called Ver Sacrum, the Vienna Secession was founded on 3 April 1897 by artists Gustav Klimt, Koloman Moser, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, Max Kurzweil, Wilhelm Bernatzik and others. Although Otto Wagner is widely recognised as an important member of the Vienna Secession he was not a founding member, the Secession artists objected to the prevailing conservatism of the Vienna Künstlerhaus with its traditional orientation toward Historicism. The Berlin and Munich Secession movements preceded the Vienna Secession, which held its first exhibition in 1898, the group earned considerable credit for its exhibition policy, which made the French Impressionists somewhat familiar to the Viennese public. The 14th Secession exhibition, designed by Josef Hoffmann and dedicated to Ludwig van Beethoven, was especially famous, a statue of Beethoven by Max Klinger stood at the center, with Klimts Beethoven frieze mounted around it. The Klimt frieze has been restored and can be seen in the gallery today, in 1903, Hoffmann and Moser founded the Wiener Werkstätte as a fine-arts society with the goal of reforming the applied arts. On 14 June 1905 Gustav Klimt and other artists seceded from the Vienna Secession due to differences of opinion over artistic concepts, unlike other movements, there is not one style that unites the work of all artists who were part of the Vienna Secession. The Secession building could be considered the icon of the movement, above its entrance was placed the phrase Der Zeit ihre Kunst. Secession artists were concerned, above all else, with exploring the possibilities of art outside the confines of academic tradition and they hoped to create a new style that owed nothing to historical influence. In this way they were much in keeping with the iconoclastic spirit of turn-of-the-century Vienna. The Secessionist style was exhibited in a magazine that the group produced, called Ver Sacrum, along with painters and sculptors, there were several prominent architects who became associated with the Vienna Secession. During this time, architects focused on bringing purer geometric forms into the designs of their buildings, even though they had their own type of design, the inspiration came from neoclassical architecture, with the addition of leaves and natural motifs. The three main architects of this movement were Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, and Otto Wagner, in 1898, the groups exhibition house was built in the vicinity of Karlsplatz. Designed by Joseph Maria Olbrich, the building soon became known simply as the Secession. The secession building displayed art from other influential artists such as Max Klinger, Eugène Grasset, Charles Rennie Mackintosh. Otto Wagners Majolika Haus in Vienna is a significant example of the Austrian use of line, other significant works of Otto Wagner include The Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station in Vienna, and Austrian Postal Savings Bank in Vienna. Wagners way of modifying Art Nouveau decoration in a classical manner did not find favour with some of his pupils who broke away to form the Secessionists, one was Josef Hoffmann who left to form the Wiener Werkstätte
Vienna Secession
–
The
secession building at Vienna, built in 1897 by
Joseph Maria Olbrich for exhibitions of the secession group
Vienna Secession
–
Jugendstil owls - Detail of the facade of the Viennese Secession Building. These designs for the building’s facade decoration are attributed to
Koloman Moser.
Vienna Secession
–
The
Beethovenfries, created by
Gustav Klimt, is housed in the lower floor.
Vienna Secession
–
The Secession coin
22.
Modernism
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
Modernism
Modernism
–
Eugène Delacroix 's
Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a
Romantic work of art
Modernism
–
A
Realist portrait of
Otto von Bismarck
Modernism
–
Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper,
The Art Institute of Chicago
23.
Neboder
–
1 Ilica Street is a building located in Ilica Street overlooking Ban Jelačić Square in the Lower Town area of Zagreb, Croatia. In Croatian, the building is known under the generic title Neboder as it was the first business skyscraper in the country. It was the tallest building in Yugoslavia at the time of its completion, the principal investors were Končar and Ferimport, two large state-owned companies. On 29 November 1970, political activists Zvonko and Julienne Bušić used the observation deck to throw leaflets advocating Croatian independence, frankopan had plans for a large scale reconstruction of the building, but the initial concept, was rejected by the citys institute for the protection of cultural heritage. The project was delayed for four years until a revised renovation plan was finally approved by city authorities in December 2005. Following the approval, renovation was finally launched in 2006 and was finished in early 2008, the most significant change in the exterior was the replacement of the originally clear windows with dark gray glass. The building currently has 5,600 m2 of office space, and it was reopened in 2013 as Zagreb Eye. History of the building at the City of Zagreb official website
Neboder
–
1 Ilica Street
24.
Operation Storm
–
Operation Storm was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War. The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain, the operation itself followed an unsuccessful United Nations peacekeeping mission and diplomatic efforts to settle the conflict. The HVs success was a result of a series of improvements to the armies themselves, and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were exploited by the HV. The attack was not immediately successful at all points, but seizing key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure, the HV capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm, and the special polices advance to Gračac, made it nearly impossible to defend Knin. The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja, after a defence, defeated the ARSK Banija Corps as well. The RSK relied on the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav militaries as its strategic reserve, the HV and the special police suffered 174–211 killed or missing, while the ARSK had 560 soldiers killed. Four UN peacekeepers were also killed, the HV captured 4,000 prisoners of war. The number of Serb civilian deaths is disputed—Croatia claims that 214 were killed, in 2010, Serbia sued Croatia before the International Court of Justice, claiming that the offensive was an example of genocide. As of November 2012, the Croatian judiciary has convicted 2,380 persons for various crimes committed during Operation Storm, in 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened. The areas were named the Republic of Serbian Krajina and, after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia. The conflict escalated by March 1991, resulting in the Croatian War of Independence, in June 1991, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated. A three-month moratorium on Croatias and the RSKs declarations followed, after which the decision came into effect on 8 October, the RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians and most non-Serbs were expelled by early 1993. By November 1993, less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations-protected area known as Sector South, as the Yugoslav Peoples Army increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation, the Croatian National Guard was formed in May 1991. The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army in November, the establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September. The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war, culminating in the Battle of the Barracks, the Siege of Dubrovnik, and the Battle of Vukovar. In January 1992, an agreement to implement the Vance plan designed to stop the fighting was made by representatives of Croatia, the JNA, ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires, the United Nations Protection Force was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement. A stalemate developed as the conflict evolved into trench warfare, and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia continued to support the RSK, but a series of HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control as the siege of Dubrovnik ended, and Operation Maslenica resulted in minor tactical gains
Operation Storm
–
Map of Operation Storm Forces: Croatia RSK Bosnia and Herzegovina
Operation Storm
–
Croatian Brigadier General
Krešimir Ćosić and US Army Lieutenant General
Wesley Clark discussing the
Siege of Bihać on 29 November 1994
Operation Storm
–
Order of the
RSK Supreme Defence Council to evacuate civilians from the
Knin area
Operation Storm
–
Tuđman and
Šušak visiting
Knin Fortress on 6 August. Officers in the photo include Lieutenant General
Gotovina and
Brigadiers Ivan Korade and Damir Krstičević (commanders of the 7th and 4th Guards Brigades) on Tuđman's right, and Brigadiers
Rahim Ademi and
Ante Kotromanović on Šušak's left.
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
26.
Croatian Radiotelevision
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Croatian Radiotelevision is a Croatian public broadcasting company. It operates several radio and television channels, over a domestic transmitter network as well as satellite, Croatian Radiotelevision has three organizational units, three sister companies - the Croatian Radio, the Croatian Television and Music Production. Croatian Radiotelevision is the successor of the Radio station Zagreb that started broadcasting on 15 May 1926 under its first director and co-founder. During the first 14 years of its existence the Zagreb Radio station was owned by a private corporation, Radio Zagreb was nationalized on 1 May 1940. During the Independent State of Croatia, the station was known as Hrvatski krugoval, after World War II it began to operate as a state-owned radio station. Zagreb Radio station was the first public broadcasting facility in the southeast European area, at the end of the first year of operation, Radio Zagreb company had a little over four thousand subscribers. On the 30th anniversary of the establishment of Zagreb Radio station, on 15 May 1956, for the next two years this was the only TV broadcasting service in the southeast European area. This was the first TV station in Yugoslavia and would become a color station in 1972. In June 1990, the Croatian Parliament renamed the company from Radiotelevizija Zagreb to Hrvatska radiotelevizija, on 1 January 1993, HRT was admitted as a full active member of the European Broadcasting Union. The television channels were aired under the name Croatian Television, Hrvatska televizija between 1990 and 1993, since then, the current name is used. The radio broadcast unit is referred to as Croatian Radio, Hrvatski radio, HRT1 - HRTs first TV channel, previously known as TVZ1. This is a generalist channel with daily news around the world, documentaries, HRT2 - HRTs second channel, previously known as TVZ2. It is primarily used for broadcasts and entertainment programmes. The channel is known for its footage of vintage films. HRT3 - HRTs third channel, primarily used for culture, films and it was popular during the late 90s, and taken off-air in 2004. It returned to air in September 2012, HRT4 - HRTs fourth channel, broadcasting news programmes, started airing in December 2012. In the 1980s there was a channel called Z3 and later HTV Z3. It was taken off air on 16 September 1991 when its main transmitter, on 7 November 1994 the channel came back on air, this time called HRT3
Croatian Radiotelevision
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Croatian Radiotelevision Hrvatska radiotelevizija
Croatian Radiotelevision
Croatian Radiotelevision
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Croatian Radiotelevision headquarters at Prisavlje,
Zagreb
Croatian Radiotelevision
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Dnevnik is one of HRT's popular news-programs.
27.
Zagreb
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Zagreb is the capital and the largest city of Croatia. It is located in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately 122 m above sea level. In the last official census of 2011 the population of the City of Zagreb was 792,875, the wider Zagreb metropolitan area includes the City of Zagreb and the separate Zagreb County bringing the total metropolitan area population up to 1,237,887. It is the biggest metropolitan area in Croatia, and the one with a population of over one million. Zagreb is a city with a history dating from the Roman times to the present day. The oldest settlement located in the vicinity of the city was the Roman Andautonia, the name Zagreb is recorded in 1134, in reference to the foundation of the settlement at Kaptol in 1094. Zagreb became a royal town in 1242. In 1851 Zagreb had its first mayor, Janko Kamauf, and in 1945 it was made the capital of Croatia when the demographic boom, the city extends over 30 kilometres east-west and around 20 kilometres north-south. The transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific, and research institutions, Zagreb is the seat of the central government, administrative bodies, and almost all government ministries. Almost all of the largest Croatian companies, media, and scientific institutions have their headquarters in the city and it is a city known for its diverse economy, high quality of living, museums, sporting, and entertainment events. Its main branches of economy are high-tech industries and the service sector, the etymology of the name Zagreb is unclear. It was used of the city only from 1852, but it had been in use as the name of the Zagreb dioecese since the 12th century. The name is first recorded in a charter by Ostrogon archbishop Felician, dated 1134, the older form of the name is Zagrab, the modern Croatian form Zagreb is first recorded in a 1689 map by Nicolas Sanson. An even older form is reflected in Hungarian Zabrag, for this, Desy proposes the etymology of Chabrag, a well-attested hypocorism of the name Cyprian. The same form is reflected in a number of Hungarian toponyms, the name Agram was used in German in the Habsburg period, this name has been classified as probably of Roman origin but according to Desy it could be an Austrian German reanalysis of *Zugram. In Middle Latin and Modern Latin, Zagreb is known as Agranum, in Croatian folk etymology, the name of the city has been derived from either the verb za-grab-, meaning to scoop or to dig. One folk legend illustrating this derivation ties the name to a drought of the early 14th century, in another legend, a city governor is thirsty and orders a girl named Manda to scoop water from Manduševac well, using the imperative, zagrabi, Mando. The oldest settlement located near todays Zagreb was a Roman town of Andautonia, now Šćitarjevo, Gradec and Kaptol were united in 1851 by ban Josip Jelačić, who was credited for this, with the naming the main city square, Ban Jelačić Square in his honour
Zagreb
Zagreb
Zagreb
Zagreb
28.
History of Zagreb
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The history of Zagreb, the capital and largest city of Croatia, dates back to the Middle Ages. The Romans had built a settlement, Andautonia, in present-day Ščitarjevo, the name Zagreb was first used in 1094 at the founding of the Zagreb diocese in Kaptol, after the Slavs had arrived in the area. Zagreb became a royal city in 1242. It was made the capital of Croatia in 1845 and elected its first mayor, Janko Kamauf, according to the 2001 Croatian census, Zagreb had 779,145 inhabitants and was also Croatias largest city in area. Old Zagreb was popularized by Gjuro Szabo, an admirer of Zagreb antiquities who advocated their conservation, the citys recorded history indicates a continuity of urban settlement beginning in the 13th century. Old Zagreb consisted of two settlements on neighboring hills - Gradec and Kaptol - and the houses in the valley between them along the former Medveščak creek and it includes settlements at the beginning of Vlaška Street III, beneath the diocesan seat. The Kaptol settlement was a rectangle, with Bakačeva Street on the south. Kaptol derives its name from capitulum, the Latin word for the group of Canons Regular who ruled the settlement, Kaptol Street ran north-south across the Kaptol terrace, with the canons residences in rows along it. Kaptol was documented in 1094, when Ladislaus I of Hungary founded the Zagreb diocese, the bishops residence and the cathedral were in the southeastern portion of the Kaptol hill. Vlaška Ves, near the cathedral, was first mentioned in 1198, in 1334, the canons of Zagreb established a colony of serfs near their residences north of Kaptol. This was the beginning of a settlement along the present-day Nova Ves street, the cathedral was consecrated in 1217, and restored and rebuilt in 1263 after it was damaged by Mongol raids in 1242. That century, two Gothic churches were built in Kaptol, St. Francis, with its Franciscan monastery, both underwent reconstruction during the 17th and the 18th centuries. Kaptol originally had no fortifications, it was enclosed with a palisade. Its defensive walls and towers were built between 1469 and 1473, prislin Tower, near the Kaptol School, is one of the best-preserved fortifications of the era. In 1493, the Turks were defeated at Sisak, in preparation for a Turkish invasion, the bishop of Zagreb had fortifications built around the cathedral and his residence. The defensive towers and walls built between 1512 and 1520 still stand, except those facing the front of the cathedral in Kaptol Square. In the neighborhood of Opatovina small houses still stand, but in the neighborhood of Dolac a number of small, the other part of Old Zagreb is Gradec, on the Gornji Grad hill. It was given a charter by Béla IV of Hungary in 1242
History of Zagreb
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St. Mark's Church
History of Zagreb
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Old
Ban Jelačić Square
History of Zagreb
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Modern
Zagreb at night
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Media related to Jelačić Square (Zagreb) at Wikimedia Commons
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