1.
Gabriel
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Gabriel, in the Abrahamic religions, is an angel who typically serves as Gods messenger. Gabriel is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, in the Old Testament, he appears to the prophet Daniel, explaining Daniels visions. In the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel appeared to Zechariah and the Virgin Mary, foretelling the births of John the Baptist and Jesus, respectively. In the Book of Daniel, he is referred to as the man Gabriel, while in the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel is not called an archangel in the Bible, but is so called in Intertestamental period sources like the Book of Enoch. In the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican churches, the archangels Michael, Raphael, in Islam, Gabriel is considered an archangel whom God is believed to have sent with revelation to various prophets, including Muhammad. The 96th chapter of the Quran, The Clot, is believed by Muslims to have been the first chapter revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad, in the LDS Faith, The Angel Gabriel was The Prophet Noah, and Michael the Archangel was the Prophet Adam in their Mortal Ministries. Jewish rabbis interpreted the man in linen as Gabriel in the Book of Daniel, in the Book of Daniel, Gabriel is responsible for interpreting Daniels visions. Gabriels main function in Daniel is that of revealer, a role he continues in later literature, in the Book of Ezekiel, Gabriel is understood to be the angel that was sent to destroy Jerusalem. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Gabriel takes the form of a man, shimon ben Lakish concluded that the angelic names of Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel came out of the Babylonian exile. In Kabbalah, Gabriel is identified with the sephirot of Yesod, Gabriel also has a prominent role as one of Gods archangels in the Kabbalah literature. There, Gabriel is portrayed as working in concert with Michael as part of Gods court, Gabriel is not to be prayed to because only God can answer prayers and sends Gabriel as his agent. According to Jewish mythology, in the Garden of Eden there is a tree of life or the tree of souls that blossoms and produces new souls, which fall into the Guf, Gabriel reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then Lailah, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born, the intertestamental period produced a wealth of literature, much of it having an apocalyptic orientation. The names and ranks of angels and devils were greatly expanded, and each had particular duties and status before God. In 1 Enoch 9, 1–3, Gabriel, along with Michael, Uriel and Suriel, saw much blood being shed upon the earth and heard the souls of men cry, Bring our cause before the Most High. —1 Enoch 10,9 Gabriel is the fifth of the five angels who watch, Gabriel, one of the holy angels, who is over Paradise and the serpents. And these are the four angels of the Lord of Spirits, the angel Gabriel is mentioned in Daniel 8, 16-26 and 9, 20-27. Gabriel, one who looked like a man, interprets Daniels visions, Gabriel speaks to Daniel while he is in a deep sleep, and Daniel is tired and sick for days after being with Gabriel
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
4.
Administrative divisions of Serbia
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Autonomous provinces Serbia has two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo and Metohija in the south. The province of Vojvodina has its own Assembly and Government of Vojvodina and it enjoys autonomy on certain matters, such as infrastructure, science, education and culture. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija has been transferred to the administration of UNMIK since June 1999, Central Serbia The Central Serbia is the area that lies between the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija and it was known under that name until 2009. It was not a division, and it did not have any regional authority of its own. In 2009, the National Assembly of Serbia adopted the Law on Equal Territorial Development that formed 7 statistical regions in the territory of Serbia, the Law was amended on 7 April 2010, reducing the number of regions from seven to five. The previously formed region of Eastern Serbia was merged with Southern Serbia, districts are not defined by the Law on Territorial Organisation, but are organised under the Governments Enactment of 29 January 1992. Serbia is divided into 29 districts, while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own, municipalities Serbia is divided into 147 municipalities and 27 cities, which form the basic units of local government. Each municipality has its own assembly, a president, public service property. Municipalities usually have more than 10,000 inhabitants, municipalities comprise local communities, which mostly correspond to settlements in the rural areas. Urban areas are divided into local communities. Their roles include communication of elected representatives with citizens, organization of citizen initiatives related with public service. They are presided over by councils, elected in semi-formal elections, the role of local communities is far more important in rural areas, due to proximity to municipal centers, many urban local communities are defunct. Cities Cities are another type of local self-government, territories with the status of city usually have more than 100,000 inhabitants, but are otherwise very similar to municipalities. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own, only cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as mayors in everyday usage. The city may or may not be divided into city municipalities, five cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac and Vranje comprise several municipalities, divided into urban and suburban areas. Competences of cities and their municipalities are divided and this move is not recognized by Serbia, but is recognized by the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. According to the new subdivision, Kosovo is divided into 7 districts and 37 municipalities
5.
Belgrade
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Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and its name translates to White city. The urban area of the City of Belgrade has a population of 1.34 million, one of the most important prehistoric cultures of Europe, the Vinča culture, evolved within the Belgrade area in the 6th millennium BC. In antiquity, Thraco-Dacians inhabited the region, and after 279 BC Celts conquered the city and it was conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus, and awarded city rights in the mid-2nd century. In 1521, Belgrade was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and became the seat of the Sanjak of Smederevo and it frequently passed from Ottoman to Habsburg rule, which saw the destruction of most of the city during the Austro-Ottoman wars. Belgrade was again named the capital of Serbia in 1841, northern Belgrade remained the southernmost Habsburg post until 1918, when the city was reunited. As a strategic location, the city was battled over in 115 wars, Belgrade was the capital of Yugoslavia from its creation in 1918, to its final dissolution in 2006. Belgrade has an administrative status within Serbia and it is one of five statistical regions of Serbia. Its metropolitan territory is divided into 17 municipalities, each with its own local council, City of Belgrade covers 3. 6% of Serbias territory, and 22. 5% of the countrys population lives within its administrative limits. It is classified as a Beta- global city, chipped stone tools found at Zemun show that the area around Belgrade was inhabited by nomadic foragers in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras. Some of these belong to the Mousterian industry, which are associated with Neanderthals rather than modern humans. Aurignacian and Gravettian tools have also discovered there, indicating occupation between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago. The first farming people to settle in the region are associated with the Neolithic Starčevo culture, there are several Starčevo sites in and around Belgrade, including the eponymous site of Starčevo. The Starčevo culture was succeeded by the Vinča culture, a more sophisticated farming culture that grew out of the earlier Starčevo settlements which is named for a site in the Belgrade region. Evidence of early knowledge about Belgrades geographical location comes from ancient myths, the rock overlooking the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers has been identified as one of the place in the story of Jason and the Argonauts. The Paleo-Balkan tribes of Thracians and Dacians ruled this area prior to the Roman conquest, Belgrade was inhabited by a Thraco-Dacian tribe Singi, after the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, the Scordisci took the city, naming it Singidūn. In 34–33 BC the Roman army led by Silanus reached Belgrade, jovian reestablished Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, ending the brief revival of traditional Roman religions under his predecessor Julian the Apostate. In 395 AD, the passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire
6.
Subdivisions of Belgrade
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The city of Belgrade is divided into 17 city municipalities. Most of the municipalities are situated on the side of the Danube and Sava rivers. Three municipalities are on the bank of the Sava, in the Syrmia region. An urban municipality is a part of the territory of the City of Belgrade, the bodies of the urban municipality are, Municipal Assembly Municipal Council The number of councilors in the Municipal Assembly ranges from 19 to 75 councilors. The District Council Chairman presides over the Municipal Assembly, and he/she is a chairperson of the Municipal Council, the Municipal Assembly elects the District Council Chairman among the municipal councilors. The Municipal Council is composed of the District Council Chairman, Deputy District Council Chairman, the Municipal Council members are elected by the Municipal Assembly among both councilors and citizens further to the proposal by the District Council Chairman. List of Belgrade neighborhoods and suburbs List of former and proposed municipalities of Belgrade Municipalities of Serbia Standing Conference of Towns and Municipalities
7.
Zemun
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Zemun is an urban neighborhood and one of 17 city municipalities that constitute the city of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. Zemun was a town that was absorbed into Belgrade in 1934. The development of New Belgrade in the late 20th century affected the expansion of the urban area of Belgrade. According to the 2011 census results, the municipality of Zemun has a population of 168,170 inhabitants, in ancient times, the Celtic and Roman settlement was known as Taurunum. The Frankish chroniclers of the Crusades mentioned it as Mallevila, a toponym from the 9th century and this was also a period when the Slavic name Zemln was recorded for the first time. Believed to be derived from the word zemlja, meaning earth, it was a basis for all other names of the city, modern Serbian Земун or Zemun, Hungarian Zimony. The area of Zemun has been inhabited since the Neolithic period, baden culture graves and ceramics like bowls and anthropomorphic urns were found in the town. Bosut culture graves were found in nearby Asfaltna Baza, the first Celtic settlements in Taurunum area originate from the 3rd century BC when the Scordisci occupied several Thracian and Dacian areas of the Danube. The Romans came in the 1st century BC, Taurunum became part of the Roman province of Pannonia around 15 AD and it had a fortress and served as a harbour for the Pannonian fleet of Singidunum. The pen of Roman poet Publius Ovidius Naso was said to be found in Taurunum, after the Great Migrations the area was under the authority of various peoples and states, including the Byzantine Empire, the Kingdom of the Gepids and the Bulgarian Empire. The town was conquered by the Kingdom of Hungary in the 12th century, after the nearby Serbian Despotate fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1459, Zemun became an important military outpost. In 1521, the forces of Kingdom of Hungary,500 šajkaši crew consisted of Croats, despite hard resistance, Zemun fell on July 12 and Belgrade soon afterwards. In 1541, Zemun was integrated into the Syrmia sanjak of the Budin pashaluk, in 1736, Zemun was the site of a peasant revolt. Its strategic location near the confluence of the Sava and the Danube placed it in the center of the border wars between the Habsburg and the Ottoman empires. The Treaty of Belgrade of 1739 finally fixed the border, the Military Frontier was organized in the region in 1746, in 1754, the population of Zemun included 1,900 Orthodox Christians,600 Catholics,76 Jews, and about 100 Romani. In 1777, the population of Zemun numbered 1,130 houses with 6,800 residents, half of which were ethnic Serbs, while half of population was composed of Catholics, Jews, Armenians. Among Catholic population, the largest ethnic group were Germans, from this period originates the increased settlement of Germans and Hungarians in the Zemun. Zemun prospered as an important road intersection and a border city, in 1816 it was greatly expanded by mass resettlement of Germans and Serbs in the new town suburbs of Franzenstal and Gornja Varoš, respectively
8.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
9.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
10.
Telephone numbers in Serbia
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Regulation of the telephone numbers in Serbia is under the responsibility of the Regulatory Agency of Electronic Communication and Mail Services, independent from the government. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, the country has an open telephone numbering plan, with most numbers consisting of a 2- or 3-digit calling code and a 6-7 digits of customer number. The country calling code of Serbia is +381, Serbia and Montenegro received the code of +381 following the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. Montenegro switched to +382 after its independence in 2006, so +381 is now used only by Serbia, for domestic calls,0 must be dialed before the area code. For calls from Serbia, the prefix for international calls was 99, Calling code areas in Serbia have been largely unchanged since the time of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. As Socialist Republic of Serbia had been assigned codes starting with 1,2 and 3, Calling code areas, Until 2013, Telekom Srbija had a monopoly on fixed telephony services. The calling codes are assigned to the using the following scheme. However, since 2011 customers can change the operator and retain the old calling code, thus, calling codes do not necessary reflect the operator. It is not possible, however, to transfer a number to a land-based operator. The following special telephone numbers are valid across the country, On 21 May 2012 and this also applied to 976,985,987 and 9860. 112 redirects to 192 on mobile phones, the dialing code for Kosovo is +383. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, but retained the +381 calling code for fixed telephony until 2016, dialing code +383 started to be allocated on 15 December 2016. Republic Telecommunication Agency Telephone services in Serbia Telecommunications in Serbia
11.
Vehicle registration plates of Serbia
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Vehicle registration plates of Serbia are issued using a two-letter region code, followed by three or four-digit numeric and a two-letter alpha license code, separated by a hyphen. The region code and the code are separated by the shield of Serbia. A blue field is placed along the side edge, as in European Union countries. License numeric code contains combination of three digits, while two letter code is made of combination of letters using Serbian Latin alphabet order, with addition of letters X, Y and W. The standard dimensions of a Serbian license plates are 520.5 ×112.9 mm, issuance of current license plates started on January 1,2011 and they will be used alongside the old ones during the transitional period until the end of 2011. g. The letter in the middle is denoting the status of the owner and these are issued for agricultural vehicles, e. g. tractors, or construction vehicles. These plates consists of two-letter region code, coat of arms of Serbia and these plates had green background and black letters. Slow traffic vehicles use yellow background plates, the format is like older format of Serbia, it is two-letter regional code, then numbers. Older plates for slow traffic vehicles had white background and almost exactly like agriculture plates, it is regional letters at top on the plates, trailer plates is reversed format of the civilian license plates. It is serial letter, then numbers and then regional code, older trailers had up to six characters then regional code. Military plates had just one letters, then coat of arms, older military plates had a code indicating the branch was on, then one letters and then four numbers. Police plates had the letters П and then six numbers, older plates had letters M Mopeds use plates exactly like an older Serbian plates before 2011. Temporary plates had the letters RPE then regional code then numbers, older plates had the letters RP, then numbers, year of expiration and then number denoting the region. UNHCR plates use blue font then had the letters UNHCR and then numbers and this plate has been replaced by diplomatic plates. Exceptional vehicles had a red background and white letters, UNPF plates had the letters UNPF and then numbers. This plate is no longer issued, dealer plates had the regional letters on the top and then numbers. Military reserve plates had military branch was on and then 5 numbers, portal posvećen registraciji vozila Registracija vozila Nove tablice od 2011, cena 40 evra. Pravilnik o registraciji motornih i priključnih vozila Car Transport in Serbia
12.
Serbian Cyrillic alphabet
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The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script for the Serbian language, developed in 1818 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić. It is one of the two used to write standard modern Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, the other being Latin. During the same period, Croatian linguists led by Ljudevit Gaj adapted the Latin alphabet, in use in western South Slavic areas, using the same principles. As a result of this joint effort, Cyrillic and Latin alphabets for Serbo-Croatian have a complete one-to-one congruence, with the Latin digraphs Lj, Nj, and Dž counting as single letters. Vuks Cyrillic alphabet was adopted in Serbia in 1868, and was in exclusive use in the country up to the inter-war period. Both alphabets were co-official in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in Serbia, Cyrillic is seen as being more traditional, and has the official status. It is also a script in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro, along with Latin. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was used as a basis for the Macedonian alphabet with the work of Krste Misirkov, Cyrillic is in official use in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian language in Croatia is officially recognized as a minority language, however, Cyrillic is an important symbol of Serbian identity. In Serbia, official documents are printed in Cyrillic only even though, according to a 2014 survey, Glagolitic appears to be older, predating the introduction of Christianity, only formalized by Cyril and expanded to cover non-Greek sounds. Cyrillic was created by the orders of Boris I of Bulgaria by Cyrils disciples, the earliest form of Cyrillic was the ustav, based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures and letters from the Glagolitic alphabet for consonants not found in Greek. There was no distinction between capital and lowercase letters, the literary Slavic language was based on the Bulgarian dialect of Thessaloniki. Part of the Serbian literary heritage of the Middle Ages are works such as Vukan Gospels, St. Savas Nomocanon, Dušans Code, Munich Serbian Psalter, the first printed book in Serbian was the Cetinje Octoechos. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić fled Serbia during the Serbian Revolution in 1813, there he met Jernej Kopitar, a linguist with interest in slavistics. Kopitar and Sava Mrkalj helped Vuk to reform the Serbian language and he finalized the alphabet in 1818 with the Serbian Dictionary. Karadžić also translated the New Testament into Serbian, which was published in 1868 and he wrote several books, Mala prostonarodna slaveno-serbska pesnarica and Pismenica serbskoga jezika in 1814, and two more in 1815 and 1818, all with the alphabet still in progress. In his letters from 1815-1818 he used, Ю, я, Ы and Ѳ, in his 1815 song book he dropped the Ѣ. The alphabet was adopted in 1868, four years after his death
13.
Syrmia
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Syrmia is a fertile region of the Pannonian Plain in Europe, which lies between the Danube and Sava rivers. The majority of Syrmia is located in the Srem and South Bačka districts of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia, a smaller area around Novi Beograd, Zemun, and Surčin belongs to the City of Belgrade. The remaining part of Syrmia is in Vukovar-Srijem County, Croatia, over centuries, Syrmia has been ruled by many different entities. The westernmost part of Syrmia is in eastern Croatia in Vukovar-Srijem, the word Syrmia is derived from the ancient city of Sirmium. Sirmium was an Celtic or Illyrian town founded in the third century BC, Srem and Srijem are used in contemporary standard Serbian and Croatian languages to designate the region. Sirmium was conquered by Romans in the first century BC and became the economic, in 6 AD, there was an uprising of the indigenous peoples against Roman rule. However, ten later Roman Emperors were born in Sirmium or nearby and they included Herennius Etruscus, Hostilian, Decius Traian, Claudius II, Quintillus, Aurelian, Probus, Maximianus Herculius, Constantius II and Gratian. These emperors were mostly Romanised Illyrians, in the 6th century AD, Pannonia, was a province of the Byzantine Empire. Through vassal arrangements, Sermia fell under control of various rulers, in the 7th century AD, the ruler of Syrmia was Kuber, a Bulgar leader, who was a vassal of the Avars. In the early 9th century AD, Syrmia was part of the Slavic state of Pannonian Croatia, the ruler, Prince Ljudevit Posavski lost control to the Franks. In 827 AD the Bulgars returned and continued to rule after a treaty in 845 AD. In the 11th century, the ruler of Syrmia was Duke Sermon, vassal of the Bulgarian emperor, there had been Bulgar resistance to Byantine rule. This collapsed and Sermon, who refused to capitulate was captured and killed by Constantine Diogenes, a new but ultimately short lived area of governance named the Thema of Sirmium was established. It included the region of Syrmia and what is now Mačva, in the 12th century, the region was controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary. On 3 March 1229, the acquisition of Syrmia was confirmed by Papal bull, pope Gregory IX wrote, soror…regis Ungarie terram…ulterior Sirmia. In 1231, The Duke of Syrmia was Giletus, in the 1200s, the territory around Syrmia was divided into two counties, Syrmia in the east and Vukovar in the west. In the 13th century, between 1282 and 1316, Syrmia was ruled by Stefan Dragutin of Serbia, initially, Dragutin was a vassal of Hungary but later ruled independently. Dragutin died in 1316, and was succeeded by his son, in 1324, Vladislav II was defeated by Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Rascia
14.
Vojvodina
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Vojvodina, officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian Plain. Novi Sad is the largest city and administrative center of Vojvodina, Vojvodina has a population of almost 2 million. It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity, there are some 26 ethnic groups in the province, the term vojvodina in Serbian means a type of duchy – more specifically, a voivodeship. It derives from the word vojvoda which stems from the Proto-Slavic language word voevoda and those words are etymologically connected with modern-day words vojnik and voditi. Its original name was the Serbian Voivodeship which then became Voivodeship of Serbia, Indo-European peoples first settled in the territory of present-day Vojvodina in 4200 BC. Before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, Indo-European peoples of Illyrian, Thracian, the first states organized in this area were the Celtic State of the Scordisci with capital in Singidunum, and the Dacian Kingdom of Burebista. During Roman rule, Sirmium was one of the four cities of the Roman Empire. The city was also the capital of several Roman administrative units, including Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Secunda, the Diocese of Pannonia, Roman rule lasted until the 5th century, after which the region came into the possession of various peoples and states. While Banat was a part of the Roman province of Dacia, Syrmia belonged to the Roman province of Pannonia, Bačka was not part of the Roman Empire and was populated and ruled by Sarmatian Iazyges. After the Romans were driven away from this region, various Indo-European and these peoples included Goths, Sarmatians, Huns, Gepids and Avars. For regional history, the largest in importance was a Gepid state, according to the 7th-century Miracles of Saint Demetrius, Avars gave the region of Syrmia to a Bulgar leader named Kuber circa 680. The Bulgars of Kuber moved south with Maurus to Macedonia where they co-operated with Tervel in the 8th century, Slavs settled todays Vojvodina in the 6th and 7th centuries, before some of them crossed the rivers Sava and Danube and settled in the Balkans. Slavic tribes that lived in the territory of present-day Vojvodina included Abodrites, Severans, Braničevci, in the 9th century, after the fall of the Avar state, the first forms of Slavic statehood emerged in this area. The first Slavic states that ruled over this region included the Bulgarian Empire, Great Moravia, during the Bulgarian administration, local Bulgarian dukes, Salan and Glad, ruled over the region. Salans residence was Titel, while that of Glad was possibly in the rampart of Galad or perhaps in the Kladovo in eastern Serbia. Glads descendant was the duke Ahtum, another ruler from the 11th century who opposed the establishment of Hungarian rule over the region. In the village of Čelarevo archaeologists have found traces of people who practised the Judaic religion. Bunardžić dated Avar-Bulgar graves excavated in Čelarevo, containing skulls with Mongolian features and Judaic symbols, erdely and Vilkhnovich consider the graves to belong to the Kabars who eventually broke ties with the Khazar Empire between the 830s and 862
15.
Danube
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The Danube is Europes second-longest river, after the Volga River, and also the longest river in the European Union region. It is located in Central and Eastern Europe, the Danube was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, and today flows through 10 countries, more than any other river in the world. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries, the Latin name Dānuvius is one of a number of Old European river names derived from a Proto-Indo-European *dānu. Other river names from the root include the Dunajec, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means fluid, drop, in Avestan, in the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra. Known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros a borrowing from a Daco-Thracian name meaning strong, in Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius or as Ister. The Dacian/Thracian name was Donaris for the upper Danube and Istros for the lower Danube, the Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas, the bringer of luck. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, the German Donau is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe wetland. Classified as a waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,800 km, passing through four capital cities before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and its drainage basin extends into nine more. The highest point of the basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border. The land drained by the Danube extends into other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges, from its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are, The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals, more than any other river in the world. Danube remains a mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0. 0012%. Middle Section, From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania, the riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0. 00006%. Lower Section, From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0. 00003%, about 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central, the amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War
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Nova Pazova
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Nova Pazova is a settlement in Serbia. It is situated in the Stara Pazova municipality, in the region of Syrmia, the settlements population is currently 18,214, of which 17,421 are ethnic Serbs. In Serbian, the settlement is known as Nova Pazova, in German as Neu-Pasua, in Croatian as Nova Pazova, Nova Pazova was founded during Habsburg administration in 1791 in a marshy area and was populated by Evangelical Protestant German settlers. The settlement grew from 51 initial settlers – including folk from Benningen, Marbach am Neckar, Schopfheim, Schorndorf, and Tübingen, in the Palatinate and Hesse, as well as Maglić in the Bačka. Initially, the settlement was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier, in 1848-1849, the settlement was part of autonomous Serbian Vojvodina, but was again incorporated into the Military Frontier in 1849. According to 1910 census, majority of the settlement inhabitants spoke the German language. In 1918, the settlement firstly became part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, then part of the Kingdom of Serbia and finally part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. From 1918 to 1922, the settlement was part of the Syrmia County, from 1922 to 1929 part of the Syrmia Oblast, from 1941 to 1944 the settlement was under Axis occupation and was attached to the Vuka County of the Independent State of Croatia. By 1944, there were over 6,000 residents, mostly Danube Swabian farmers, on 6 October 1944, the German-speaking inhabitants fled before the advancing Soviet army on a massive horse trek to Upper Austria. Since 1944, the settlement was part of Yugoslav Vojvodina, which was part of new socialist Serbia within Yugoslavia, after the war, the settlement was populated by new settlers, who originated from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and other parts of Serbia. Population censuses that were conducted after World War II recorded a Serb ethnic majority in Nova Pazova, from a population of 4,604 in 1948, the settlement was enlarged to 18,214 inhabitants in 2002
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Novi Banovci
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Novi Banovci is an urban neighborhood in Serbia by the Danube River. It is situated in the Stara Pazova municipality, in the Srem District and it is located 5 kilometers away from Batajnica and 20 km from the capital, Belgrade. Novi Banovci is situated on the Belgrade-Novi Sad route and it has a Serb ethnic majority and its population totals 14,500 people. Following the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, the settlement was known as Burgenae, Novi Banovci experienced a constant population growth in the 20th century. Banovci web portal banovci. rs/photos/ Novi Banovci - photos
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Stara Pazova
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Stara Pazova is a town and municipality located in the Srem District of the autonomous province of Vojvodina, Serbia. The town has a population of 18,602, while Stara Pazova municipality has 65,792 inhabitants. In Serbian, the town is known as Stara Pazova, formerly also Pazova, in Slovak as Stará Pazova, in German as Alt-Pasua, Alt-Pazua or Pazua, during the Ottoman administration, Pazova was populated by ethnic Serbs and was part of the Ottoman Sanjak of Syrmia. In 1718, the became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the 18th century Lutheran Slovaks settled in Pazova, and in 1791 Germans arrived here as well, Germans lived in separate settlement known as Nova Pazova, thus the old settlement was named Stara Pazova. Until the second half of the 20th century, Slovaks were largest ethnic group in the town of Stara Pazova, for most part of the Habsburg rule, Stara Pazova was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier, while in 1848-1849 was part of Serbian Vojvodina. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Stara Pazova was a center in the Syrmia County. According to the 1910 census, population of the Stara Pazova municipality numbered 46,430 inhabitants, of whom 24,262 spoke Serbian,9,348 German,5,779 Slovak, the town itself had Slovak majority in 1910. After 1918, the town was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, according to the 1971 census, 56% of population of the town of Stara Pazova were Slovaks. Today, the largest ethnic group in both town and municipality, are Serbs, all settlements in the municipality have an ethnic Serb majority. Serbs =10,477 Slovaks =5,848 Yugoslavs =357 Croats =330 Romani =274 others, dr. Dušan J. Popović, Srbi u Vojvodini, knjiga 1, Novi Sad,1990. Borislav Jankulov, Pregled kolonizacije Vojvodine u XVIII i XIX veku, dr. Branislav Bukurov, Bačka, Banat i Srem, Novi Sad,1978
19.
Busije
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Busije is a suburban neighborhood of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrades municipality of Zemun, Busije is a sub-neighborhood of Ugrinovci, the only separate settlement in the municipality. It is located halfway between Ugrinovci and Batajnica, westernmost section of the Belgrade proper, prices were relatively low and many people bought the land, regardless of the fact that area has not being designated for urban development and the lack of any infrastructure. Busije covered an area of 42 hectares, divided into 1.300 lots for individual houses, by 2016 number of houses reached 2.000 and population has grown to an estimated 5.000, out of which 80-90 % make refugees from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Settlement remained cut off from the rest of the city for the first ten years as the City of Belgrade drafted its first urban development plan for Busije in 2007. Proper road were built in 2006, followed soon by the ambulance, Serbian Orthodox Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius, water, electricity and street lights were also introduced but Busije still has no school or kindergarten. Not having many other options, small craft shops developed, bakeries, grocery stores, car repair shops, locksmith and carpenter shops
20.
Zemun Polje
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Zemun Polje is an urban neighborhood of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrades municipality of Zemun, Zemun Polje is located on both railway and highway Belgrade-Novi Sad, halfway between the western section of urban Zemun and Batajnica. Despite even originally being built outside the zone of Belgrade it was intended as a neighborhood of Belgrade. The neighborhood of Kamendin was built in the late 1990s, directly adjoining the western section of Zemun Polje, the local community had a population of over than 50.000 by the 2002 census of population. The geometrically shaped neighborhood is residential, with its own railway station in the south
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Galenika, Zemun
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Galenika or Nova Galenika is an urban neighborhood of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrades municipality of Zemun, Nova Galenika is located on the north-western outskirts of Zemun. The neighborhood consists of parts, including old Galenika section. The Nova Galenika section and the industrial and commercial areas. B. Due to urban expansion, the became an integral part of city during the 1980s. Galenika residential sections have several parks with playgrounds, and numerous recreational sports terrains for basketball, football and volleyball, there is also walking path stretching around the neighborhood. Major retail chains have its supermarkets here, Galenika is very well connected with the rest of Zemun and Belgrade with public bus transportation lines,84,707,17,704,706,73. Population of the community of Nova Galenika was 12,533 according to the 2002 census. Galenika oversaw a recent rise in property prices and projected future growth and this is a result of the construction of the new bridge across the Danube, as the river is less than 250 meters away from the neighborhood, separated from it by the neighborhood of Goveđi Brod. Last boom in property prices is fueled by construction of the first primary school in the neighborhood, which was finished in 2009
22.
Loess
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Loess is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust. It covers about 10% of the Earths surface and it is usually homogeneous and highly porous and is traversed by vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical bluffs. It was first applied to Rhine River valley loess about 1821, Loess is homogeneous, porous, friable, pale yellow or buff, slightly coherent, typically non-stratified and often calcareous. Loess grains are angular with little polishing or rounding and composed of crystals of quartz, feldspar, mica, Loess can be described as a rich, dust-like soil. Loess deposits may become thick, more than a hundred meters in areas of China. It generally occurs as a deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces, because the grains are angular, loess will often stand in banks for many years without slumping. This soil has a characteristic called vertical cleavage which makes it easily excavated to form cave dwellings, in several areas of the world, loess ridges have formed that are aligned with the prevailing winds during the last glacial maximum. These are called paha ridges in America and greda ridges in Europe, the form of these loess dunes has been explained by a combination of wind and tundra conditions. Loess comes from the German Löss or Löß, and ultimately from Alemannic lösch meaning loose as named by peasants, the term Löß was first described in Central Europe by Karl Cäsar von Leonhard who reported yellowish brown, silty deposits along the Rhine valley near Heidelberg. Charles Lyell brought this term into usage by observing similarities between loess and loess derivatives along the loess bluffs in the Rhine and Mississippi. At that time it was thought that the yellowish brown silt-rich sediment was of fluvial origin being deposited by the large rivers. It wasnt until the end of the 19th century that the origin of loess was recognized. A tremendous number of papers have been published since then, focusing on the formation of loess and on loess/palaeosol sequences as archives of climate and these water conservation works were carried out extensively in China and the research of Loess in China has been continued since 1954. Much effort was put into the setting up of regional and local loess stratigraphies, and Frechen, Horváth & Gábris for the Austrian and Hungarian loess stratigraphy, respectively. During the autumn and winter, when melting of the icesheets and icecaps ceased, as a consequence, large parts of the formerly submerged and unvegetated floodplains of these braided rivers dried out and were exposed to the wind. Because these floodplains consist of sediment containing a high content of glacially ground flour-like silt and clay, they were susceptible to winnowing of their silts. Once entrained by the wind, particles were then deposited downwind, the loess deposits found along both sides of the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley are a classic example of periglacial loess
23.
Glacial period
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A glacial period is an interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago, the Holocene epoch is the current interglacial. A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state, within the Quaternary glaciation, there have been a number of glacials and interglacials. The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, occurring in the Pleistocene epoch, the glacial advance reached its maximum extent about 18,000 BP. In Europe, the ice sheet reached northern Germany, since orbital variations are predictable, computer models that relate orbital variations to climate can predict future climate possibilities. Work by Berger and Loutre suggests that the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years
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Interglacial
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An interglacial period is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene and these long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials. During interglacials, such as the present one, the climate warms, forests return to areas that once supported tundra vegetation. Interglacials are identified on land or in shallow epicontinental seas by their paleontology, floral and faunal remains of species pointing to temperate climate and indicating a specific age are used to identify particular interglacials. Commonly used are mammalian and molluscan species, pollen and plant macro-remains, however, many other fossil remains may be helpful, insects, ostracods, foraminifera, diatoms, etc. Recently, ice cores and ocean sediment cores provide more quantitative and accurately dated evidence for temperatures, the interglacials and glacials coincide with cyclic changes in the Earths orbit. Three orbital variations contribute to interglacials, the first is a change in the Earths orbit around the sun, or eccentricity. The second is a shift in the tilt of the Earths axis, the third is precession, or wobbling motion of Earths axis. Warm summers in the Southern hemisphere occur when that hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, cool summers occur when the Earth is farthest from the sun during that season. These effects are more pronounced when the eccentricity of the orbit is large, when the obliquity is large, seasonal changes are more extreme. Interglacials are a tool for geological mapping and also for anthropologists. Brief periods of climate that occurred during the last glacial are called interstadials. Most interstadials are shorter than interglacials, Interstadial climate may have been relatively warm but this is not necessarily so. Because the colder periods have often very dry, wetter periods have been registered in the sedimentary record as interstadials as well. The oxygen isotope ratio obtained from seabed sediment core samples, a proxy for average global temperature, is an important source of information about changes in the climate of the earth. The climatic optimum of an interglacial follows, and is followed by, phases that are within the same interglacial, during an interglacial optimum, sea levels rise to their highest values, but not necessarily exactly at the same time as the climatic optimum. In the present interglacial, the Holocene, the climatic optimum occurred during the Subboreal and our current climatic phase following this climatic optimum is still within the same interglacial. This warm period was followed by a decline until about 2,000 years ago
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Paleoclimatology
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Paleoclimatology is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth. It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earths various climate regions and he noted that the loess deposits at Timaru in the South Island recorded changes in climate, he called the loess a climate register. Paleoclimatologists employ a variety of techniques to deduce ancient climates. Mountain glaciers and the polar ice caps/ice sheets provide much data in paleoclimatology, ice-coring projects in the ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica have yielded data going back several hundred thousand years, over 800,000 years in the case of the EPICA project. Air trapped within fallen snow becomes encased in tiny bubbles as the snow is compressed into ice in the glacier under the weight of later years snow. The trapped air has proven a valuable source for direct measurement of the composition of air from the time the ice was formed. Layering can be observed because of seasonal pauses in ice accumulation and can be used to establish chronology, changes in the layering thickness can be used to determine changes in precipitation or temperature. Oxygen-18 quantity changes in ice layers represent changes in ocean surface temperature. Water molecules containing the heavier O-18 evaporate at a higher temperature than water molecules containing the normal Oxygen-16 isotope, the ratio of O-18 to O-16 will be higher as temperature increases. It also depends on factors such as the waters salinity. Various cycles in those isotope ratios have been detected, pollen has been observed in the ice cores and can be used to understand which plants were present as the layer formed. Pollen is produced in abundance and its distribution is well understood. A pollen count for a layer can be produced by observing the total amount of pollen categorized by type in a controlled sample of that layer. Changes in plant frequency over time can be plotted through statistical analysis of pollen counts in the core, knowing which plants were present leads to an understanding of precipitation and temperature, and types of fauna present. Palynology includes the study of pollen for these purposes, volcanic ash is contained in some layers, and can be used to establish the time of the layers formation. Each volcanic event distributed ash with a set of properties. Establishing the ashs source will establish a range of time to associate with layer of ice, climatic information can be obtained through an understanding of changes in tree growth. Generally, trees respond to changes in climatic variables by speeding up or slowing down growth, different species, however, respond to changes in climatic variables in different ways
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Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
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Grave
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A grave is a location where a dead body is buried. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the purpose of burial, such as graveyards or cemeteries. In some religions, it is believed that the body must be burned for the soul to survive, in others, the formal use of a grave involves several steps with associated terminology. Grave cut The excavation that formed the grave, excavations vary from a shallow scraping, to removal of topsoil to a depth of 6 feet, or more where a vault or burial chamber is to be constructed. Excavated soil The material dug up when the grave is excavated and it is often piled up close to the grave for backfilling and then returned to the grave to cover it. As soil decompresses when excavated and space is occupied by the burial not all the volume of soil fits back in the hole, in cemeteries this may end up as a thick layer of soil overlying the original ground surface. Burial or interment The body may be placed in a coffin or other container, in a range of positions, by itself or in a multiple burial. Burial vault A vault is a structure built within the grave to receive the body. It may be used to prevent crushing of the remains, allow for multiple burials such as a vault, retrieval of remains for transfer to an ossuary. Grave backfill The soil returned to the grave cut following burial and this material may contain artifacts derived from the original excavation and prior site use, deliberately placed goods or artifacts or later material. The fill may be level with the ground or mounded. Monument or marker Headstones are best known, but they can be supplemented by decorative edging, foot stones, posts to support items, in Europe this was often accompanied with a depiction of their family coat of arms. Later graveyards have been replaced by cemeteries
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Bronze Age
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The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition, although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing, according to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the earliest viable writing systems. The overall period is characterized by use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques, tin must be mined and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of use of metals. The dating of the foil has been disputed, the Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics, the usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people, ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC, the Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it took over the other city-states. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, by that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia, in the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it
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Military Frontier
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The Military Frontier was a province straddling the southern borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire, when created in the 16th century by Ferdinand I, the region was divided into two districts under special military administration, the Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier. Initially, the Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban but, in 1627, for more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. During the 17th century, the territory was expanded towards the East, by then, it stretched from Croatia proper in the west to eastern Transylvania in the east and included parts of present-day Croatia, Serbia, Romania and Hungary. During, this period, the system was also changed. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer, or Frontiersmen and they were colonists, mostly ethnic Serbians, Croatians and Germans, who undertook to defend the Monarchy in return for their land-grants. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, the military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a military reputation. Much of the old Croatian territory either became Ottoman land or bordered the new Ottoman domain, in 1435, in an attempt to strengthen the defences against the Ottomans and Venice, King Sigismund founded the so-called tabor, a military encampment, each in Croatia, Slavonia and Usora. In 1463 King Matthias Corvinus founded the banovina of Jajce and Srebrenik, all these actions aimed to improve defence, but ultimately proved unsuccessful. But, they did lead to development of the Croatian Pandur infantry, soon the Habsburg Empire founded another captaincy in Bihać. In the short term, all this was ineffective, as in 1529 the Ottomans swept through the area, captured Buda and besieged Vienna, the nobility of Styria financed the Upper Slavonian Frontier while the others financed the Croatian Frontier. By the end of the 16th century, the Croatian Military Frontier became known as the Karlovac generalat, despite the financial support of the Inner Austrian nobility, the financing of the Military Frontier was not efficient enough. The military leadership in Graz decided to try solutions other than mercenary units, in the 1630s the Imperial Court decided to give land and certain privileges to immigrants into the Frontier at the area of Žumberak. In return they would serve in the Imperial army, the remaining local population was also encouraged to remain by receiving the status of free peasants and other privileges. These new units were organized into ten or more voivodeships per each captaincy, in 1627, the Military Frontier was removed from the control of the Croatian Sabor and put under direct rule of the Habsburg military. It would have complete civilian and military authority over it until abolition of the Military Frontiers, by creating the new military class in the Frontier, the territory of the Frontier eventually became fully detached from the Croatian Parliament and the ban. The Territory of the Frontier had a large Serb population, who fled from their south-eastern lands, as freedom of faith was granted to them, they preserved their Orthodox faith in spite of their living in a Catholic country
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Grmovac
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Grmovac is an suburban settlement of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrades municipality of Zemun, prices were low and many people bought the land not paying attention that the area was not designated for urban development and the lack of any infrastructure. The city government considers the settlement a wild one as it was built without any permits or plans, the total lack of infrastructure prevented the settlement from any major growth. Out of 3,000 lots, only on 600 there are houses, population varies from 1,500 during summer to 700 during winter when conditions get even harsher. Accessible road to the settlement has been paved with asphalt, a bus line to connect Grmovac to Belgrade and electricity were introduced, however, city government accepted to make a regulatory plan for Grmovac until December 2007 so that settlement could develop further. The plan proposes complete urban and communal infrastructure to be finished in 3 years, urban shaping continued with the construction of a new church, dedicated to the prophet Elijah, began in summer 2007
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Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991
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Operation Storm
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Operation Storm was the last major battle of the Croatian War of Independence and a major factor in the outcome of the Bosnian War. The HV was supported by the Croatian special police advancing from the Velebit Mountain, the operation itself followed an unsuccessful United Nations peacekeeping mission and diplomatic efforts to settle the conflict. The HVs success was a result of a series of improvements to the armies themselves, and crucial breakthroughs made in the ARSK positions that were exploited by the HV. The attack was not immediately successful at all points, but seizing key positions led to the collapse of the ARSK command structure, the HV capture of Bosansko Grahovo just before Operation Storm, and the special polices advance to Gračac, made it nearly impossible to defend Knin. The defeat of the ARSK at Glina and Petrinja, after a defence, defeated the ARSK Banija Corps as well. The RSK relied on the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav militaries as its strategic reserve, the HV and the special police suffered 174–211 killed or missing, while the ARSK had 560 soldiers killed. Four UN peacekeepers were also killed, the HV captured 4,000 prisoners of war. The number of Serb civilian deaths is disputed—Croatia claims that 214 were killed, in 2010, Serbia sued Croatia before the International Court of Justice, claiming that the offensive was an example of genocide. As of November 2012, the Croatian judiciary has convicted 2,380 persons for various crimes committed during Operation Storm, in 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened. The areas were named the Republic of Serbian Krajina and, after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia. The conflict escalated by March 1991, resulting in the Croatian War of Independence, in June 1991, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated. A three-month moratorium on Croatias and the RSKs declarations followed, after which the decision came into effect on 8 October, the RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croat civilians and most non-Serbs were expelled by early 1993. By November 1993, less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations-protected area known as Sector South, as the Yugoslav Peoples Army increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation, the Croatian National Guard was formed in May 1991. The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army in November, the establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September. The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war, culminating in the Battle of the Barracks, the Siege of Dubrovnik, and the Battle of Vukovar. In January 1992, an agreement to implement the Vance plan designed to stop the fighting was made by representatives of Croatia, the JNA, ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires, the United Nations Protection Force was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement. A stalemate developed as the conflict evolved into trench warfare, and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia continued to support the RSK, but a series of HV advances restored small areas to Croatian control as the siege of Dubrovnik ended, and Operation Maslenica resulted in minor tactical gains
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Novi Sad
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Novi Sad is the second largest city of Serbia, the capital of the autonomous province of Vojvodina and the administrative center of the South Bačka District. According to the 2011 census, the city has a population of 250,439, the population of the administrative area of the city stands at 341,625 people. Novi Sad was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin fortress, a Habsburg strategic military post. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it became an important trading and manufacturing centre, as well as a centre of Serbian culture of that period, the city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but it was subsequently restored. Today, along with the city of Belgrade, Novi Sad is the industrial and financial center of the Serbian economy, also. The name Novi Sad means New Plant in Serbian and its Latin name, stemming from establishment of city rights, is Neoplanta. The official names of Novi Sad used by the administration are. Historically, it was also called Neusatz in German, in its wider meaning, the name Grad Novi Sad refers to the City of Novi Sad, which is one of the city-level administrative units of Serbia. Novi Sad could also refer strictly to the part of the City of Novi Sad, as well as only to the historical core on the left Danube bank. Human dwelling on the territory of present-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the Stone Age, several settlements and necropoleis were unearthed during the construction of a new boulevard in Avijaticarsko Naselje, and were dated to 5000 BC. A settlement was located on the bank of the river Danube in the territory of present-day Petrovaradin. In antiquity, the region was inhabited by Illyrian, Thracian and Celtic tribes, celts were present in the area since the 4th century BC and founded the first fortress on the right bank of the Danube. Later, in the 1st century BC, the region was conquered by the Romans, during Roman rule, a larger fortress was built in the 1st century with the name Cusum and was included in the Roman province of Pannonia. In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by the invasion of the Huns, by the end of the 5th century, Byzantines had reconstructed the town and called it by the names Petrikon or Petrikov after St. Peter. Slavic tribes such as the Severians, Obotrites and Serbs, with its subgroup tribes Braničevci and Timočani, the Serbs absorbed the aforementioned Slavs as well as the Paleo-Balkanic peoples in the region. In the Middle Ages, the area was controlled by the Ostrogoths, Gepids, Avars, Franks, Great Moravia, Bulgaria, again by Byzantines. It was included into the medieval Kingdom of Hungary between the 11th and 12th centuries, in the same year, several other settlements were mentioned to exist in the territory of modern urban area of Novi Sad. Some other settlements existed in the area of Novi Sad, Mortályos, Csenei, Keménd
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Sava
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The Sava is a river in Central and Southeastern Europe, a right tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its central part is a border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Sava forms the border of the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava is 990 kilometres long, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci and it is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water, and second-largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area and length. It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region, through the tributaries of Drina, Bosna, Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Lonja, Kolubara, Bosut. The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea. The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, the Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak, Croatia, approximately two-thirds of its length. The Sava River is formed from the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka headwaters in northwest Slovenia, the Sava Dolinka rises at the Zelenci Pools near Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, in a valley separating the Julian Alps from the Karavanke mountain range. The spring is located near the Slovene-Italian border at 833 metres above sea level, the Sava Dolinka spring is fed by groundwater possibly exhibiting bifurcation of source karst aquifer to the Sava and Soča basins. Nadiža creek, a losing stream flowing nearby, is the source of Zelenci Pools water. The Sava Dolinka is considered the Savas initial, 45-kilometre segment, the Sava Bohinjka originates in Ribčev Laz, at the confluence of the Jezernica, a short watercourse flowing out from Lake Bohinj and the Mostnica River. The watercourse flows 41 kilometres —including the length of the Savica—east to Radovljica, downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava. The Sava is located in Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and its total length is 990 kilometres, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre Sava proper. As a right tributary of the Danube, the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge. The river course is used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders, downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs, built for the Mavčiče, the Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, where another reservoir is located on the river, adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course
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Highway
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A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is used for roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks, It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or a translation for autobahn, autoroute. In North American and Australian English, major such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways. Other roads may be designated county highways in the US and Ontario and these classifications refer to the level of government that maintains the roadway. In British English, highway is primarily a legal term, everyday use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths etc. The term has led to several related derived terms, including highway system, highway code, highway patrol, the term highway exists in distinction to waterway. Major highways are named and numbered by the governments that typically develop. Australias Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi, China has the worlds largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U. S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan. Traditionally highways were used by people on foot or on horses, later they also accommodated carriages, bicycles and eventually motor cars, facilitated by advancements in road construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many nations began investing heavily in progressively more modern highway systems to spur commerce and these features are typically present on highways built as motorways. The general legal definition deals with right of use not the form of construction, the status of highway on most older roads has been gained by established public use while newer roads are typically dedicated as highways from the time they are adopted. In England and Wales, a highway is also known as The Queens Highway. The core definition of a highway is modified in various legislation for a number of purposes, scots law is similar to English law with regard to highways but with differing terminology and legislation. What is defined in England as a highway will often in Scotland be what is defined by s, Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation. Smaller roads may be termed byways, modern highway systems developed in the 20th century as the automobile gained popularity. The worlds first limited access road was constructed on Long Island New York in the United States known as the Long Island Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer. In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 enacted a fund to create a highway system
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Interchange (road)
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It differs from a standard intersection, at which roads cross at grade. Note, The descriptions of road junctions are for countries where vehicles drive on the side of the road. For countries where driving is on the left the layout of the junctions is the same, a freeway junction or highway interchange or motorway junction is a type of road junction, linking one controlled-access highway to another, to other roads, or to a rest area/motorway service area. On the UK motorway network, most junctions with roads are numbered sequentially. In the U. S. interchanges are numbered according to cardinal interchange number. A highway ramp or slip road is a section of road which allows vehicles to enter or exit a controlled-access highway. A directional ramp always tends toward the direction of travel. This means that a ramp that makes a left turn exits from the side of the roadway. Left directional ramps are relatively uncommon as the lane is usually reserved for high-speed through traffic. Ramps for a turn are almost always right directional ramps. Where traffic drives on the left, these cases are reversed, a non-directional ramp goes in a direction opposite to the desired direction of travel. A semi-directional ramp exits a road in a direction opposite from the direction of travel. A U-turn ramp leaves the road in one driving direction, turns over or under it, weaving is an undesirable situation in which traffic veering right and traffic veering left must cross paths within a limited distance, to merge with traffic on the through lane. Some on-ramps have a meter, which is a dedicated ramp-only traffic light that throttles the flow of entering vehicles. A complete interchange has ramps to provide access from any direction of any road in the junction to any direction of any other road in the junction. A complete interchange between a freeway and another road requires at least four ramps, complete interchanges between two freeways generally have at least eight ramps, as having fewer would considerably reduce capacity and increase weaving. Depending on the type and the connectivity offered other numbers of ramps may be used. For highways with high-occupancy vehicle lanes, ramps can be used to service these carriageways directly, an incomplete interchange has at least one or more missing ramps that prevent access to at least one direction of another road in the junction from any other road in the junction
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Belgrade bypass
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The Belgrade city road bypass or Belgrade bypass, is a bypass road currently under construction around the city of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. The project is financed from the National Investment Plan, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the project costs for phase 1,2 and 3 is estimated at €543 million. The bypass was planned by the Belgrades general urban planning, however, the works intensified around the end of 2005. Its construction is expected to help alleviate Belgrades traffic congestion, and remove all traffic from the city center, unloading the critical Gazela. The total length of the bypass will be 69 kilometres, on January 21,2012, the Minister of Infrastructure of Serbia Milutin Mrkonjić has said that the Section B of the bypass will be opened for traffic in May 2012,6 months before scheduled completion. Mrkonjić repeated that promise on February 26,2012, the bypass will consist of three principal sections, Section A, Batajnica–Dobanovci, connecting the Belgrade-Novi Sad highway on the north and Šid–Belgrade highway on the west,9.7 km long. Part of Section B from Dobanovci to Orlovača was finished and opened for traffic in October 2008, all heavy trucks were banned on Gazela bridge in March 2010, effectively redirecting all truck transit over the Section B. Section A was opened for traffic in May 2012, along with the Orlovača–Straževica part of the Section B, batajnica interchange, the origin of section A, is still incomplete, with only one side of the viaduct in operation. Of the section B, the part between Straževica tunnel and Bubanj potok is still under construction, operating as single carriageway, Section B, spanning the hilly terrain, will include 4 tunnels and 40 viaducts when completed, nine of them over 400 m long. In the final stage, it will also require enhancement of the existing Ostružnica bridge to accommodate the dual carriageway. Section C is technically the most complex, as its construction involves building a 1,190 m long bridge over the Danube and its exact route is not decided yet, and the completion is scheduled by 2017. Beobuild. rs – news, discussions and photos of the bypass
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Batajnica Air Base
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Batajnica Air Base is a military air base in Serbia. The airport is located between Batajnica and Nova Pazova, about 25 km northwest from the center of Belgrade, Batajnica is the only airport in Serbia with two runways. Construction of the started in 1947 and was completed in 1951. The purpose of the airbase was to protect the capital from attack, one grass and two asphalted runways are used. It was known as 177th Air Base, which was its name until the 2006 reorganization, Batajnica was home of 204th Fighter-Aviation regiment, 138th Transport-Aviation Regiment and other units of Yugoslav Air Force. During the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia the airbase was bombed for 25 days. In June 2006, two USAF F-16 fighter jets, visited Batajnica airbase and it was the first official visit of USAF aircraft in more than 20 years and the first since the bombing. Civil aviation authorities in Serbia have speculated about the possibility to transform Batajnica to accept commercial flights from low-cost carriers at some point in the future. Under the proposal, the airbase would serve a purpose and continue to serve its military purpose. Serbian Air Force units operating outside of Batajnica Air Base, 204th Air Brigade, composed of, 101st Fighter Aviation Squadron with Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21s, data current as of October 2006. Batajnica Airport map* Batajnica Airbase pre-strike with visible control tower
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NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
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The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia was the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The air strikes lasted from March 24,1999 to June 10,1999, NATO claimed that the Albanian population in Kosovo were being persecuted by FRY forces, Serbian police, and Serb paramilitary forces, and that military action was needed to force the FRY to stop. NATO countries attempted to gain authorization from the United Nations Security Council for military action, NATO launched a campaign without UN authorization, which it described as a humanitarian intervention. The FRY described the NATO campaign as a war of aggression against a sovereign country that was in violation of international law because it did not have UN Security Council support. The bombing killed between 489 and 528 civilians, and destroyed bridges, industrial plants, public buildings, private businesses, as well as barracks, the NATO bombing marked the second major combat operation in its history, following the 1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the first time that NATO had used military force without the approval of the UN Security Council, after its autonomy was quashed, Kosovo was faced with state organized oppression, from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, in June 1991 the University of Priština assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new year beginning in September 1991. Later, Kosovar Albanians started an insurgency against Belgrade when the Kosovo Liberation Army was founded in 1996, armed clashes between two sides broke out in early 1998. A NATO-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed, after the Rambouillet Accords broke down on 23 March with Yugoslav rejection of an external peacekeeping force, NATO prepared to install the peacekeepers by force. Operation Allied Force predominantly used an air campaign to destroy Yugoslav military infrastructure from high altitudes. After the third day of bombing, NATO had destroyed almost all of its strategic military targets in Yugoslavia. Despite this, the Yugoslav Army continued to function and to attack Kosovo Liberation Army insurgents inside Kosovo, mostly in the regions of Northern and Southwest Kosovo. The NATO air forces also targeted infrastructure, such as plants, water-processing plants. Commentators have debated whether the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War of 1999 resulted solely from the use of air power, the Rand Corporation examined the issue in a study. According to John Keegan, the capitulation of Yugoslavia in the Kosovo War marked a point in the history of warfare. It proved that a war can be won by air power alone, by comparison, diplomacy had failed before the war, and the deployment of a large NATO ground force was still weeks away when Slobodan Milošević agreed to a peace deal. As for why air power should have been capable of acting alone and these normally come together only rarely, but all occurred during the Kosovo War, Bombardment needs to be capable of causing destruction while minimising casualties
Serbia
