1.
Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
2.
Atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
3.
Surface weather analysis
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Surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations. The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems, use of surface analyses began first in the United States, spreading worldwide during the 1870s. Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe, surface weather analyses have special symbols that show frontal systems, cloud cover, precipitation, or other important information. For example, an H may represent high pressure, implying clear skies, an L, on the other hand, may represent low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation. Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location. The use of charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century in order to devise a theory on storm systems. The development of a network by 1845 made it possible to gather weather information from multiple distant locations quickly enough to preserve its value for real-time applications. The Smithsonian Institution developed its network of observers over much of the central, the U. S. Army Signal Corps inherited this network between 1870 and 1874 by an act of Congress, and expanded it to the west coast soon afterwards. The weather data was at first less useful as a result of the different times at which weather observations were made, the first attempts at time standardization took hold in Great Britain by 1855. The entire United States did not finally come under the influence of time zones until 1905, other countries followed the lead of the United States in taking simultaneous weather observations, starting in 1873. Other countries then began preparing surface analyses, the use of frontal zones on weather maps did not appear until the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model in the late 1910s, despite Loomis earlier attempt at a similar notion in 1841. Since the leading edge of air mass changes bore resemblance to the fronts of World War I. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969, hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987. In the United States, this development was achieved when Intergraph workstations were replaced by n-AWIPS workstations, recent advances in both the fields of meteorology and geographic information systems have made it possible to devise finely tailored weather maps. Weather information can quickly be matched to relevant geographical detail, for instance, icing conditions can be mapped onto the road network. This will likely continue to lead to changes in the way surface analyses are created and displayed over the several years. The pressureNET project is an attempt to gather surface pressure data using smartphones. When analyzing a weather map, a model is plotted at each point of observation
4.
Trough (meteorology)
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A trough is an elongated region of relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated with fronts. Unlike fronts, there is not a symbol for a trough on a weather chart. The weather charts in countries or regions mark troughs by a line. In the United States, a trough may be marked as a dashed line. In the UK, Hong Kong and Fiji, it is represented by a line extended from a low pressure center or between two low pressure centers, in Macau and Australia, it is a dashed line. If they are not marked, troughs may still be identified as an extension of isobars away from a low pressure center, sometimes the region between two high pressure centers may assume the character of a trough when there is a detectable wind shift noted at the surface. In the absence of a shift, the region is designated a col. If a trough forms in the mid-latitudes, a difference between two sides of the trough usually exists in the form of a weather front. A weather front is less convective than a trough in the tropics or subtropics. Sometimes collapsed frontal systems will degenerate into troughs, convective cells may develop in the vicinity of troughs and give birth to a tropical cyclone. Some tropical or subtropical regions such as the Philippines or south China are greatly affected by convection cells along a trough, in the mid-latitude westerlies, troughs and ridges often alternate, especially when upper-level winds are in a high-amplitude pattern. Tropical waves are a type of trough in easterly currents, a cyclonic northward deflection of the trade winds, troughs may be at the surface, or aloft, or both under various conditions. Most troughs bring clouds, showers, and a wind shift and this results from convergence or squeezing which forces lifting of moist air behind the trough line. In addition to standard troughs, some may be described further with a term indicating a specific or a set of characteristics. An inverted trough is a trough which is oriented opposite to most troughs of the mid-latitudes. Most inverted troughs are tropical waves, the situation is opposite in the Southern Hemisphere. Inverted troughs in both hemispheres move to the west from the east, while mid-latitude troughs generally move with the westerlies toward the east
5.
Altimeter
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An altimeter or an altitude meter is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level. The measurement of altitude is called altimetry, which is related to the term bathymetry, altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The greater the altitude, the lower the pressure, when a barometer is supplied with a nonlinear calibration so as to indicate altitude, the instrument is called a pressure altimeter or barometric altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most aircraft, hikers and mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition to other navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS receiver. The calibration of an altimeter follows the equation z = c T log , where c is a constant, T is the temperature, P is the pressure at altitude z. The constant c depends on the acceleration of gravity and the mass of the air. A barometric altimeter, used along with a map, can help to verify ones location. An altimeter is the most important piece of skydiving equipment, after the parachute itself, altitude awareness is crucial at all times during the jump, and determines the appropriate response to maintain safety. This is the most basic and common type, and is used by all student skydivers. The common design has a face marked from 0 to 4000m, the face plate sports sections prominently marked with yellow and red respectively, signifying the recommended deployment altitude, as well as emergency procedure decision altitude. Some advanced electronic altimeters are also available which use of the familiar analogue display. Digital visual altimeters, mounted on the wrist or hand and this type always operates electronically, and conveys the altitude as a number, rather than a pointer on a dial. An electronic altimeter is turned on on the ground before jump, if the intended landing zone is at a different elevation than the takeoff point, the user needs to input the appropriate offset by using a designated function. These are inserted into ones helmet, and emit a warning tone at a predefined altitude, audibles are strictly auxiliary devices, and do not replace, but complement a visual altimeter which remains the primary tool for maintaining altitude awareness. Audibles are not recommended and often banned from use by student skydivers and these do not show the precise altitude, but rather help maintain a general indicator in ones peripheral vision. The exact choice of altimeters depends heavily on the individual preferences, experience level, primary disciplines. On one end of the spectrum, a demonstration jump with water landing and no free fall might waive the mandated use of altimeters. Another skydiver doing similar types of jumps might wear a digital altimeter for their primary visual one, in aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft
6.
Altitude
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Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used. As a general definition, altitude is a measurement, usually in the vertical or up direction. The reference datum also often varies according to the context, although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the direction are commonly referred to as depth. In aviation, the altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used, aviation altitude is measured using either mean sea level or local ground level as the reference datum. When flying at a level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure. On the flight deck, the instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure altimeter. There are several types of altitude, Indicated altitude is the reading on the altimeter when it is set to the local barometric pressure at mean sea level. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage, the distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean sea level. Absolute altitude is the height of the aircraft above the terrain over which it is flying and it can be measured using a radar altimeter. Also referred to as radar height or feet/metres above ground level, true altitude is the actual elevation above mean sea level. It is indicated altitude corrected for temperature and pressure. Height is the elevation above a reference point, commonly the terrain elevation. Pressure altitude is used to indicate flight level which is the standard for reporting in the U. S. in Class A airspace. Pressure altitude and indicated altitude are the same when the setting is 29.92 Hg or 1013.25 millibars. Density altitude is the altitude corrected for non-ISA International Standard Atmosphere atmospheric conditions, aircraft performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day, density altitude at an airport may be so high as to preclude takeoff and these types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude, Indicated altitude – the altitude shown on the altimeter
7.
Ship
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Historically, a ship was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit. Ships are generally distinguished from boats, based on size, shape, Ships have been important contributors to human migration and commerce. They have supported the spread of colonization and the trade, but have also served scientific, cultural. After the 16th century, new crops that had come from, Ship transport is responsible for the largest portion of world commerce. As of 2016, there were more than 49,000 merchant ships, of these 28% were oil tankers, 43% were bulk carriers, and 13% were container ships. Military forces operate vessels for naval warfare and to transport and support forces ashore, the top 50 navies had a median fleet of 88 surface vessels each, according to various sources. There is no definition of what distinguishes a ship from a boat. Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ability to operate independently for extended periods. A legal definition of ship from Indian case law is a vessel that carries goods by sea, a common notion is that a ship can carry a boat, but not vice versa. American and British 19th Century maritime law distinguished vessels from other craft, ships and boats fall in one legal category, a number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Other types of vessel which are traditionally called boats are Great Lakes freighters, riverboats. Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, in most maritime traditions ships have individual names, and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago, the first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat and this allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull and they used woven straps to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Sneferus ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name, the ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their skills was the Khufu ship. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece, a panel found at Mohenjodaro depicted a sailing craft
8.
Evangelista Torricelli
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Evangelista Torricelli was born on 15 October 1608 in Rome, he invented the barometer in Florence, Italy. The firstborn child of Gaspare Ruberti and Giacoma Torricelli and his family was from Faenza in the Province of Ravenna, then part of the Papal States. His father was a worker and the family was very poor. Seeing his talents, his parents sent him to be educated in Faenza, under the care of his uncle, Jacobo, a Camaldolese monk, who first ensured that his nephew was given a sound basic education. He then entered young Torricelli into a Jesuit College in 1624, possibly the one in Faenza itself, to mathematics and philosophy until 1626, by which time his father. The uncle then sent Torricelli to Rome to study science under the Benedictine monk Benedetto Castelli, Castelli was a student of Galileo Galilei. Benedetto Castelli made experiments on running water, and he was entrusted by Pope Urban VIII with hydraulic undertakings, there is no actual evidence that Torricelli was enrolled at the university. It is almost certain that Torricelli was taught by Castelli, in exchange he worked for him as his secretary from 1626 to 1632 as a private arrangement. Because of this, Torricelli was exposed to experiments funded by Pope Urban VIII, while living in Rome, Torricelli became also the student of the brilliant mathematician, Bonaventura Cavalieri, with whom he became great friends. It was in Rome that Torricelli also became friends with two students of Castelli, Raffaello Magiotti and Antonio Nardi. Galileo referred to Torricelli, Magiotti, and Nardi affectionately as his triumvirate in Rome, although Galileo promptly invited Torricelli to visit, he did not accept until just three months before Galileos death. The reason for this was that Torricellis mother, Caterina Angetti died, after Galileos death on 8 January 1642, Grand Duke Ferdinando II de Medici asked him to succeed Galileo as the grand-ducal mathematician and chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa. Right before the appointment, Torricelli was considering returning to Rome because of there being nothing left for him in Florence, in this role he solved some of the great mathematical problems of the day, such as finding a cycloids area and center of gravity. As a result of study, he wrote the book the Opera Geometrica in which he described his observations. The book was published in 1644 and he was interested in Optics, and invented a method whereby microscopic lenses might be made of glass which could be easily melted in a lamp. As a result, he designed and built a number of telescopes and simple microscopes, several large lenses, on 11 June 1644, he famously wrote in a letter to Michelangelo Ricci, Noi viviamo sommersi nel fondo dun pelago daria. Torricelli died in Florence on 25 October 1647,10 days after his 39th birthday and he left all his belongings to his adopted son Alessandro. This early work owes much to the study of the classics, in Faenza, a statue of Torricelli was created in 1868 as a thank you for all that Torricelli had done in advancing science during his short lifetime
9.
Gasparo Berti
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Gasparo Berti was an Italian mathematician, astronomer and physicist. He was probably born in Mantua and spent most of his life in Rome and he is most famous today for his experiment in which he unknowingly created the first working barometer. Though he was best known for his work in mathematics and physics, in 1630, Giovanni Battista Baliani sent a letter to Galileo Galilei after he noticed that his siphon could not raise water more than about 10 m. Galileo proposed that a vacuum held the water up and that it could not hold any more, at the time the existence of vacuums was controversial. Upon reading Galileos theory in his Discorsi, Berti and another man named Raffaele Magiotti devised an experiment to test the existence of a vacuum, some time between 1640 and 1643, Berti built an 11 m lead tube, filled it with water, and sealed both ends. He submerged one end in water and unsealed it, though some of the water flowed out, much of it remained, filling about 10 m of the tube, the same height of Balianis syphon. Berti claimed that the space above was filled with a vacuum and his claim was strongly contested, and multiple experiments were performed attempting to disprove the existence of a vacuum. This experiment led to Evangelista Torricellis research into the weight of air, Berti held a chair of mathematics at the University of Rome La Sapienza. He was to succeed Benedetto Castelli as professor of mathematics there and he also mapped the Roman catacombs
10.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
11.
Siphon
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The word siphon \sy-fun\ is used to refer to a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. There are two leading theories about how siphons cause liquid to flow uphill, against gravity, without being pumped, the traditional theory for centuries was that gravity pulling the liquid down on the exit side of the siphon, resulted in reduced pressure at the top of the siphon. Then atmospheric pressure was able to push the liquid from the reservoir, up into the reduced pressure at the top of the siphon, like in a barometer or drinking straw. However, it has demonstrated that siphons can operate in a vacuum. Consequently, the cohesion tension theory of operation has been advocated. It need not be one theory or the other that is correct, the atmospheric pressure with gravity theory obviously cannot explain siphons in vacuum, where there is no significant atmospheric pressure. All known published theories in modern times recognize Bernoullis equation as a decent approximation to idealized, egyptian reliefs from 1500 BC depict siphons used to extract liquids from large storage jars. There is physical evidence for the use of siphons by Greek engineers in the 3rd century BC at Pergamon, hero of Alexandria wrote extensively about siphons in the treatise Pneumatica. In the 9th century, the Banu Musa brothers invented a double-concentric siphon, the edition edited by Hill includes an analysis of the double-concentric siphon. A practical siphon, operating at atmospheric pressures and tube heights. The chain model is a useful but not completely accurate model of a siphon. The chain model helps to understand how a siphon can cause liquid to flow uphill, a siphon can sometimes be thought of a little like a chain hanging over a pulley, with one end of the chain piled on a higher surface than the other. Since the length of chain on the side is lighter than the length of chain on the taller side. There are a number of problems with the model of a siphon. First, unlike in the model of the siphon, it is not actually the weight on the taller side compared to the shorter side. Rather it is the difference in height from the surfaces to the top of the siphon. An occasional misunderstanding of siphons is that they rely on the strength of the liquid to pull the liquid up. When the plug is removed and the liquid in the lower leg is allowed to fall
12.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
13.
Athanasius Kircher
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Athanasius Kircher, S. J. was a German Jesuit scholar and polymath who published around 40 major works, most notably in the fields of comparative religion, geology, and medicine. Kircher has been compared to fellow Jesuit Roger Boscovich and to Leonardo da Vinci for his enormous range of interests and he taught for more than forty years at the Roman College, where he set up a wunderkammer. A resurgence of interest in Kircher has occurred within the community in recent decades. Kircher claimed to have deciphered the writing of the ancient Egyptian language. He did, however, correctly establish the link between the ancient Egyptian and the Coptic languages, and some regard him as the founder of Egyptology. Kirchers work in geology included studies of volcanoes and fossils, Kircher also displayed a keen interest in technology and mechanical inventions, inventions attributed to him include a magnetic clock, various automatons and the first megaphone. The invention of the lantern is often misattributed to Kircher. A scientific star in his day, towards the end of his life he was eclipsed by the rationalism of René Descartes, in the late 20th century, however, the aesthetic qualities of his work again began to be appreciated. One modern scholar, Alan Cutler, described Kircher as a giant among seventeenth-century scholars, another scholar, Edward W. Schmidt, referred to Kircher as the last Renaissance man. Kircher was born on 2 May in either 1601 or 1602 in Geisa, Buchonia, near Fulda, currently Hesse, from his birthplace he took the epithets Bucho, Buchonius and Fuldensis which he sometimes added to his name. He attended the Jesuit College in Fulda from 1614 to 1618, the youngest of nine children, Kircher studied volcanoes owing to his passion for rocks and eruptions. He was taught Hebrew by a rabbi in addition to his studies at school and he studied philosophy and theology at Paderborn, but fled to Cologne in 1622 to escape advancing Protestant forces. On the journey, he escaped death after falling through the ice crossing the frozen Rhine — one of several occasions on which his life was endangered. Later, traveling to Heiligenstadt, he was caught and nearly hanged by a party of Protestant soldiers, from 1622 to 1624 Kircher was sent to begin his regency period in Koblenz as a teacher. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1628 and became professor of ethics and mathematics at the University of Würzburg, beginning in 1628, he also began to show an interest in Egyptian hieroglyphs. In 1631, while still at Würzburg, Kircher allegedly had a vision of a bright light. This was the year that Kircher published his first book, in 1633 he was called to Vienna by the emperor to succeed Kepler as Mathematician to the Habsburg court. On the intervention of Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, the order was rescinded and he was sent instead to Rome to continue with his scholarly work, on the way, his ship was blown off course and he arrived in Rome before he knew of the changed decision
14.
Michelangelo Ricci
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Michelangelo Ricci was an Italian mathematician and a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. Michelangelo Ricci was born on 30 January 1619 in Rome, then capital of the Papal States and he studied theology and law in Rome, where he was a contemporary of René-François de Sluse. He also studied mathematics under Benedetto Castelli who himself had been a student of Galileo Galilei and he was a friend of Evangelista Torricelli, kept close links with contemporary scientific culture, and played an important role in the development of the Galilean school. Like de Sluze, he spent his career in the Roman Catholic Church. A trained theologian, he acted as consultant to various Congregations of the Roman Curia, having suffered from epilepsy since his birth, he was disqualified from ordination. Nonetheless, he was created a Cardinal-Deacon in the Consistory of 1 September 1681 by Pope Innocent XI and his position in the church was very useful for protecting his friends and fellow scientists in their controversies with the opposing scholastic school. He played a significant part in the debates and experiments that led up to Torricellis discovery of atmospheric pressure. In particular he followed the experiments in this field by Gasparo Berti, there is an unpublished manuscript by Ricci, devoted to algebra, in the library of the Mathematical Institute of Genoa. It shows that by 1640 he was familiar with the New Algebra of François Viète, in this book he provides a critique of the solutions given by the geometer Marino Ghetaldi of Ragusa in his De Resolutione et Compositione Matematica to the problems posed by Apollonius of Perga. This treatise was much admired by his contemporaries and has recently been republished as an appendix to Mercators Logarithmo-Technia and he also studied spirals and cycloids and recognised that the study of tangents and the calculation of areas are reciprocal operations. Ricci is also known for his correspondence with Torricelli, Vincenzo Viviani, Rene de Sluze and Cardinal Leopoldo de Medici and these letters give his thoughts on paraboloids and hyperboloids when cut by parallel planes, on the surface of a ring, and on the properties of the vacuum. It was Ricci who welcomed Marin Mersenne, when he came to Italy to present the work of René Descartes, in optics he studied the magnifying effect of lenses. With Giovanni Battista Baliani he discussed the Galilean revolution, Ricci was also a close associate of Antonio Nardi, another mathematician in Rome. Following the death of Torricelli and the disappearance of Bonaventura Cavalieri, he was requested to collate, however he declined the invitation, leading to Torricellis work being forgotten for some time. He endeavored to defend Francesco Redi against Cardinal Leopold when Redi published his Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione deglInsetti, Ricci was also the backer of Abbot Francisco Nazzari in the publication of the first review of Italian literature, the Giornale de Letterati. He died in Rome, age 63, on 12 May 1682, beigebunden Exercitatio geometrica, Hildesheim, New York, Olms,1975 «RICCI MICHELANGELO, Cardinale». Auctore Angelo Fabronio, Romae, typis S. Michaelis apud Junchium, prostant venales apud Natalem Barbiellini in foro Pasquini,1769, Vol. II, p
15.
Mercury (element)
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Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
16.
Blaise Pascal
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Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher. He was a prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal also wrote in defence of the scientific method, in 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes, he built 20 finished machines over the following 10 years, following Galileo Galilei and Torricelli, in 1647, he rebutted Aristotles followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascals results caused many disputes before being accepted, in 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing works on philosophy. His two most famous works date from this period, the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In that year, he wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids, Pascal had poor health, especially after the age of 18, and he died just two months after his 39th birthday. Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in Frances Auvergne region and he lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne Pascal, who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a local judge, Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte. In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, the newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, the young Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections and it states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line. Pascals work was so precocious that Descartes was convinced that Pascals father had written it, in France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold. In 1631 Étienne sold his position as president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres. The money was invested in a government bond which provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, but in 1638 Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years War, defaulted on the governments bonds. Suddenly Étienne Pascals worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300 and it was only when Jacqueline performed well in a childrens play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned
17.
Pierre Petit (engineer)
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Pierre Petit was a French astronomer, physicist, mathematician and instrument maker. He succeeded his father in his office, but went to Paris in 1633 to dedicate himself to the sciences. He was a member of the circle around Marin Mersenne, and knew Etienne Pascal, Blaise Pascal, later he was a member of the Academy of Montmor. On 4 April 1667 he became a fellow of The Royal Society and he also served as a military engineer and geographer to Louis XIII and Louis XIV, in roles such as Superintendent of Fortifications. He died in Lagny-sur-Marne in 1677, cometarum natura motus et origo at Google Books 1681 Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Springer Reference
18.
Marin Mersenne
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Marin Mersenne, Marin Mersennus or le Père Mersenne was a French theologian, philosopher, mathematician and music theorist, often referred to as the father of acoustics. Mersenne, an ordained priest, had contacts in the scientific world and has been called the center of the world of science. Marin Mersenne was born of peasant parents near Oizé, Maine and he was educated at Le Mans and at the Jesuit College of La Flèche. On 17 July 1611, he joined the Minim Friars, and, after studying theology, between 1614 and 1618, he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers, but he returned to Paris and settled at the convent of LAnnonciade in 1620. There he studied mathematics and music and met with other kindred spirits such as René Descartes, Étienne Pascal, Pierre Petit, Gilles de Roberval and he corresponded with Giovanni Doni, Constantijn Huygens, Galileo Galilei, and other scholars in Italy, England and the Dutch Republic. He was a defender of Galileo, assisting him in translations of some of his mechanical works. For four years, Mersenne devoted himself entirely to philosophic and theological writing and it is sometimes incorrectly stated that he was a Jesuit. He was educated by Jesuits, but he never joined the Society of Jesus and he taught theology and philosophy at Nevers and Paris. He was not afraid to cause disputes among his friends in order to compare their views. In 1635 Mersenne met with Tommaso Campanella, but concluded that he could teach nothing in the sciences but still he has a good memory, Mersenne asked if René Descartes wanted Campanella to come to Holland to meet him, but Descartes declined. He visited Italy fifteen times, in 1640,1641 and 1645, in 1643–1644 Mersenne also corresponded with the German Socinian Marcin Ruar concerning the Copernican ideas of Pierre Gassendi, finding Ruar already a supporter of Gassendis position. Among his correspondents were Descartes, Galilei, Roberval, Pascal, Beeckman and he died September 1 through complications arising from a lung abscess. Some history scientists suggest he died for having drunk a huge quantity of water, along with Descartes. It was written as a commentary on the Book of Genesis, at first sight the book appears to be a collection of treatises on various miscellaneous topics. However Robert Lenoble has shown that the principle of unity in the work is a polemic against magical and divinatory arts, cabalism and he mentions Martin Del Rios Investigations into Magic and criticises Marsilio Ficino for claiming power for images and characters. He condemns astral magic and astrology and the anima mundi, a popular amongst Renaissance neo-platonists. Whilst allowing for an interpretation of the Cabala, he wholeheartedly condemned its magical application—particularly to angelology. He also criticises Pico della Mirandola, Cornelius Agrippa and Francesco Giorgio with Robert Fludd as his main target, Fludd responded with Sophia cum moria certamen, wherein Fludd admits his involvement with the Rosicrucians
19.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
20.
Polymath
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A polymath is a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas, such a person is known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems. The term was first used in the 17th century, the related term, the term is often used to describe great thinkers of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment who excelled at several fields in science and the arts. In the Italian Renaissance, the idea of the polymath was expressed by Leon Battista Alberti and this term entered the lexicon during the twentieth century and has now been applied to great thinkers living before and after the Renaissance. Renaissance man was first recorded in written English in the early 20th century and it is now used to refer to great thinkers living before, during, or after the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci has often described as the archetype of the Renaissance man. These polymaths had an approach to education that reflected the ideals of the humanists of the time. A gentleman or courtier of that era was expected to speak several languages, play an instrument, write poetry. The idea of an education was essential to achieving polymath ability. At this time, universities did not specialize in specific areas but rather trained students in an array of science, philosophy. This universal education gave them a grounding from which they could continue into apprenticeship toward becoming a master of a specific field, aside from Renaissance man as mentioned above, similar terms in use are Homo Universalis and Uomo Universale, which translate to universal person or universal man. The related term generalist—contrasted with a used to describe a person with a general approach to knowledge. The term Universal Genius or Versatile Genius is also used, with Leonardo da Vinci as the prime example again. The term seems to be used especially when a person has made lasting contributions in at least one of the fields in which he was involved. When a person is described as having knowledge, they exhibit a vast scope of knowledge. This designation may be anachronistic, however, in the case of such as Eratosthenes whose reputation for having encyclopedic knowledge predates the existence of any encyclopedic object. One whose accomplishments are limited to athletics would not be considered a polymath in the sense of the word. An example is Howard Baker, who was called a sporting polymath by the Encyclopedia of British Football for winning high jump titles and playing cricket, football, many polymaths from across the centuries have their roots in medical applications. One of the well known polymaths, Leonardo da Vinci, was known for his immense interest in human anatomical structure
21.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
22.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
23.
Otto von Guericke
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Otto von Guericke was a German scientist, inventor, and politician. Otto von Guericke was born to a family of Magdeburg. In 1617 he became a student at the Leipzig University, owing to the outbreak of the Thirty Years War his studies at Leipzig were disrupted and subsequently he studied at the Academia Julia in Helmstedt and the universities of Jena and Leyden. At the last of these he attended courses on mathematics, physics and his education was completed by a nine-month-long trip to France and England. On his return to Magdeburg in 1626 he married Margarethe Alemann and he was to remain a member of this body until old age. Von Guericke was personally distrustful of the enthusiasm for the cause of Gustavus Adolphus but was nonetheless a victim of the fall of Magdeburg to von Tillys troops in May 1631. Following a period of employment as engineer in the service of Gustavus Adolphus he, for the next decade he was occupied rebuilding his own and the citys fortunes from the ruins of the fire of 1631. Diplomatic missions, often dangerous as well as tedious, occupied much of his time for the twenty years. A private scientific life, of which remains unclear, was developing in parallel. One of them, the Archbishop Elector Johann Philip von Schonborn, one of the professors at the College, Fr. Gaspar Schott, entered into correspondence with von Guericke and thus it was that, at the age of 55. Schott - Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica - published in 1657, the following year this was translated into Latin and, made aware of it in correspondence with Fr. Schott, von Guericke acquired a copy, in the decade following the first publication of his own work von Guericke, in addition to his diplomatic and administrative commitments, was scientifically very active. In the Preface to the Reader he claims to have finished the book on March 14,1663 though publication was delayed for nine years until 1672. In 1664, his work appeared in print, again through the good offices of Fr. Schott, the first section of whose book Technica Curiosa, entitled Mirabilia Magdeburgica, was dedicated to von Guerickes work, the earliest reference to the celebrated Magdeburg hemispheres experiment is on p.39 of the Technica Curiosa, where Fr. Schott notes that von Guericke had mentioned them in a letter of July 22,1656. Schott goes on to quote a subsequent letter of von Guericke of August 4,1657 in which he states that he now had carried out the experiment, at considerable cost, with 12 horses
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Robert FitzRoy
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Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy RN was an English officer of the Royal Navy and a scientist. He achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins famous voyage, FitzRoys second expedition to Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy was a pioneering meteorologist who made accurate daily weather predictions, which he called by a new name of his own invention, forecasts. In 1854 he established what would later be called the Met Office and he was an able surveyor and hydrographer. As Governor of New Zealand, serving from 1843 to 1845, Robert FitzRoy was born at Ampton Hall, Ampton, Suffolk, England, into the upper echelons of the British aristocracy and a tradition of public service. Through his father, General Lord Charles FitzRoy, Robert was a fourth great-grandson of Charles II of England, his grandfather was Augustus Henry FitzRoy. His mother, Lady Frances Stewart, was the daughter of the first Marquess of Londonderry and the half-sister of Viscount Castlereagh, from the age of four, Robert FitzRoy lived with his family at Wakefield Lodge, their Palladian mansion in Northamptonshire. Roberts half-brother Sir Charles FitzRoy later served as Governor of New South Wales, Governor of Prince Edward Island, in February 1818 at the age of 12, FitzRoy entered the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and in the following year he entered the Royal Navy. At the age of 14, he embarked as a voluntary student aboard the frigate HMS Owen Glendower, which sailed to South America in the middle of 1820 and he was promoted to midshipman while on the vessel. FitzRoy served on HMS Hind as a midshipman and he completed his course with distinction and was promoted lieutenant on 7 September 1824, having passed the examination with full numbers, the first to achieve this result. After serving on HMS Thetis, in 1828 he was appointed lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Waller Otway, commander-in-chief of the South American station. At that time Beagle, under Captain Pringle Stokes, was carrying out a survey of Tierra del Fuego. Pringle Stokes became severely depressed and fatally shot himself, under Lieutenant Skyring, the ship sailed to Rio de Janeiro, where Otway appointed FitzRoy as captain of the Beagle on 15 December 1828. By the ships return to England on 14 October 1830, FitzRoy had established his reputation as a surveyor, during the survey, some of his men were camping onshore when a group of Fuegian natives made off with their boat. His ship gave chase and, after a scuffle, the families were brought on board as hostages. Eventually FitzRoy held two boys, a girl and two men As it was not possible to put them ashore conveniently, he decided to civilise the savages, and the use of common tools before returning them as missionaries. The sailors gave them names, the girl was called Fuegia Basket, the boy Jemmy Button, the second boy was called Boat Memory. FitzRoy brought the four back with the ship to England, Boat Memory died following a smallpox vaccination. In early May 1831 FitzRoy stood as Tory candidate for Ipswich in the General Election and his hopes of obtaining a new posting and organising a missionary project to Tierra del Fuego appeared to be failing
25.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
26.
Barograph
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A barograph is a barometer that records the barometric pressure over time. Alexander Cumming, a watchmaker and mechanic, has a claim to having made the first effective recording barograph in the 1760s using an aneroid cell, Cumming created a series of barometrical clocks, including one for King George III. However, this type of design fell out of favour, since the amount of movement that can be generated by a single aneroid is minuscule, up to seven aneroids are often stacked in series to amplify their motion. This type of barograph was invented in 1844 by the Frenchman Lucien Vidi, in such barographs one or more aneroid cells act through a gear or lever train to drive a recording arm that has at its extreme end either a scribe or a pen. A scribe records on smoked foil while a pen records on paper using ink, the recording material is mounted on a cylindrical drum which is rotated slowly by clockwork. Commonly, the drum makes one revolution per day, per week, or per month, various other types of barograph have also been invented. Karl Kreil described a machine in 1843 based on a syphon barometer, francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, created the first successful barograph utilising photography in 1845. The changing height of the mercury in the barometer was recorded on a continuously moving photosensitive surface, by 1847, a sophisticated temperature-compensation mechanism was also employed. Ronalds’ barograph was utilised by the UK Meteorological Office for many years to assist in weather forecasting, today, traditional recording barographs for meteorological use have commonly been superseded by electronic weather instruments that use computer methods to record the barometric pressure. Older mechanical barographs are highly prized by collectors as they make good display items, often being made of high quality woods, the most common weather Barograph found in homes and public buildings these days are the 8-day type. Some important manufacturers of Barographs are Negretti and Zambra, Short and Mason, but, newer solid state, digital barographs from manufactures such as ASI eliminate this issue altogether, since they use no moving parts. As atmospheric pressure responds in a manner to changes in altitude. Barographs were required by the FAI to record certain tasks and record attempts associated with sailplanes, examples of FAI approved sailplane barographs included the Replogle mechanical drum barograph and the EW electronic barograph. Mechanical barographs are not commonly used for flight documentation now, having been displaced by GNSS Flight Recorders, on the top right of the picture of the three-day barograph can be seen a silver knurled knob. This is to adjust the barograph so that it reflects the station pressure. Barely visible below the knob is a small silver plunger and this is pressed every three hours to leave a time mark on the paper. The line between two of these marks is called the characteristic of barometric tendency and is used by weather forecasters, the observer would first note if the pressure was lower or higher than three hours prior. Next, a number would be chosen that best represents the three-hour trace
27.
Measuring instrument
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A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study, measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instruments use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error, scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes, virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. In the past, a common time measuring instrument was the sundial, today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time a clock is used. Stop watches are used to measure time in some sports. Energy is measured by an energy meter, examples of energy meters include, An electricity meter measures energy directly in kilowatt hours. A gas meter measures energy indirectly by recording the volume of gas used and this figure can then be converted to a measure of energy by multiplying it by the calorific value of the gas. A physical system that exchanges energy may be described by the amount of energy exchanged per time-interval, for the ranges of power-values see, Orders of magnitude. Action describes energy summed up over the time a process lasts and its dimension is the same as that of an angular momentum. A phototube provides a measurement which permits the calculation of the quantized action of light. This includes basic quantities found in classical- and continuum mechanics, dumpy level Laser line level Spirit level Gyroscope Ballistic pendulum, indirectly by calculation and or gauging Considerations related to electric charge dominate electricity and electronics. Electrical charges interact via a field and that field is called electric if the charge doesnt move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in a neutral conductor. Electricity can be given a quality — a potential, and electricity has a substance-like property, the electric charge. Energy in elementary electrodynamics is calculated by multiplying the potential by the amount of charge found at that potential, potential times charge, electrometer is often used to reconfirm the phenomenon of contact electricity leading to triboelectric sequences
28.
Pressure
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Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure, Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure, the atmosphere is equal to this pressure and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol for it is p or P, the IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used. The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and momentum. Mathematically, p = F A where, p is the pressure, F is the normal force and it relates the vector surface element with the normal force acting on it. It is incorrect to say the pressure is directed in such or such direction, the pressure, as a scalar, has no direction. The force given by the relationship to the quantity has a direction. If we change the orientation of the element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly. Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, equal to one newton per square metre and this name for the unit was added in 1971, before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch, the CGS unit of pressure is the barye, equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre, but using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere is 1 kgf/cm2, since a system under pressure has potential to perform work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related to density and may be expressed in units such as joules per cubic metre. Similar pressures are given in kilopascals in most other fields, where the prefix is rarely used
29.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
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Alloy
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An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character, an alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a mixture of metallic phases. Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types. Alloys are used in a variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties, in other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be classified as homogeneous, or heterogeneous or intermetallic. An alloy is a mixture of elements, which forms an impure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal and this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the base, they will be soluble. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is very soft, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal. Although both metals are soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel
31.
Beryllium
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Beryllium is a chemical element with symbol Be and atomic number 4. It is a rare element in the universe, usually occurring as a product of the spallation of larger atomic nuclei that have collided with cosmic rays. Within the cores of stars beryllium is depleted as it is fused and it is a divalent element which occurs naturally only in combination with other elements in minerals. Notable gemstones which contain beryllium include beryl and chrysoberyl, as a free element it is a steel-gray, strong, lightweight and brittle alkaline earth metal. Beryllium improves many physical properties when added as an element to aluminium, copper, iron. Beryllium does not form oxides until it reaches high temperatures. Tools made of copper alloys are strong and hard and do not create sparks when they strike a steel surface. The high thermal conductivities of beryllium and beryllium oxide have led to their use in thermal management applications, Beryllium is a steel gray and hard metalloid that is brittle at room temperature and has a close-packed hexagonal crystal structure. It has exceptional stiffness and a high melting point. The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50% greater than that of steel, the combination of this modulus and a relatively low density results in an unusually fast sound conduction speed in beryllium – about 12.9 km/s at ambient conditions. Other significant properties are high specific heat and thermal conductivity, which make beryllium the metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight, in combination with the relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion, these characteristics result in a unique stability under conditions of thermal loading. Naturally occurring beryllium, save for slight contamination by cosmogenic radioisotopes, is essentially pure beryllium-9, Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high-energy neutrons, about 6 barns for energies above approximately 10 keV. The single primordial beryllium isotope 9Be also undergoes a neutron reaction with neutron energies over about 1.9 MeV, to produce 8Be, thus, for high-energy neutrons, beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. Beryllium also releases neutrons under bombardment by gamma rays.8 seconds, β− is an electron, tritium is a radioisotope of concern in nuclear reactor waste streams. As a metal, beryllium is transparent to most wavelengths of X-rays and gamma rays, making it useful for the windows of X-ray tubes. Both stable and unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, primordial beryllium contains only one stable isotope, 9Be, and therefore beryllium is a monoisotopic element. Radioactive cosmogenic 10Be is produced in the atmosphere of the Earth by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen, 10Be accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively long half-life permits a long residence time before decaying to boron-10. The production of 10Be is inversely proportional to activity, because increased solar wind during periods of high solar activity decreases the flux of galactic cosmic rays that reach the Earth
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Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
33.
Pleasure craft
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A pleasure craft is a boat used for personal, family, and sometimes sportsmanlike recreation. Such watercraft are divided into two categories, motorboats and sailboats. There are also rowboats and canoes and they are used for holidays, for example on a river, lake, canal, waterway, in an archipelago or coastal area. Pleasure craft are normally kept at a marina and they may include accommodation for use while moored to the bank
34.
Radiosonde
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Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables, altitude, pressure, temperature, relative humidity, wind, cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position. Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes, radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz. A radiosonde whose position is tracked as it ascends to give wind speed, most radiosondes have radar reflectors and are technically rawinsondes. A radiosonde that is dropped from an airplane and falls, rather than being carried by a balloon is called a dropsonde, radiosondes are an essential source of meteorological data, and hundreds are launched all over the world daily. This proved to be difficult because the kites were linked to the ground and were difficult to manoeuvre in gusty conditions. Furthermore, the sounding was limited to low altitudes because of the link to the ground, gustave Hermite and Georges Besançon, from France, were the first in 1892 to use a balloon to fly the meteograph. In 1898, Léon Teisserenc de Bort organized at the Observatoire de Météorologie Dynamique de Trappes the first regular use of these balloons. Data from these launches showed that the temperature lowered with height up to an altitude, which varied with the season. De Borts discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere was announced in 1902 at the French Academy of Sciences, other researchers, like Richard Aßmann and William Henry Dines, were working at the same times with similar instruments. In 1924, Colonel William Blaire in the U. S. Signal Corps did the first primitive experiments with weather measurements from balloon, the first true radiosonde that sent precise encoded telemetry from weather sensors was invented in France by Robert Bureau. Bureau coined the name radiosonde and flew the first instrument on January 7,1929, developed independently a year later, Pavel Molchanov flew a radiosonde on January 30,1930. Molchanovs design became a popular standard because of its simplicity and because it converted sensor readings to Morse code, working with a modified Molchanov sonde, Sergey Vernov was the first to use radiosondes to perform cosmic ray readings at high altitude. On April 1,1935, he took measurements up to 13.6 km using a pair of Geiger counters in a circuit to avoid counting secondary ray showers. The sondes were tracked for two days, a rubber or latex balloon filled with either helium or hydrogen lifts the device up through the atmosphere. The maximum altitude to which the balloon ascends is determined by the diameter, balloon sizes can range from 100 to 3,000 g. As the balloon ascends through the atmosphere, the pressure decreases, eventually, the balloon will expand to the extent that its skin will break, terminating the ascent. An 800 g balloon will burst at about 21 km, after bursting, a small parachute on the radiosondes support line carries it to Earth. A typical radiosonde flight lasts 60 to 90 minutes, one radiosonde from Clark Air Base, Philippines, reached an altitude of 155,092 ft
35.
Microelectromechanical systems
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Microelectromechanical systems is the technology of microscopic devices, particularly those with moving parts. It merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems and nanotechnology, MEMS are also referred to as micromachines in Japan, or micro systems technology in Europe. They usually consist of a unit that processes data and several components that interact with the surroundings such as microsensors. MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter must also consider surface chemistry, the potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies and these include molding and plating, wet etching and dry etching, electro discharge machining, and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices. An early example of a MEMS device is the resonistor – an electromechanical monolithic resonator, silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry. The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality materials, silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. Even though the industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex. Polymers on the hand can be produced in huge volumes. Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements, while metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes, commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver. The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide, alN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces. TiN, on the hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity. Moreover, the resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments. One of the building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres. There are two types of processes, as follows. Physical vapor deposition consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition, in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired
36.
Photolithography
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Photolithography, also termed optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist, or simply resist, on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves the exposure pattern into, or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon. For example, in integrated circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times. This procedure is comparable to a high precision version of the used to make printed circuit boards. Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with lithographic printing and its main disadvantages are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require extremely clean operating conditions. The root words photo, litho, and graphy all have Greek origins, with the light, stone. As suggested by the name compounded from them, photolithography is a method in which light plays an essential role. In the 1820s, Nicephore Niepce invented a process that used Bitumen of Judea. In 1954, Louis Plambeck Jr. developed the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate, a single iteration of photolithography combines several steps in sequence. Modern cleanrooms use automated, robotic wafer track systems to coordinate the process, the procedure described here omits some advanced treatments, such as thinning agents or edge-bead removal. Other solutions made with trichloroethylene, acetone or methanol can also be used to clean, the wafer is initially heated to a temperature sufficient to drive off any moisture that may be present on the wafer surface,150 °C for ten minutes is sufficient. Wafers that have been in storage must be cleaned to remove contamination. A liquid or gaseous adhesion promoter, such as Bisamine, is applied to promote adhesion of the photoresist to the wafer. The surface layer of silicon dioxide on the wafer reacts with HMDS to form tri-methylated silicon-dioxide, in order to ensure the development of the image, it is best covered and placed over a hot plate and let it dry while stabilizing the temperature at 120 °C. The wafer is covered with photoresist by spin coating, a viscous, liquid solution of photoresist is dispensed onto the wafer, and the wafer is spun rapidly to produce a uniformly thick layer. The spin coating typically runs at 1200 to 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 seconds, the spin coating process results in a uniform thin layer, usually with uniformity of within 5 to 10 nanometres. Thus, the top layer of resist is quickly ejected from the edge while the bottom layer still creeps slowly radially along the wafer
37.
Galaxy Nexus
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The Galaxy Nexus is a touchscreen Android smartphone co-developed by Google and Samsung Electronics. It is the smartphone in the Google Nexus series, a family of Android consumer devices built by an original equipment manufacturer partner. The phone is the successor to Googles previous flagship phones, the Nexus One, the Galaxy Nexus has a high-definition Super AMOLED display with a Dragontrail curved glass surface, an improved camera, and was the first Android version 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich device. The name is the result of co-branding between the Samsung Galaxy and Google Nexus brands of Android smartphones, the device is known as the Galaxy X in Brazil, however, due to a trademark on the Nexus brand. The Galaxy Nexus was unveiled jointly by Google and Samsung on 19 October 2011 in Hong Kong and it was released in Europe on 17 November 2011. It is one of the few phones recommended by the Android Open Source Project for building Android from source, by 29 October 2012, the Galaxy Nexus was no longer available for sale on the Google Play Store, following the release of its successor, the LG Nexus 4. Googles plans to continue the Nexus series and bring a third-generation Nexus to market were confirmed by Googles senior vice president of mobile platforms Andy Rubin in May 2011. Samsung mobile put out a video for its Google Episode of Unpacked on 11 October but later postponed the product announcement out of respect. Before the official announcement, it was referred to as the Google Nexus Prime by the general public. There had been repeated leaks containing almost accurate details about this device, the phone was officially announced on 19 October 2011 in Hong Kong, revealing the official name as Galaxy Nexus. USB port supports both host and devices modes, as a note, its successor Nexus 4 supports only the device mode, the Galaxy Nexus has no physical buttons on the front, but instead features on-screen soft keys embedded into the system software. Beneath the soft keys, a multicolored notification LED is featured, there is no microSD card support. The Galaxy Nexus was the first device to run Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich, introducing a number of new features. Beginning from 11 July 2012, Android 4.1 Jelly Bean began rolling out to the GSM Galaxy Nexus as an over-the-air update, the 4.2 update began rolling out on 13 November 2012 to the GSM Galaxy Nexus Takju/Maguro variant as an update. Google started rolling out the update to the version a week later. Towards the end of December, however, not all phones had received the update, on 19 March 2013 Verizon Wireless began updating OTA their CDMA Galaxy Nexus Mysid/Toro variant to Android 4.2.2. Android 4.3 Jelly Bean was released for GSM models on 24 July 2013, Google has stated that the Galaxy Nexus will not receive Android 4.4 KitKat, even after having 14,000 signatures requesting it. New drivers may allow unofficial Android versions to be available for the device, canonicals Ubuntu Touch operating system was available and supported on the Galaxy Nexus, however support for the Galaxy Nexus was soon discontinued 13 January 2014
38.
IPhone 6
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The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The devices are part of the series and were announced on September 9,2014. The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus received positive reviews, with critics regarding their improved design, specifications, camera, pre-orders of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus exceeded four million within its first 24 hours of availability—an Apple record. More than ten million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days, another Apple record, the iPhone 6 Plus was also the subject of camera issues, including some devices with malfunctioning optical image stabilization or otherwise defects on rear cameras. The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were moved to the spot in Apples iPhone lineup when the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were released in September 2015. The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were discontinued on September 7,2016 when Apple announced the iPhone 7 and their spot as the entry-level iPhone was replaced by the iPhone SE, which was released earlier on March 31,2016. From the launch of the original iPhone to the iPhone 4S, the iPhone 5 and its immediate successors featured a display that was taller, but the same width as prior models, measuring at 4 inches diagonally. 7-inch and 5. 5-inch displays. In August 2015, Apple admitted that some iPhone 6 Plus may have faulty cameras that could be causing photos to look blurry and initiated a replacement program. On September 9,2015, with the release of the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were moved to the mid-range of the iPhone lineup. In June 2016, Apple faced a potential sales ban in China, as Shenzhen Baili, both models come in gold, silver, and space gray finishes. The displays use a multiple-domain LCD panel, dubbed dual-domain pixels and this technique helps improve the viewing angles of the display. To accommodate the physical size of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus. The iPhone 6 features a 6.91 Wh battery, while the iPhone 6 Plus features an 11.1 Wh battery, unlike the previous model, the rear-facing camera is not flush with the rear of the device, and has a slight bulge around the lens. Both models include an Apple A8 system-on-chip, and an M8 motion co-processor—an update of the M7 chip from the iPhone 5s, the primary difference between the M8 and the original M7 coprocessor is that the M8 also includes a barometer to measure altitude changes. Phil Schiller touted that the A8 chip would provide, in comparison to the 5s, a 25% increase in CPU performance, a 50% increase in graphics performance, and less heat output. The expanded LTE connectivity on the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is improved to LTE Advanced, with support for over 20 LTE bands, for up to 150 Mbit/s download speed, NFC support is restricted to Apple Pay only, and cannot be used for any other purposes. The iPhone 6s rear-facing camera now has the ability to shoot 1080p video at either 30 or 60 frames per second, the camera also includes phase detection autofocus. The iPhone 6 Plus camera is identical, but also includes optical image stabilization
39.
Smartwatch
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A smartwatch is a computerized wristwatch with functionality that goes beyond timekeeping. While early models can perform tasks, such as calculations, translations. Many run mobile apps, using an operating system. Some smartwatches function as media players, with FM radio and playback of digital audio. Some models, also called watch phones, feature full mobile phone capability, while internal hardware varies, most have an electronic visual display, either backlit LCD or OLED. Some use transflective or electronic paper, to less power. Most have a battery and many have a touchscreen. Peripheral devices may include digital cameras, thermometers, accelerometers, altimeters, barometers, compasses, GPS receivers, tiny speakers, software may include digital maps, schedulers and personal organizers, calculators, and various kinds of watch faces. The watch may communicate with devices such as sensors, wireless headsets. Like other computers, a smartwatch may collect information from internal or external sensors and it may control, or retrieve data from and it may support wireless technologies like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS. For many purposes, a wristwatch computer serves as a front end for a system such as a smartphone. Smartwatches are advancing, especially their design, battery capacity, many smartwatch models manufactured in the 2010s are completely functional as standalone products. Some serve as sport watches, the GPS tracking unit being used to record historical data, for example, after a workout, data can be uploaded onto a computer or online to create a log of activities for analysis or sharing. Some watches can serve as full GPS watches, displaying maps and current coordinates, users can mark their current location and then edit the entrys name and coordinates, which enables navigation to those new coordinates. As companies add competitive products into the market, media space is becoming a commodity on smart watches. With Apple, Sony, Samsung, and Motorola introducing their smart watch models and this is a dense market of tech consumers who possess buying power, which has attracted many advertisers. It is expected for mobile advertising on wearable devices to increase heavily by 2017 as advanced hypertargeting modules are introduced to the devices. In order for an advertisement to be effective on a smart watch, sport watch functionality often includes activity tracker features as seen in GPS watches made for training, diving, and outdoor sports
Media related to Barometer at Wikimedia Commons
"Barometer". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911.
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