1.
Steelmaking
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Steelmaking is the process for producing steel from iron ore and scrap. Limiting dissolved gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, and entrained impurities in the steel is also important to ensure the quality of the products cast from the liquid steel, steelmaking has existed for millennia, but it was not commercialized until the 19th century. The ancient craft process of steelmaking was the crucible process, in the 1850s and 1860s, the Bessemer process and the Siemens-Martin process turned steelmaking into a heavy industry. In recent times, EAF steelmaking technology has evolved closer to oxygen steelmaking as more energy is introduced into the process. Steelmaking has played a crucial role development of modern technological societies, cast iron is a hard brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and a versatile material. For much of history, steel has only been made in small quantities. The earliest means of producing steel was in a bloomery, early modern methods of producing steel were often labour-intensive and highly skilled arts. See, finery forge, in which the German finery process could be managed to produce steel, an important aspect of the Industrial Revolution was the development of large-scale methods of producing forgeable metal. The puddling furnace was initially a means of producing wrought iron, the real revolution in steelmaking only began at the end of the 1850s when the Bessemer process became the first successful method of steelmaking in quantity, followed by the open-hearth furnace. Modern steelmaking processes can be broken into two categories, primary and secondary steelmaking, secondary steelmaking involves refining of the crude steel before casting and the various operations are normally carried out in ladles. Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy, the slag chemistry of the process is also controlled to ensure that impurities such as silicon and phosphorus are removed from the metal. The process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer and commercialized in 1952–53 by Austrian VOEST, the LD converter, named after the Austrian towns of Linz and Donawitz is a refined version of the Bessemer converter where blowing of air is replaced with blowing oxygen. It reduced capital cost of the plants, time of smelting, between 1920 and 2000, labour requirements in the industry decreased by a factor of 1,000, from more than 3 worker-hours per tonne to just 0.003. The vast majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace, in 2011, it accounted for 70% of global steel output. Modern furnaces will take a charge of iron of up to 350 tons and convert it into steel in less than 40 minutes, electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of steel from scrap or direct reduced iron melted by electric arcs. In an electric arc furnace, a batch of steel may be started by loading scrap or direct reduced iron into the furnace, gas burners may be used to assist with the melt down of the scrap pile in the furnace. As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are also added to protect the lining of the vessel, electric arc furnace steelmaking typically uses furnaces of capacity around 100 tonnes that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes for further processing
2.
Pig iron
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Pig iron is an intermediate product of the iron industry. Pig iron is made by smelting iron ore into an ingot of impure high carbon-content iron in a blast furnace as an ingredient for further processing steps. When the metal had cooled and hardened, the ingots were simply broken from the runner. As pig iron is intended for remelting, the size of the ingots. Smelting and producing pig iron and other products was known to the Ancient Egyptians. The Roman Empire and later the Muslim caliphates of the Middle Ages inherited and refined these technologies, because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe did not rediscover the process until the Late Middle Ages. The phase transition of the iron into liquid in the furnace was an avoided phenomenon, the Chinese were also making pig iron by the later Zhou Dynasty. Traditionally pig iron was worked into wrought iron in forges, later puddling furnaces. In these processes, pig iron is melted and a current of air is directed over it while it is stirred or agitated. This causes the dissolved impurities to be thoroughly oxidized, an intermediate product of puddling is known as refined pig iron, finers metal, or refined iron. Pig iron can also be used to produce gray iron and this is achieved by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of steel and scrap iron, removing undesirable contaminants, adding alloys, and adjusting the carbon content. Some pig iron grades are suitable for producing ductile iron and these are high purity pig irons and depending on the grade of ductile iron being produced these pig irons may be low in the elements silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus. These types of pig irons are used to all the elements in a ductile iron charge which may be harmful to the ductile iron process. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge, the furnace, the Bessemer process. Modern pig casting machines produce stick pigs, which break into smaller 4–10 kg piglets at discharge
3.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
4.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
5.
Alloy
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An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character, an alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a mixture of metallic phases. Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types. Alloys are used in a variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties, in other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be classified as homogeneous, or heterogeneous or intermetallic. An alloy is a mixture of elements, which forms an impure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal and this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the base, they will be soluble. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is very soft, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal. Although both metals are soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel
6.
Carbon steel
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The term carbon steel may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel, in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating, however, regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the carbon content lowers the melting point. Mild steel, also known as steel and Low carbon steel. It is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications, mild steel contains approximately 0. 05–0. 25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. It is often used large quantities of steel are needed. The density of steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3. Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points, the first yield point is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develop Lüder bands, low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a content in the range of 0. 30–1. 70% by weight. Trace impurities of other elements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-short, that is, brittle, low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0. 05% sulfur and melts around 1, 426–1,538 °C. Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels and these additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISIs definition of carbon steel allows up to 1. 65% manganese by weight. Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on content,0.05 to 0. 25% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and has good resistance, used for large parts, forging. Very strong, used for springs, swords, and high-strength wires, steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like knives, axles or punches, most steels with more than 2. 5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy
7.
Flux (metallurgy)
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In metallurgy, a flux is a chemical cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent. Fluxes may have more than one function at a time and they are used in both extractive metallurgy and metal joining. Some of the earliest known fluxes were carbonate of soda, potash, charcoal, coke, borax, lime, lead sulfide, iron ore was also used as a flux in the smelting of copper. As cleaning agents, fluxes facilitate soldering, brazing, and welding by removing oxidation from the metals to be joined, the slag is a liquid mixture of ash, flux, and other impurities. This reduction of slag viscosity with temperature, increasing the flow of slag in smelting, is the origin of the word flux in metallurgy. Fluxes are also used in foundries for removing impurities from molten nonferrous metals such as aluminium, in high-temperature metal joining processes, the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the oxides of copper. Flux is a substance which is inert at room temperature. Additionally, flux allows solder to flow easily on the piece rather than forming beads as it would otherwise. In some applications molten flux also serves as a heat transfer medium, fluxes for soft soldering are typically of organic nature, though inorganic fluxes, usually based on halogenides and/or acids, are also used in non-electronics applications. Fluxes for brazing operate at higher temperatures and are therefore mostly inorganic. Organic fluxes typically consist of four components, Activators - chemicals disrupting/dissolving the metal oxides. Their role is to expose unoxidized, easily wettable metal surface and aid soldering by other means, highly active fluxes contain chemicals that are corrosive at room temperature. The compounds used include metal halides, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, Salts of mineral acids with amines are also used as aggressive activators. Aggressive fluxes typically facilitate corrosion, require careful removal, and are unsuitable for finer work, Activators for fluxes for soldering and brazing aluminium often contain fluorides. Milder activators begin to react with oxides only at elevated temperature, typical compounds used are carboxylic acids and sometimes amino acids. Some milder fluxes also contain halides or organohalides, vehicles - high-temperature tolerant chemicals in the form of non-volatile liquids or solids with suitable melting point, they are generally liquid at soldering temperatures. Solid vehicles tend to be based on natural or modified rosin or natural or synthetic resins, water-soluble organic fluxes tend to contain vehicles based on high-boiling polyols - glycols, diethylene glycol and higher polyglycols, polyglycol-based surfactants and glycerol
8.
Calcium oxide
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Calcium oxide, commonly known as quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room temperature, the broadly used term lime connotes calcium-containing inorganic materials, in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, and iron predominate. By contrast, quicklime specifically applies to the chemical compound calcium oxide. Calcium oxide that survives processing without reacting in building such as cement is called free lime. Both it and a chemical derivative are important commodity chemicals, Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials, such as limestone or seashells, that contain calcium carbonate in a lime kiln. This is accomplished by heating the material to above 825 °C, annual worldwide production of quicklime is around 283 million tonnes. China is by far the worlds largest producer, with a total of around 170 million tonnes per year, the United States is the next largest, with around 20 million tonnes per year. Approximately 1.8 t of limestone is required per 1.0 t of quicklime, quicklime has a high affinity for water and is a more efficient desiccant than silica gel. The reaction of quicklime with water is associated with an increase in volume by a factor of at least 2.5, the major use of quicklime is in the Basic oxygen steelmaking process. Its usage varies from about 30–50 kg/t of steel, the quicklime neutralizes the acidic oxides, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, to produce a basic molten slag. Ground quicklime is used in the production of aerated concrete blocks, quicklime and hydrated lime can considerably increase the load carrying capacity of clay-containing soils. They do this by reacting with finely divided silica and alumina to produce calcium silicates and aluminates, small quantities of quicklime are used in other processes, e. g. the production of glass, calcium aluminate cement, and organic chemicals. The hydrate can be reconverted to quicklime by removing the water by heating it to redness to reverse the hydration reaction, one litre of water combines with approximately 3.1 kilograms of quicklime to give calcium hydroxide plus 3.54 MJ of energy. This process can be used to provide a convenient portable source of heat, light, When quicklime is heated to 2,400 °C, it emits an intense glow. This form of illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions prior to the invention of electric lighting, cement, Calcium oxide is a key ingredient for the process of making cement. As a cheap and widely available alkali, about 50% of the total quicklime production is converted to calcium hydroxide before use. Both quick- and hydrated lime are used in the treatment of drinking water, petroleum industry, Water detection pastes contain a mix of calcium oxide and phenolphthalein. Should this paste come into contact with water in a storage tank
9.
Dolomite
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Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate, ideally CaMg2. The term is used for a sedimentary carbonate rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite. An alternative name used for the dolomitic rock type is dolostone. Most probably the mineral dolomite was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1768, nicolas-Théodore de Saussure first named the mineral in March 1792. The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigonal-rhombohedral system and it forms white, tan, gray, or pink crystals. Dolomite is a carbonate, having an alternating structural arrangement of calcium and magnesium ions. It does not rapidly dissolve or effervesce in dilute hydrochloric acid as calcite does, solid solution exists between dolomite, the iron-dominant ankerite and the manganese-dominant kutnohorite. Small amounts of iron in the give the crystals a yellow to brown tint. Manganese substitutes in the structure also up to three percent MnO. A high manganese content gives the crystals a rosy pink color, lead, zinc, and cobalt also substitute in the structure for magnesium. The mineral dolomite is closely related to huntite Mg3Ca4, because dolomite can be dissolved by slightly acidic water, areas of dolomite are important as aquifers and contribute to karst terrain formation. Modern dolomite formation has been found to occur under conditions in supersaturated saline lagoons along the Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, namely, Lagoa Vermelha. It is often thought that dolomite will develop only with the help of sulfate-reducing bacteria, however, low-temperature dolomite may occur in natural environments rich in organic matter and microbial cell surfaces. This occurs as a result of magnesium complexation by carboxyl groups associated with organic matter, vast deposits of dolomite are present in the geological record, but the mineral is relatively rare in modern environments. Reproducible, inorganic low-temperature syntheses of dolomite and magnesite were published for the first time in 1999, the general principle governing the course of this irreversible geochemical reaction has been coined breaking Ostwalds step rule. There is some evidence for an occurrence of dolomite. One example is that of the formation of dolomite in the bladder of a Dalmatian dog. In 2015, it was discovered that the direct crystallization of dolomite can occur from solution at temperatures between 60 and 220 °C
10.
Voestalpine
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Voestalpine AG is an international steel based technology and capital goods group based in Linz, Austria. The company is active in steel, automotive, railway systems, profilform,47 per cent of its workforce is based in Austria. The Linz hot strip mill is an integrated steel works operated by voestalpine Stahl GmbH. In addition to Linz the most important plants are in Leoben in Styria and it had a large plant at Liezen in Styria which closed in the 1990s. The name of the company amalgamates its two components, the VÖEST in Upper Austria, established through nationalization in July 1946. Some of these assets were depleted, abandoned or sold. The core assets that remained concentrated in Styria, the ore pits in Erzberg. The company also owned smaller businesses and railroads in the Mur River valley, Alpine, chaired by Karl Wittgenstein, peaked in 1912, when it owned four coal mines, two iron ore mines and six metallurgical plants. In 1922 56% of Alpine Montangesellshaft, then owned by Fiat, was purchased by Hugo Stinnes for the German giant Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG, in the first half of 1937 the Nazi leadership openly broke with the steel barons and settled for state control over iron and steel production. In the same year Hermann Göring expressed his desire to control Austrian iron reserves at Erzberg, after the Anschluss state-owned Reichswerke Hermann Göring purchased a 13% share in Alpine, and for the next six months wrestled with the VS over control of the company. In March 1939 the VS stepped aside and the Reichswerke acquired 70% share of Alpine in exchange for a 10% share in the new plant in Linz, in June 1939 its name was changed to Alpine Montan AG Hermann Göring. The Reichswerke continued acquisitions and outright confiscations, and soon controlled around half of Austrian heavy industries, in 1944, the peak year for Alpine, its sales reached 371 million RM, 16% of the whole mining and steel sales of the Reichswerke. The Reichswerke announced its plans for a new mill in Linz before the takeover of Alpine. Linz had a place in Nazi system, and the steel project received full financial commitment of the state. Guido Schmidt was appointed chief of the Reichswerke in Linz for his services to the Nazis during the Anschluss, the synergy of steel works in Linz and ore reserves at Erzberg, vertically integrated into the Reichswerke, made it virtually independent of the steel elite of the Ruhr. The works in Linz were viewed as a hub of a future steel conglomerate spanning over the whole Central Europe, the integration was completed with the takeover of Danube shipping companies and local construction businesses. The steel mill was completed during the war and was subsidized by the state. In 1943-1944, when the Ruhr was heavily bombed, Hitler demanded an increase in steel production in Austria
11.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
12.
Linz
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Linz is the third-largest city of Austria and capital of the state of Upper Austria. It is located in the centre of Austria, approximately 30 kilometres south of the Czech border. The population of the city is 200,839, and that of the Greater Linz conurbation is about 271,000, in 2009 Linz, together with the Lithuanian capital Vilnius, was chosen as the European Capital of Culture. Since 1 December 2014 Linz is a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities network as a City of Media Arts, Cities receive this title for enriching the urban lifestyle through the sponsorship and successful integration of media art and involving society in these electronic art forms. Linz is well known for the Linzer torte, which is said to be the oldest cake in the world, Linz is located in the centre of Europe, lying on the Paris–Budapest west–east axis and the Malmö–Trieste north–south axis. The Danube is the tourism and transport connection that runs through the city. Approximately 29. 27% of the city’s 96 km2 wide area are grassland, further 17. 95% are covered with forest. All the rest areas fall on water, traffic areas and land, since January 2014 the city is divided into 16 statistical districts, Before 2014 Linz was divided into 9 districts and 36 statistical quarters. Magdalena, St. Magdalena, Katzbach, Elmberg St, the name Linz was first recorded in AD799. Being the city where the Habsburg Emperor Friedrich III spent his last years, it was, for a period of time. It lost its status to Vienna and Prague after the death of the Emperor in 1493, one important inhabitant of the city was Johannes Kepler, who spent several years of his life in the city teaching mathematics. He discovered, on 15 May 1618, the distance-cubed-over-time-squared — or third — law of planetary motion, the local public university, Johannes Kepler University, is named after him. Another famous citizen was Anton Bruckner, who spent the years between 1855 and 1868 working as a composer and organist in the Old Cathedral, Linz. The Brucknerhaus is named after him, Adolf Hitler was born in the border town of Braunau am Inn but moved to Linz in his childhood. Hitler spent most of his youth in the Linz area, from 1898 until 1907, the family lived first in the village of Leonding on the outskirts of town, and then on the Humboldtstrasse in Linz. After elementary education in Leonding, Hitler was enrolled in the Realschule in Linz, notorious Holocaust architect Adolf Eichmann also spent his youth in Linz. To the end of his life, Hitler considered Linz to be his home town, in order to make the city economically vibrant, Hitler initiated a major industrialisation of Linz shortly before, and during, the Second World War. In addition to a depot, Linz has a benzol plant which was bombed during the Oil Campaign on 16 October 1944
13.
Leoben
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Leoben is a Styrian city in central Austria, located by the Mur river. With a population of about 25,000 it is an industrial center and hosts the Montanuniversität Leoben. The Peace of Leoben, an armistice between Austria and France preliminary to the Treaty of Campo Formio, was signed in Leoben in 1797, the Justice Center Leoben is a prison designed by architect Josef Hohensinn, which was completed in 2005. Leoben is known as the “Gateway to the Styrian Iron Road”, the 13th century Main Square features the Hackl House with its baroque façade in red and white. The City Parish Church, St. Francis Xavier, built in 1660, also of note is the Art Nouveau Lutheran church which is at the upper end of the Franz-Josef-Strasse. The oldest convent for women in Styria is Göss Abbey, founded in 1020 A. D. it was run by the Benedictine nuns until it was dissolved in 1782. The early Romanesque crypt is of note as is the Gösser Ornat, next to the convent is the Gösser brewery, which includes a brewery museum. Leoben was shaped for centuries by the trade in iron and the research in raw materials carried out at the Montanuniversität Leoben, mining traditions still play an important part in city life. Examples are the Miners Parade, the St. Barbara Celebration or the Ledersprung, the Gösser Kirtag, a street fair, takes place on the Thursday after the first Sunday in October and attracts tens of thousands of visitors to Leoben
14.
Bessemer converter
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The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron, the oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. Related decarburizing with air processes had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years, one such process has existed since the 11th century in East Asia, where the scholar Shen Kuo describes its use in the Chinese iron and steel industry. In the 17th century, accounts by European travelers detailed its possible use by the Japanese, the modern process is named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1856. The process was said to be discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William Kelly. The process using a basic refractory lining is known as the basic Bessemer process or Gilchrist–Thomas process after the English discoverers Percy Gilchrist and these oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag. The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion — clay linings are used there is little phosphorus in the raw material - this is known as the acid Bessemer process. When the phosphorus content is high, dolomite, or sometimes magnesite and these are also known as Gilchrist-Thomas converters, after their inventor, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas. In order to produce steel with desired properties, additives such as spiegeleisen, when the required steel had been formed, it was poured into ladles and then transferred into moulds while the lighter slag was left behind. The conversion process, called the blow, was completed in approximately 20 minutes, during this period the progress of the oxidation of the impurities was judged by the appearance of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter. The modern use of methods of recording the characteristics of the flame greatly aided the blower in controlling final product quality. After the blow, the metal was recarburized to the desired point and other alloying materials were added. A Bessemer converter could treat a heat of 5 to 30 tons at a time and they were usually operated in pairs, one being blown while another was being filled or tapped. Before the Bessemer process, Western Europe and the United States relied on the process to reduce the carbon content of white cast iron. It was possible to make low-quality puddled steel, but the process was difficult to control, high-quality steel was made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, up to 3 tons of expensive coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. Such steel when rolled into bars was sold at £50 to £60 a long ton, the most difficult and work-intensive part of the process, however, was the production of wrought iron done in finery forges in Sweden
15.
Open hearth furnace
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Open hearth furnaces are one of a number of kinds of furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel. Since steel is difficult to due to its high melting point, normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient. Open hearth furnace was first developed by German-born engineer Carl Wilhelm Siemens, in 1865, the French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin took out a license from Siemens and first applied his regenerative furnace for making steel. Their process was known as the Siemens-Martin process, and the furnace as an open-hearth furnace, most open hearth furnaces were closed by the early 1990s, not least because of their slow operation, being replaced by the basic oxygen furnace or electric arc furnace. The open hearth process is a process and a batch is called a heat. The furnace is first inspected for possible damage, once it is ready or repaired, it is charged with light scrap, such as sheet metal, shredded vehicles or waste metal. The furnace is heated using burning gas, once it has melted, heavy scrap, such as building, construction or steel milling scrap is added, together with pig iron from blast furnaces. Once all the steel has melted, slag forming agents, such as limestone, are added, the oxygen in iron oxide and other impurities decarburize the pig iron by burning excess carbon away, forming steel. To increase the oxygen contents of the heat, iron ore can be added to the heat, the process is far slower than that of Bessemer converter and thus easier to control and sample for quality assessment. Preparing a heat usually takes 8 h to 8 h 30 min to complete into steel. As the process is slow, it is not necessary to all the carbon away as in Bessemer process. The furnace is tapped the same way a blast furnace is tapped, a hole is drilled on the side of the hearth, once all the steel has been tapped, the slag is skimmed away. The raw steel may be cast into ingots, this process is called teeming, the bricks absorb most of the heat from the outgoing waste gases and return it later to the incoming cold gases for combustion. Sir Carl Wilhelm Siemens developed the Siemens regenerative furnace in the 1850s and this furnace operates at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air for combustion. In regenerative preheating, the exhaust gases from the furnace are pumped into a chamber containing bricks, the flow of the furnace is then reversed so that fuel and air pass through the chamber and are heated by the bricks. Through this method, a furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel. In 1865, the French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin took out a license from Siemens, the most appealing characteristic of the Siemens regenerative furnace is the rapid production of large quantities of basic steel, used for example to construct high-rise buildings. The usual size of furnaces is 50 to 100 tons, the Siemens-Martin process complemented rather than replaced the Bessemer process
16.
Allied-occupied Austria
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The Allied occupation of Austria lasted from 1945 to 1955. In the immediate aftermath of the war, Austria, like Germany, was divided into four zones and jointly occupied by the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom. Vienna, like Berlin, was subdivided but the central district was administered jointly by the Allied Control Council. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 12 May 1955, at the 1943 Moscow Conference, the allies had jointly decided that the German annexation of Austria in 1938 would be considered null and void. As well, all administrative and legal measures since 1938 would be ignored, on 29 March 1945 the Soviet commander Fyodor Tolbukhins troops crossed the former Austrian border at Klostermarienberg in Burgenland. On 3 April, at the beginning of the Vienna Offensive, Joseph Stalin had already established a would-be future Austrian cabinet from the countrys communists in exile, but Tolbukhins telegram changed Stalins mind in favor of Renner. On 20 April 1945, the Soviets, without asking their Western allies, seven days later Renners cabinet took office, declared the independence of Austria from Nazi Germany and called for the creation of a democratic state along the lines of the First Austrian Republic. Renner and his ministers were guarded and watched by NKVD bodyguards, one-third of State Chancellor Renners cabinet, including crucial seats of the Secretary of State of the Interior and the Secretary of State for Education, was staffed by Austrian Communists. The Western allies suspected the usual Soviet pattern of setting up puppet states, the British were particularly hostile, even Harry Truman, who believed that Renner was a trustworthy politician rather than a token front for the Kremlin, denied him recognition. But Renner had secured inter-party control by designating two Under-Secretaries of State in each of the ministries, appointed by the two parties not placing the Secretary of State. As soon as Hitlers armies were pushed back into Germany, the Red Army, by 23 May they reported arrests of 268 former Red Army men,1,208 Wehrmacht men and 1,655 civilians. In the following weeks the British surrendered over 40,000 Cossacks who had fled to Western Austria to the Soviet authorities, in July and August, the Soviets brought in four regiments of NKVD troops to mop up Vienna and seal the Czechoslovak border. The Red Army lost 17,000 lives in the Battle of Vienna, but the reputation of the Soviet soldiers was immediately ruined by the vast amount of sexual violence against women, which occurred in the first days and weeks after the Soviet victory. Repressions against civilians harmed Red Army reputation to such an extent that on 28 September 1945 Moscow issued an order forbidding violent interrogations. Red Army morale fell as soldiers prepared to be sent home, throughout 1945 and 1946, all levels of Soviet command tried, in vain, to contain desertion and plunder by rank and file. According to Austrian police records for 1946, men in Soviet uniform, usually drunk, at the same time, the Soviet governors resisted the expansion and arming of the Austrian police force. The American 11th Armored division crossed the Austrian border on April 26, French troops on 29 April, until the end of July 1945 none of the Western allies had first-hand intelligence from Eastern Austria. On 9 July 1945 the Allies agreed on the borders of their occupation zones, the French and American zones bordered those countries zones in Germany, and the Soviet zone bordered future Warsaw Pact states
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
Henry Bessemer
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Sir Henry Bessemer was an English inventor, whose steelmaking process would become the most important technique for making steel in the nineteenth century. He also played a significant role in establishing the town of Sheffield as an industrial centre. Bessemer had been trying to reduce the cost of steelmaking for military ordnance and this made steel easier, quicker and cheaper to manufacture, and revolutionised structural engineering. Bessemer also made over 100 other inventions in the fields of iron, steel, unlike most inventors, he managed to bring his own projects to fruition and profited financially from their success. Bessemers father, Anthony, was born in London, but moved to Paris when he was 21 years old and he was an inventor who, while engaged by the Paris Mint, made a machine for making medallions that could produce steel dies from a larger model. He became a member of the French Academy of Science, for his improvements to the microscope when he was 26. He was forced to leave Paris by the French Revolution, there he invented a process for making gold chains, which was successful, and enabled him to buy a small estate in the village of Charlton, near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, where Henry was born. The invention from which Bessemer made his first fortune was a series of six steam-powered machines for making bronze powder, as he relates in his autobiography, he examined the bronze powder made in Nuremberg which was the only place where it was made at the time. He then copied and improved the product and made it capable of being made on a production line. It was an example of reverse engineering where a product is analysed. The process was kept secret, with members of his immediate family having access to the factory. It was a widely used alternative to a patent, and such trade secrets are used today. The Nuremberg powder, which was made by hand, retailed in London for £5 12s per pound and he reduced the price to half a crown. The profits from sale of the paint allowed him to pursue his other inventions, Bessemer patented a method for making a continuous ribbon of plate glass in 1848, but it was not commercially successful. He gained experience in designing furnaces, which was to be of use for his new steel-making process. Henry Bessemer worked on the problem of manufacturing cheap steel for production from 1850 to 1855 when he patented his method. On 24 August 1856 Bessemer first described the process to a meeting of the British Association in Cheltenham which he titled The Manufacture of Iron Without Fuel and it was published in full in The Times. The Bessemer process involved using oxygen in air blown through molten pig iron to burn off the impurities, james Nasmyth had been working on a similar idea for some time prior to this
19.
Technical University of Berlin
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The Technische Universität Berlin, known as TU Berlin and unofficially as the Technical University of Berlin, is a research university located in Berlin, Germany. It was founded in 1879 and became one of the most prestigious institutions in Europe. It has one of the highest proportions of students in Germany. It belongs to the Conference of European Schools for Advanced Engineering Education, the TU Berlin is home of two innovation centers designated by the European Institute of Innovation and Technology. The university is known for its highly ranked engineering programmes, especially in engineering and engineering management. The university alumni and professor list include US National Academies members, the TH Charlottenburg was named after the borough of its location in Charlottenburg just outside Berlin. Beforehand, the college had been, however, for several decades under the auspices of the Frederick William University. After Charlottenburgs absorption into Greater Berlin in 1920 and Germany being turned into Weimar Republic, in 1927, the Department of Geodesy of the Agricultural College of Berlin was incorporated into the TH Berlin. The shell construction remained unfinished after the outbreak of World War II and after Beckers suicide in 1940, the north section of the main building of the university was destroyed during a bombing raid in November 1943. Due to the fighting at the end of the Second World War. Planning for the re-opening of the school began on June, 2nd 1945, once the acting rectorship led by Gustav Ludwig Hertz and Max Volmer was appointed. As both Hertz and Volmer remained in exile in the Soviet Union for some time to come, since 2009 the TU Berlin houses two Knowledge and Innovation Communities designated by the European Institute of Innovation and Technology. The TU Berlin covers 604,000 m², distributed over various locations in Berlin, the main campus is located in the borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf. The seven schools of the university have some 33,933 students enrolled in 90 subjects, El Gouna campus, Technische Universität Berlin has established a satellite campus in Egypt to act as a scientific and academic field office. The nonprofit public-private partnership aims to offer services provided by Technische Universität Berlin at the campus in El Gouna on the Red Sea, in addition there are 2,651 student assistants and 126 trainees. International student mobility is applicable through ERASMUS programme or through Top Industrial Managers for Europe network, the new common main library of Technische Universität Berlin and of the Berlin University of the Arts was opened in 2004 and holds about 2.9 million volumes. The library building was sponsored partially by Volkswagen and is named officially University Library of the TU Berlin, a source of confusion to many, the letters above the main entrance only state Volkswagen Bibliothek – without any mentioning of the universities. Bruno Ahrends, architect Steffen Ahrends, architect Stancho Belkovski, Bulgarian architect, head of Higher Technical School in Sofia, wilhelm Cauer, mathematician, essential contributions to the design of filters
20.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
21.
Von Roll Holding
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Von Roll Holding AG is a Swiss industrial group that operates worldwide, specializing in energy production. Von Roll has its roots in the Eisenwerke der Handelsgesellschaft der Gebrüder Dürholz & Co. which was established in 1803 and this firm was then taken over in 1810 by Von Roll & Cie, newly formed by Ludwig Freiherr von Roll and Jakob von Glutz. In May 1823, Ludwig von Roll founded the Gesellschaft der Ludwig von Rollschen Eisenwerke which benefited from industrialization, following this, the business developed into one of the most important industrial groups in Switzerland and reached its high point in the 1970s with more than 10,000 employees. But, like other Swiss companies, Von Roll suffered during the oil crisis of 1973, the company underwent financial restructuring after financial restructuring, seemingly without end. As recently as 2003, Von Roll had to fight for its survival, at the end of 2002, following the accumulated losses of previous years, Von Roll’s equity capital had shrunk to 10.3 million. But in 2004 the company initiated a new strategy to focus on the insulation business, Von Roll Holding AG is a Swiss industrial company that is active worldwide and today focuses on products and systems for power generation, transmission and distribution. The company’s operating activities are split into the segments Von Roll Insulation, Von Roll Composites, the company has been listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange since 1987, under the symbol ROL. Historically, Von Roll was principally known for its ironworks and foundries, Von Roll Holding AG is represented by approximately 3,100 employees at 30 locations in 19 countries, and achieved sales of CHF710 million in 2008. In addition, Von Roll provides thermal and fire-resistant insulation products, Von Roll therefore covers the entire value creation chain, from engineering and production to application. Products in this segment include enamelled wires and coils, resins and varnishes, mica tapes, Von Roll supplies both individual products and complete insulation systems. Von Roll Composites provides products and services focus on the mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of insulating materials. The segment is divided into the product lines composite materials, moulded parts, the latest segment Von Roll Transformers creates and supplies solutions for power transmission and distribution. This includes the installation, maintenance and repair of high-voltage transformers in particular, furthermore, Von Roll offers various services in the areas of consulting and testing. Von Roll has laboratories where it tests systems and materials in the field of electrical insulating materials, the high-voltage laboratory in Breitenbach, Switzerland, is specialised in the mechanical and electrical testing of high-voltage materials and systems. The UL laboratory in Schenectady, USA, focuses on all types of UL testing for low and medium voltages, Von Roll Seilbahnen AG was the aerial tramway and cableway division that was sold to Austrian manufacturer Doppelmayr in 1996. Perhaps Von Rolls best-known product was the type 101 sky ride that operated in many amusement parks, a total of over 100 were installed, as of 2008 only ten remained operational. On December 30,1954, Felseneggbahn was opened and it was built by Von Roll in seven months for one million Swiss francs. It still runs, and on March 31,2010, it carried its 10 millionth passenger, the Disneyland Skyway was Von Rolls first aerial ropeway in the United States
22.
Scrap
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Ferrous metals are able to be recycled, with steel being one of the most recycled materials in the world. Ferrous metals contain a percentage of iron and the addition of carbon. In the United States, steel containers, cans, automobiles, appliances, a typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron. The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years and it is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, the energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year. Basic oxygen steelmaking uses 25–35% recycled steel to make new steel, EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains greater concentrations of elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen. It is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar, downcycling of steel by hard-to-separate impurities such as copper or tin can only be prevented by well-aimed scrap selection or dilution by pure steel. Recycling one metric ton of steel saves 1.1 metric tons of ore,630 kilograms of coal. Also known as borings or swarf Manganese steel – Non magnetic, hardened steel used in the industry, cement mixers, rock crushers. Rails – Rail or tram tracks As of 2008, more than 83% of steel was recycled in the United States and it is the most widely recycled material, in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled. Scrap metal British Metals Recycling Association Aluminium recycling Steel Recycling Institute
23.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
24.
Phosphorus
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Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
25.
Russians
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Russians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. The majority of Russians inhabit the state of Russia, while notable minorities exist in Ukraine, Kazakhstan. A large Russian diaspora exists all over the world, with numbers in the United States, Germany, Israel. Russians are the most numerous group in Europe. They are predominantly Orthodox Christians by religion, the Russian language is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and also spoken as a secondary language in many former Soviet states. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians. One is русские, which most often means ethnic Russians, another is россияне, which means citizens of Russia. The former word refers to ethnic Russians, regardless of what country they live in, under certain circumstances this term may or may not extend to denote members of other Russian-speaking ethnic groups from Russia, or from the former Soviet Union. The latter word refers to all people holding citizenship of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity, translations into other languages often do not distinguish these two groups. The name of the Russians derives from the Rus people, the name Rus would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden, Ruotsi and Rootsi. According to other theories the name Rus is derived from Proto-Slavic *roud-s-ь, the modern Russians formed from two groups of East Slavic tribes, Northern and Southern. The tribes involved included the Krivichs, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches, genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Belarusians and Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians, such Uralic peoples included the Merya and the Muromians. Outside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to 859 AD when the Primary Chronicle starts its records and it is thought that by 600 AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches. Later, both Belarusians and South Russians formed on this ethnic linguistic ground, the same Slavic ethnic population also settled the present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero. With the Uralic substratum, they formed the tribes of the Krivichs, in 2010, the worlds Russian population was 129 million people of which 86% were in Russia,11. 5% in the CIS and Baltic countries, with a further 2. 5% living in other countries. Roughly 111 million ethnic Russians live in Russia, 80% of whom live in the European part of Russia, ethnic Russians historically migrated throughout the area of former Russian Empire and Soviet Union, sometimes encouraged to re-settle in borderlands by the Tsarist and later Soviet government. On some occasions ethnic Russian communities, such as Lipovans who settled in the Danube delta or Doukhobors in Canada, after the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War starting in 1917, many Russians were forced to leave their homeland fleeing the Bolshevik regime, and millions became refugees
26.
Pyotr Kapitsa
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Besides Russian, the Kapitsa family also spoke Romanian. Kapitsas studies were interrupted by the First World War, in which he served as a driver for two years on the Polish front. He graduated from the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute in 1918 and he subsequently studied in Britain, working for over ten years with Ernest Rutherford in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and founding the influential Kapitza club. He was the first director of the Mond Laboratory in Cambridge, in the 1920s he originated techniques for creating ultrastrong magnetic fields by injecting high current for brief periods into specially constructed air-core electromagnets. In 1928 he discovered the linear dependence of resistivity on magnetic field for various metals in very strong magnetic fields, in 1934 Kapitsa returned to Russia to visit parents but was not allowed by Stalins government to travel back to Great Britain. In 1934 he developed new and original apparatus for making significant quantities of liquid helium, Kapitsa formed the Institute for Physical Problems, in part using equipment which the Soviet government bought from the Mond Laboratory in Cambridge. In Russia, Kapitsa began a series of experiments to study liquid helium, in 1939 he developed a new method for liquefaction of air with a low-pressure cycle using a special high-efficiency expansion turbine. He invented high power microwave generators and discovered a new kind of high pressure plasma discharge with electron temperatures over 1,000. Amazingly, Stalin backed Kapitsa, telling Beria he had to cooperate with the scientists, Kapitsa refused to meet Beria, If you want to speak to me, then come to the Institute. Kapitsa refused to work with Beria even when Beria gave him a hunting rifle, Stalin offered to meet Kapitsa, but this never happened. Immediately after the war, a group of prominent Soviet scientists lobbied the government to create a new technical university, Kapitsa taught there for many years. From 1957, he was also a member of the presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and he shared the prize with Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, who won for discovering the cosmic microwave background. Kapitsa resistance is the resistance at the interface between liquid helium and a solid. The Kapitsa–Dirac effect is a mechanical effect consisting of the diffraction of electrons by a standing wave of light. In fluid dynamics, the Kapitza number is a dimensionless number characterizing the flow of films of fluid down an incline. Kapitsa was married in 1927 to Anna Alekseevna Krylova, daughter of applied mathematician A. N and they had two sons, Sergey and Andrey. Sergey Kapitsa was a physicist and demographer and he was also the host of the popular and long-running Russian scientific TV show, Evident, but Incredible. He was credited with the discovery and naming of Lake Vostok, the largest subglacial lake in Antarctica, a minor planet 3437 Kapitsa, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1982, is named after him
27.
Turboexpander
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Partial liquefaction of the expanded gas is not uncommon. Turboexpanders currently in operation range in size from about 750 W to about 7.5 MW, although turboexpanders are very commonly used in low-temperature processes, they are used in many other applications as well. This section discusses one of the low temperature processes as well as some of the other applications, the raw gas also contains various amounts of acid gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans such as methanethiol and ethanethiol. When processed into finished by-products, these heavier hydrocarbons are collectively referred to as NGL, the extraction of the NGL often involves a turboexpander and a low-temperature distillation column as shown in Figure 2. The inlet gas to the demethanizer is first cooled to about −51 °C in a heat exchanger which partially condenses the inlet gas, the resultant gas-liquid mixture is then separated into a gas stream and a liquid stream. Liquid from the top tray of the demethanizer is routed through the box where it is warmed to about 0 °C as it cools the inlet gas. Another liquid stream from the section of the demethanizer is routed through the cold box. In effect, the inlet gas provides the required to reboil the bottom of the demethanizer. The overhead gas product from the demethanizer at about −90 °C is processed natural gas that is of quality for distribution to end-use consumers by pipeline. It is routed through the box where it is warmed as it cools the inlet gas. The bottom product from the demethanizer is also warmed in the box, as it cools the inlet gas. Figure 3 depicts a power generation system that uses a heat source, a cooling medium, a circulating working fluid. The condensed liquid is pumped back to the evaporator to complete the cycle, the high-pressure steam then undergoes an isentropic expansion in a conventional steam turbine. The steam turbine exhaust steam is condensed into liquid water which is then pumped back to steam generator to complete the cycle. When an organic working fluid such as R-134a is used in the Rankine cycle, Figure 4 depicts a refrigeration system with a capacity of about 100 to 1000 tons of refrigeration. The system utilizes a compressor, a turboexpander and an electric motor, basically, this can be seen as a form of turbo compounding. As shown in Figure 4, refrigerant vapor is compressed to a higher pressure resulting in a temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is condensed into a liquid
28.
McLouth Steel
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McLouth Steel is a former integrated steel company. The company was once the ninth largest steelmaker in the country, the first plant was in Detroit, Michigan, the second in Trenton, Michigan, and the third, a cold mill, in Gibraltar, Michigan. The Detroit plant is owned by Jones & Laughlin Steel Company. The Trenton facility is owned by Wayne County after foreclosure, and around half the site remains, the Gibraltar cold mill is owned by Ferrolux, and has been restarted. This plant was built by Donald B, McLouth as a small conversion mill on Livernois Avenue in Detroit, MI. The plant was revamped to produce stainless steel in its later years and was bought by Jones. The Detroit mill initially consisted of a small reversing hot rolling mill with a slab heating furnace. The original hot strip mill was known as the Coffee Grinder from the sounds the mill would make, in 1938, the company brought online a single 4-high reversing cold reducing mill with ancillary facilities. In 1947 McLouth Steel began rolling stainless steel, Two single stand reversing cold reducing mills were installed with the related supplementary equipment. In 1954, $6,000,000 of the $100,000,000 expansion plan for the new Trenton plant was used to install two 4-high reversing cold rolling mills. With this new addition to the Detroit plant, the steel production was increased to 52,000 net tons per year. The Detroit plant is a facility for sheet and strip products only. Principal operating units are two 50-inch, 4-high cold reduction mills, a cold anneal and pickle line, a temper mill, two slitting lines, and a coil polisher. Both were installed in 1953 by United and combined, they both have a capacity of 120,000 tons. The cold anneal and pickle line was installed in 1975 by Production Machinery, paper is interleaved between the coil wraps at the exit take up reel to avoid surface abrasion. Coil product was shipped from the Detroit plant via truck. In 1948, McLouth Steel started its $100 million expansion program by purchasing riverfront property in Trenton, construction on the first major construction program was started soon afterward. The site was out and four sixty ton electric arc furnaces were installed
29.
Trenton, Michigan
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Trenton is a small city in Wayne County in the southeast portion of the U. S. state of Michigan. At the 2010 census, the city population was 18,853, the city is part of Downriver, a collection of mostly blue-collar communities south of Detroit on the west bank of the Detroit River. Many residents are employed in the citys factories such as the Chrysler Trenton Engine Plant, Solutia, beaumont Hospital - Trenton is located within city limits and has 203 beds. The former McLouth Steel plant is located in the city. There is rail service in the city, the city operates the 21, 000-square-foot Trenton Veterans Memorial Library and a historical museum. Trenton has 15 churches of 10 denominations, the Battle of Monguagon took place in Trenton on what is now the site of Elizabeth Park. Elizabeth Park is part of the Wayne County park system and was the first county park in Michigan, when Territorial Governor Lewis Cass organized Monguagon Township in 1827, Truax became the first Township Supervisor. He laid out the village of Truaxton in 1834, a post office had been established there named Monguago in 1828 with Truax as the first postmaster. The post office name was changed to Truago in 1837, and to Trenton in 1847, the village was platted and recorded under the name Trenton in 1850 by Abrams son and daughter George Brigham Truax and Sophia Slocum, the wife of industrialist Giles Slocum. The Slocum family estate was given to the county, becoming what is known as Elizabeth Park, in 1834 an industrialist, Giles Bryan Slocum, constructed a dock, making Trenton a major hub of steamboat traffic. In 1846, Capt. Arthur Edwards founded the Detroit & Cleveland Steamboat Company in Trenton, through the late 1880s Trenton, like several Downriver communities, was known for its extensive shipyards. Sibley, Michigan would not be incorporated into Trenton until 1929, Trenton was incorporated as a village in 1855. A Detroit businessman and later Michigans first U. S. attorney, Solomon Sibley, started a quarry near Trenton, near what is today Fort Street. Materials from the quarry were used to structures in Detroit. The quarry was sold to Austin Church, who used limestone to make baking soda. In 1900 the quarry was the site of the Sibley Quarry explosion, Trenton annexed the village of Sibley in 1929, extending the citys northern boundary to modern-day Sibley Road. Trenton was incorporated as a city in 1957, in 1920 a small light railroad ran along West Jefferson to Wyandotte. The rail services ended in 1934, the tracks were removed in 1942 for the war effort
30.
U.S. Steel
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The United States Steel Corporation, more commonly known as U. S. Steel, is an American integrated steel producer with major production operations in the United States, Canada, and Central Europe. The company was the worlds 15th largest steel producer in 2014, at one time, U. S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. It was capitalized at $1.4 billion, making it the worlds first billion-dollar corporation, the company headquarters was established in 1901 in the Empire Building, purchased from the estate of Orlando B. Potter for $5 million. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor, the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company and this led to Tennessee Coals being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U. S. Steel in 1911, in its first full year of operation, U. S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. One hundred years later, its shipments accounted for only about 8 percent of domestic consumption, the Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street, always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production, because of heavy debts taken on at the companys formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U. S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U. S, Steels former first president, Charles M. Schwab. Steels share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, james A. Farrell was named president in 1911 and served until 1932. U. S. Steel ranked 16th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, production peaked at more than 35 million tons in 1953. Its employment was greatest in 1943 when it had more than 340,000 employees, by 2000, however, the federal government has also intervened on other occasions to try to control U. S. Steel. President Harry S. Truman attempted to take over its steel mills in 1952 to resolve a crisis with its union, the United Steelworkers of America. The Supreme Court blocked the takeover by ruling that the president did not have the authority to seize the mills (see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. President John F. Kennedy was more successful in 1962 when he pressured the industry into reversing price increases that Kennedy considered dangerously inflationary. In the early days of the Reagan Administration, steel firms won substantial tax breaks in order to deal with imported goods, instead of modernizing their mills, steel companies shifted capital out of steel and into more profitable areas. In March 1982, U. S. Steel took its concessions and paid $1.4 billion in cash and $4.7 billion in loans for Marathon Oil, saving approximately $500 million in taxes through the merger. The architect of tax concessions to steel firms, Senator Arlen Specter, complained that we go out on a limb in Congress, the incident is the subject of a song by folk singer Anne Feeney. U. S. Steel finally acquired National Steels assets in 2003 after National Steel went bankrupt, as part of its diversification plan U. S. Steel acquired Marathon Oil on January 7,1982, as well as Texas Oil and Gas several years later
31.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
32.
Electric arc furnace
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An electric arc furnace is a furnace that heats charged material by means of an electric arc. Industrial arc furnaces range in size from units of approximately one ton capacity up to about 400 ton units used for secondary steelmaking. Arc furnaces used in laboratories and by dentists may have a capacity of only a few dozen grams. Industrial electric arc furnace temperatures can be up to 1,800 °C, Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge material is directly exposed to an electric arc, and the current in the furnace terminals passes through the charged material. In the 19th century, a number of men had employed an arc to melt iron. The first electric arc furnaces were developed by Paul Héroult, of France, the Sanderson brothers formed The Sanderson Brothers steel Co. in Syracuse, New York, installing the first electric arc furnace in the U. S. This furnace is now on display at Station Square, Pittsburgh, initially electric steel was a specialty product for such uses as machine tools and spring steel. Arc furnaces were used to prepare calcium carbide for use in carbide lamps. The Stassano electric furnace is an arc type furnace that usually rotates to mix the bath, the Girod furnace is similar to the Héroult furnace. While EAFs were widely used in World War II for production of alloy steels, Steel, for low-cost, carbon steel long products in the U. S. market. In 1987, Nucor made the decision to expand into the flat products market, the roof also supports the refractory delta in its centre, through which one or more graphite electrodes enter. The hearth may be hemispherical in shape, or in an eccentric bottom tapping furnace, in modern meltshops, the furnace is often raised off the ground floor, so that ladles and slag pots can easily be manufactured under either end of the furnace. Separate from the structure is the electrode support and electrical system. Two configurations are possible, the supports and the roof tilt with the furnace. A typical alternating current furnace is powered by an electrical supply. Electrodes are round in section, and typically in segments with threaded couplings, so that as the electrodes wear, new segments can be added. The arc forms between the material and the electrode, the charge is heated both by current passing through the charge and by the radiant energy evolved by the arc. The electric arc temperature reaches around 3000 °C, thus causing the lower sections of the electrodes glow incandescently when in operation, the electrodes are automatically raised and lowered by a positioning system, which may use either electric winch hoists or hydraulic cylinders
33.
Scunthorpe
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Scunthorpe is a town in Lincolnshire, England. It is the centre of the North Lincolnshire unitary authority. A predominantly industrial town, Scunthorpe, the United Kingdoms largest steel processing centre, is known as the Industrial Garden Town. It is the third largest settlement in Lincolnshire, after Lincoln, the Member of Parliament for Scunthorpe is Nic Dakin. Scunthorpe as a town came into existence due to the exploitation of the local ironstone resources, the regional population grew from 1,245 in 1851 to 11,167 in 1901 and 45,840 in 1941. During the expansion Scunthorpe expanded to include the villages of Scunthorpe, Frodingham. Scunthorpe became an district in 1891, merged as Scunthorpe, Brumby and Frodingham Urban District in 1919. Scunthorpe is located close to an outcrop of high-lime-content ironstone from a seam of the Lias Group strata which dates from the Early Jurassic period, ironstone was mined by open cast methods from the 1850s onwards, and by underground mining from the late 1930s. In the 1970s the steel industry in Scunthorpe transitioned to use of imported from outside the UK with higher iron content. Underground mining in the area ceased in 1981, Scunthorpe was close to the epicentre of one of the largest earthquakes experienced in the British Isles on 27 February 2008, with a magnitude of 5.2. Significant shocks were felt in Scunthorpe and the surrounding North Lincolnshire area, the main 10-second quake, which struck at 00,56 GMT at a depth of 9.6 mi, was the second largest recorded in the British Isles. In 1984 a quake with a magnitude of 5.4 struck north Wales, Scunthorpe forms an unparished area in the borough and unitary authority of North Lincolnshire. The town forms six of the seventeen wards, namely Ashby, Brumby, Crosby & Park, Frodingham, Kingsway with Lincoln Gardens. The Scunthorpe wards elect 16 of the boroughs 43 councillors, as of 2008, all are members of the Labour party. The councillors form the trustees of the Town of Scunthorpe. North Lincolnshire Council is based in Pittwood House off Ashby Road next to Festival Gardens and it opened in 1963 as the Civic Centre, and was the home of Scunthorpe Borough Council until 1996. It was named after Edwin Pittwood, a local Labour politician, there are also offices at Church Square House near the Scunthorpe Market. Pittwood House has since renamed as Civic Centre due to the relocation of the Register Office from its old premises in Oswald road
34.
Blast furnace
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A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper. The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the bottom, the downward flow of the ore and flux in contact with an upflow of hot, carbon monoxide-rich combustion gases is a countercurrent exchange and chemical reaction process. In contrast, air furnaces are naturally aspirated, usually by the convection of hot gases in a chimney flue, according to this broad definition, bloomeries for iron, blowing houses for tin, and smelt mills for lead would be classified as blast furnaces. Blast furnaces existed in China from about 1st century AD and in the West from the High Middle Ages and they spread from the region around Namur in Wallonia in the late 15th century, being introduced to England in 1491. The fuel used in these was invariably charcoal, the successful substitution of coke for charcoal is widely attributed to Abraham Darby in 1709. The efficiency of the process was enhanced by the practice of preheating the combustion air. The oldest extant blast furnaces were built during the Han Dynasty of China in the 1st century AD. However, cast iron tools and weapons were widespread in China by the 5th century BC. These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus-containing minerals as a flux, the effectiveness of the Chinese blast furnace was enhanced during this period by the engineer Du Shi, who applied the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron. He suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt bronze, certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the State of Qin had unified China. Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang Dynasties and this may have happened as early as the 4th century AD. The Chinese blast furnace remained in use well until the 20th century, the backyard furnaces favoured by Mao Zedong during the Great Leap Forward were of this type. In the regions with strong traditions of metallurgy, the production actually increased during this period. In most places in the other than in China, there is no evidence of the use of the blast furnace. Instead, iron was made by reduction in bloomeries. The bloomery process was invented probably in modern-day Xinjiang or other parts of Western China by Hans or Mongols around 800 BC. Iron finds in China proper are few before bloomeries were supplanted by the blast furnace in the 5th century BC which seems to have developed independently in the southern Chinese cultural sphere, in Europe, the Greeks, Celts, Romans, and Carthaginians all used this process. Several examples have found in France, and materials found in Tunisia suggest they were used there as well as in Antioch during the Hellenistic Period
35.
Ladle (metallurgy)
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In a foundry, a ladle is a vessel used to transport and pour out molten metals. Ladles range in size from small hand carried vessels that resemble a kitchen ladle, many non-ferrous foundries also use ceramic crucibles for transporting and pouring molten metal and will also refer to these as ladles. The basic term is often pre-fixed to define the purpose of the ladle. The basic ladle design can include many variations that improve the usage of the ladle for specific tasks. For example, Casting ladle, a used to pour molten metal into moulds to produce the casting. Transfer ladle, a used to transfer a large amount of molten metal from one process to another. Typically a transfer ladle will be used to transfer molten metal from a melting furnace to either an holding furnace or an auto-pour unit. Treatment ladle, a used for a process to take place within the ladle to change some aspect of the molten metal. A typical example being to convert cast iron to iron by the addition of various elements into the ladle. Unless the ladle is to be used with alloys that have very low melting point. Refractory lining materials come in forms and the right choice very much depends on each foundrys working practices. Traditionally ladles used to be lined using pre-cast firebricks however refractory concretes have tended to supersede these in many countries, foundry ladles are normally rated by their working capacity rather than by their physical size. Hand-held ladles are typically known as handshank ladles and are fitted with a handle to keep the heat of the metal away from the person holding it. Their capacity is limited to what a man can safely handle, larger ladles are usually referred to as geared crane ladles. Their capacity is determined by the ladle function. Small hand-held ladles might also be crucibles that are fitted with carrying devices, the gearbox can either be manually operated or powered operation. The most common shape for a ladle is a vertical cone, having a tapered cone as the shell adds strength and rigidity to the shell. Having the taper also helps when it time to remove the refractory lining
36.
Sulphur
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Sulfur or sulphur is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent, and nonmetallic, under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur reacts with all elements except for gold, platinum, iridium, tellurium, though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China, in the Bible, sulfur is called brimstone. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas, the greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical processes. The element sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and fungicides, many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes, sulfur is an essential element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Three amino acids and two vitamins are organosulfur compounds, many cofactors also contain sulfur including glutathione and thioredoxin and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the keratin, found in outer skin, hair. Sulfur is one of the chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all organisms. Sulfur is derived from the Latin word sulpur, which was Hellenized to sulphur, the spelling sulfur appears toward the end of the Classical period. In 12th-century Anglo-French, it was sulfre, in the 14th century the Latin ph was restored, for sulphre, the parallel f~ph spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as sulphur. Sulfur was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both, the IUPAC adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990, as did the Nomenclature Committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1992, restoring the spelling sulfur to Britain. Sulfur forms polyatomic molecules with different chemical formulas, the best-known allotrope being octasulfur, cyclo-S8. The point group of cyclo-S8 is D4d and its dipole moment is 0 D. Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless and it melts at 115.21 °C, boils at 444.6 °C and sublimes easily. At 95.2 °C, below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur changes from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph, the structure of the S8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase change, which affects the intermolecular interactions. At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs, molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C
37.
Silicon
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Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. A hard and brittle crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It is a member of group 14 in the table, along with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead. It is not very reactive, although more reactive than germanium, Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earths crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, over 90% of the Earths crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earths crust after oxygen. Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and often with little processing of the natural minerals, such use includes industrial construction with clays, silica sand, and stone. Silicate is used in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and mixed with sand and gravel to make concrete for walkways, foundations. Silicates are used in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass, Silicon compounds such as silicon carbide are used as abrasives and components of high-strength ceramics. Elemental silicon also has an impact on the modern world economy. Most free silicon is used in the refining, aluminium-casting. Silicon is the basis of the widely used synthetic polymers called silicones, Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces are required by animals. However, various sea sponges and microorganisms, such as diatoms and radiolaria, silica is deposited in many plant tissues, such as in the bark and wood of Chrysobalanaceae and the silica cells and silicified trichomes of Cannabis sativa, horsetails and many grasses. Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with a point of 1,414 °C. Like water, it has a density in a liquid state than in a solid state and it expands when it freezes. With a relatively high conductivity of 149 W·m−1·K−1, silicon conducts heat well. In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color, like germanium, silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a cubic crystal structure with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm. The outer electron orbital of silicon, like that of carbon, has four valence electrons, the 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s subshells are completely filled while the 3p subshell contains two electrons out of a possible six
38.
Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
39.
Magnesium
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Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol Mg and atomic number 12. Magnesium is the ninth most abundant element in the universe and it is produced in large, aging stars from the sequential addition of three helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earths crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth, making up 13% of the planets mass and it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine. Magnesium occurs naturally only in combination with elements, where it invariably has a +2 oxidation state. The free element can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive, the free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant-white light. The metal is now obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine, Magnesium is less dense than aluminium, and the alloy is prized for its combination of lightness and strength. Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the body and is essential to all cells. Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids, elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting and the lowest boiling point 1,363 K of all the alkaline earth metals, Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal. When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal—though, if powdered, the reaction occurs faster with higher temperatures. Magnesiums reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy, Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid, producing the metal chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals. Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C, although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm. Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish, with combustion continuing in nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature. When burning in air, magnesium produces a light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder was used for illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs, Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required
40.
Magnesium sulphide
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Magnesium sulfide is an inorganic compound with the formula MgS. It is a crystalline material but often is encountered in an impure form that is brown. It is generated industrially in the production of metallic iron, MgS is formed by the reaction of sulfur or hydrogen sulfide with magnesium. It crystallizes in the salt structure as its most stable phase, its zinc blende. The chemical properties of MgS resemble those of related ionic sulfides such as those of sodium, barium and it reacts with oxygen to form the corresponding sulfate, magnesium sulfate. MgS reacts with water to hydrogen sulfide and magnesium hydroxide. In the BOS steelmaking process, sulfur is the first element to be removed, sulfur is removed from the impure blast furnace iron by the addition of several hundred kilograms of magnesium powder by a lance. Magnesium sulfide is formed, which floats on the molten iron and is removed. MgS is a wide band-gap direct semiconductor of interest as a blue-green emitter, the wide-band gap property also allows the use of MgS as photo-detector for short wavelength ultraviolet light. Aside from being a component of some slags, MgS is a rare nonterrestial mineral niningerite detected in some meteorites, MgS is also found in the circumstellar envelopes of certain evolved carbon stars, i. e. those with C/O >1. MgS evolves hydrogen sulfide upon contact with moisture
41.
Exothermic process
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Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix έξω and the Greek word θερμικός. The term exothermic was first coined by Marcellin Berthelot, the opposite of an exothermic process is an endothermic process, one that absorbs energy in the form of heat. The concept is applied in the physical sciences to chemical reactions. Exothermic describe two types of reactions or systems found in nature, as follows. Simply stated, after a reaction, more energy has been released to the surroundings than was absorbed to initiate. On the other hand, in a reaction or system. Exothermic refers to a transformation in which a system releases energy to the surroundings, when the transformation occurs at constant pressure, one has for the enthalpy ∆H <0, and constant volume, one has for the internal energy ∆U <0. In an adiabatic system, a process results in an increase in temperature of the system. In exothermic chemical reactions, the heat that is released by the reaction takes the form of electromagnetic energy, the transition of electrons from one quantum energy level to another causes light to be released. This light is equivalent in energy to the energy of the energy for the chemical reaction. This light that is released can be absorbed by other molecules in solution to give rise to molecular vibrations or rotations, which gives rise to the classical understanding of heat. In contrast, when endothermic reactions occur, energy is absorbed to place an electron in an energy state. Net energy is absorbed by an endothermic reaction, in an exothermic reaction, the energy needed to start the reaction is less than the energy that is subsequently released, so there is a net release of energy. This is the understanding of exothermic and endothermic reactions. In a thermochemical reaction that is exothermic, the heat may be listed among the products of the reaction, because of historical accident, students encounter a source of possible confusion between the terminology of physics and biology. Http, //chemistry. about. com/b/a/184556. htm Observe exothermic reactions in a simple experiment
42.
Mill scale
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Mill scale, often shortened to just scale, is the flaky surface of hot rolled steel, consisting of the iron oxides iron oxide, iron oxide, and iron oxide. Mill scale is formed on the surfaces of plates, sheets or profiles when they are being produced by rolling red hot iron or steel billets in rolling mills. Mill scale is composed of iron oxides mostly ferric and is black in color. It is usually less than 0.1 mm thick and initially adheres to the steel surface, because it is electro-chemically cathodic to steel, any break in the mill scale coating will cause accelerated corrosion of steel exposed at the break. Mill scale is thus a boon for a while until its coating breaks due to handling of the product or due to any other mechanical cause. Mill scale is a nuisance when the steel is to be processed, any paint applied over it is wasted, since it will come off with the scale as moisture-laden air gets under it. Thus mill scale can be removed from surfaces by flame cleaning, pickling, or abrasive blasting. This is why shipbuilders used to leave steel delivered freshly rolled from mills out in the open to allow it to weather until most of the fell off due to atmospheric action. Nowadays most steel mills can supply their produce with mill scale removed, mill scale generated in rolling mills will be collected and sent to a sinter plant for recycling. Mill scale is sought after by select abstract expressionist artists as its effect on steel can cause unpredicted, although the majority of mill scale is removed during its passage through scale breaker rolls during manufacturing, smaller structurally inconsequential residue can be visible. Mill scale can be used as a raw material in granular refractory, when this refractory is cast and preheated, these scales provide escape routes for the evaporating water vapor, thus preventing cracks and resulting in a strong monolithic structure
43.
Furnace
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A furnace is a device used for high-temperature heating. The name derives from Greek word fornax, which means oven, the heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through induction heating in induction furnaces. Furnace may also be a synonym for kiln, a used in the production of ceramics. Furnaces can be classified into four categories, based on efficiency. The first category would be natural draft, atmospheric burner furnaces and these furnaces consisted of cast-iron or riveted-steel heat exchangers built within an outer shell of brick, masonry, or steel. The heat exchangers were vented through brick or masonry chimneys, air circulation depended on large, upwardly pitched pipes constructed of wood or metal The pipes would channel the warm air into floor or wall vents inside the home. This method of heating worked because warm air rises, the system was simple, had few controls, a single automatic gas valve, and no blower. These furnaces could be made to work with any fuel simply by adapting the burner area and they have been operated with wood, coke, coal, trash, paper, natural gas, and fuel oil. Furnaces that used solid fuels required daily maintenance to remove ash, in later years, these furnaces were adapted with electric blowers to aid air distribution and speed moving heat into the home. The second category of furnace is the forced-air, atmospheric burner style with a cast-iron or sectional steel heat exchanger. Through the 1950s and 1960s, this style of furnace was used to replace the big, natural draft systems, the heated air was moved by blowers which were belt driven and designed for a wide range of speeds. These furnaces were still big and bulky compared to modern furnaces, energy efficiency would range anywhere from just over 50% to upward of 65% AFUE. This style furnace still used large, masonry or brick chimneys for flues and was designed to accommodate air-conditioning systems. The third category of furnace is the draft, mid-efficiency furnace with a steel heat exchanger. These furnaces were physically much more compact than the previous styles and they were equipped with combustion air blowers that would pull air through the heat exchanger which greatly increased fuel efficiency while allowing the heat exchangers to become smaller. These furnaces may have multi-speed blowers and were designed to work with central air-conditioning systems, the fourth category of furnace is the high-efficiency, or condensing furnace. High-efficiency furnaces can achieve from 89% to 98% fuel efficiency and this style of furnace includes a sealed combustion area, combustion draft inducer and a secondary heat exchanger. Because the heat exchanger removes most of the heat from the exhaust gas, it actually condenses water vapor, the vent pipes are normally installed with PVC pipe versus metal vent pipe to prevent corrosion
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Carbon
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Carbon is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds, three isotopes occur naturally, 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is a radioactive isotope, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity, Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earths crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is the second most abundant element in the body by mass after oxygen. The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways, termed allotropes of carbon, the best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon. The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form, for example, graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper, while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known, graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity. Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials, all carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen, the most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil. For this reason, carbon has often referred to as the king of the elements. The allotropes of carbon graphite, one of the softest known substances, and diamond. It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms, Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements, although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature. Carbon is the element, with a ground-state electron configuration of 1s22s22p2. Its first four ionisation energies,1086.5,2352.6,4620.5 and 6222.7 kJ/mol, are higher than those of the heavier group 14 elements. Carbons covalent radii are normally taken as 77.2 pm,66.7 pm and 60.3 pm, although these may vary depending on coordination number, in general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order. Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on Earth
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