1.
War of the Spanish Succession
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The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Charles II had ruled over a vast global empire, and the question of who would succeed him had long troubled the governments of Europe, the English, the Dutch and the Austrians formally declared war in May 1702. By 1708, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy had secured victory in the Spanish Netherlands and in Italy, France faced invasion and ruin, but Allied unity broke first. With the Grand Alliance defeated in Spain and with its casualties mounting and aims diverging, French and British ministers prepared the groundwork for a peace conference, and in 1712 Britain ceased combat operations. The Dutch, Austrians, and German states fought on to strengthen their own negotiating position, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastatt partitioned the Spanish empire between the major and minor powers. The European balance of power was assured, in the late 1690s the declining health of King Charles II of Spain brought to a head the problem of his succession, a problem which had underlain much of European diplomacy for several decades. The empire was in decline, but remained the largest of the European overseas empires, unlike the French crown, the Spanish crowns could all be inherited by, or through, a female in default of a male line. The next in line after Charles II, therefore, were his two sisters, Maria Theresa, the elder, and Margaret Theresa, the younger, Maria Theresa had married Louis XIV in 1660 and by him she had a son, Louis, Dauphin of France. The testament of her father, Philip IV, reiterated this waiver and bequeathed the reversion of the whole of the Spanish dominions to his younger daughter, Margaret Theresa. However the French, using in part the excuse that the dowry promised Maria Theresa was never paid, nor was it clear whether a princess could waive the rights of her unborn children. Leopold I married Margaret Theresa in 1666, at her death in 1673 she left one living heir, Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Shortly before her death in 1692, she gave birth to a son, if he chose, Louis XIV could attempt to assert his will on Spain by force of arms, but the Nine Years War had been an immense drain on Frances resources. To seek a solution and gain support, Louis XIV turned to his long-standing rival William of Orange. England and the Dutch Republic had their own commercial, strategic and political interests within the Spanish empire, however, the Maritime Powers were in a weakened state and both had reduced their forces at the conclusion of the Nine Years War. Louis XIV and William III, therefore, sought to solve the problem of the Spanish inheritance through negotiation, based on the principle of partition, to take effect after the death of Charles II. However, the bulk of the empire – most of peninsular Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Spanish Empire was now divided between the three surviving candidates. By this new treaty Archduke Charles would receive most of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, and the overseas empire. For Leopold I, however, control of Spain and its empire was less important than Italy
2.
Almansa
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Almansa is a Spanish town and municipality in the province of Albacete, part of the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha. The name Almansa stems from the Arabic المنصف, half way of the road, the municipality borders with Alicante, Valencia and Murcia. Almansa is famous for its Moros y Cristianos festival from celebrated from the 1st to the 6th of May. Almansa is built at the foot of a limestone crag, which is surmounted by a Moorish castle. The Sierra del Mugrón is located within the Almansa city limits, the main sightseeing attraction is the 14th-century Castle of Almansa. This reservoir is the oldest one in Europe,12 km from the city is the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Belen. Two pilgrim routes on the Camino de Santiago meet in Almansa, from the south comes the Camino de la Lana and from the east, the Camino de Levante. The Camino de la Lana joins Alicante with Burgos, and the Camino de Levante joins Valencia with Zamora, battle of Almansa Portal of Almansa
3.
Albacete
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Albacete is a city and municipality in the Spanish autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, and capital of the province of Albacete. The municipality of Albacete is also the seventh largest in Spain by area, Albacete is the economic and judicial capital of Castilla-La Mancha, being home to the regional High Court of Justice. The writer, novelist, essayist and literary critic Azorin described the city of Albacete in a poem as The New York of La Mancha. The city increased in prominence in the early 20th century during the Spanish Civil War due its importance as national headquarters of the International Brigades. At present, Albacete is a capital with large areas for pedestrians. Further its flat area and the elimination of barriers have also led it to be one of the most accessible cities across the country, with better quality of life. Other of its attractions in this regard are the traditional Tascas de la Feria or the outdoor market of Los Invasores. Albacete is a commercial and industrial city par excellence, reflected in its commercial area that includes more than 556723 people from 154 municipalities. The industry is one of the pillars of the city, Albacete is home to major multinationals and has five large industrial zones, including Campollano, which is the largest industrial area of Castilla-La Mancha and one of the largest in Spain. The aviation industry is one of the economic engines of the city. Albacete hosts the School of TLP NATO pilots, Los Llanos Air Base, Ala 14 and the Air Maestranza Albacete, in addition, the city houses the Air and Logistic Park of Albacete, home to major companies. Pascual Madoz in his famous Diccionario geográfico-estadístico-histórico de España y sus posesiones de Ultramar indicates that two hypotheses about the toponym of Albacete are probable. The second hypothesis states that its origin may be the Alaba of the Celtiberians, mentioned by Plinio y Ptolemy, which could result in Alba civitas and it is stamped with a Marquis crown, which is gold with stones and pearls, with eight rosettes. But the agreement contained a typo, and saying three towers well ordered in heraldry would mean two towers above and one below, or one above and two below, instead, the descriptions should read three towers wrongly ordered. The dimensions of the Shield are 40 cm high, excluding the Crown and 56 cm if included, with a width of 30 cm. The anthem was launched on September 8,1926, day of the Virgin of Los Llanos, in what was referred to as the Provincial Anthem feast, the Municipal Band of Albacete and Spanish Infantry Regiment, among others, performed at this event. On the night of San Juan in 1975, the song was re-released at the Teatro Circo de Albacete by the Albacete Municipal Band, Albacete is home to the High Court of Justice of Castilla-La Mancha, the highest court of the autonomous region. The president of the Superior Court is Vicente Manuel Rouco Rodríguez, the city also hosts the Institute of Legal Medicine of Albacete, Cuenca and Guadalajara, whose scope corresponds to homonymous provinces
4.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
5.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
6.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
7.
Kingdom of Portugal
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The Kingdom of Portugal was a monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula and the predecessor of modern Portugal. It was in existence from 1139 until 1910, after 1248, it was also known as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves and between 1815 and 1822, it was known as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The name is often applied to the Portuguese Empire, the realms extensive overseas colonies. The nucleus of the Portuguese state was the County of Portugal, established in the 9th century as part of the Reconquista, by Vímara Peres, a vassal of the King of Asturias. The county became part of the Kingdom of León in 1097, the kingdom was ruled by the Alfonsine Dynasty until the 1383–85 Crisis, after which the monarchy passed to the House of Aviz. During the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese exploration established a vast colonial empire, from 1580 to 1640, the kingdom of Portugal was in personal union with Habsburg Spain. After the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640–1668, the passed to the House of Braganza and after to the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg. From this time, the influence of Portugal declined, but it remained a major due to its most valuable colony. Portugal was an absolute monarchy before 1822. It rotated between absolute and constitutional monarchy from 1822 until 1834, and was a constitutional monarchy after 1834. The Kingdom of Portugal finds its origins in the County of Portugal, the Portuguese County was a semi-autonomous county of the Kingdom of León. Independence from León took place in three stages, The first on 26 July 1139 when Afonso Henriques was acclaimed King of the Portuguese internally, the second was on 5 October 1143, when Alfonso VII of León and Castile recognized Afonso Henriques as king through the Treaty of Zamora. The third, in 1179, was the Papal Bull Manifestis Probatum, once Portugal was independent, D. Afonso Is descendants, members of the Portuguese House of Burgundy, would rule Portugal until 1383. Even after the change in houses, all the monarchs of Portugal were descended from Afonso I, one way or another. With the start of the 20th century, Republicanism grew in numbers and support in Lisbon among progressive politicians, however a minority with regard to the rest of the country, this height of republicanism would benefit politically from the Lisbon Regicide on 1 February 1908. When returning from the Ducal Palace at Vila Viçosa, King Carlos I, with the death of the king and his heir, Carlos Is second son would become king as King Manuel II of Portugal. Manuels reign, however, would be short-lived, ending by force with the 5 October 1910 revolution, sending Manuel into exile in England, on 19 January 1919, the Monarchy of the North was proclaimed in Porto. The monarchy would be deposed a month later and no other monarchist counterrevolution in Portugal has happened since, after centuries of Portuguese dominion in Angola, the Kingdom of Kongo was made a vassal state of the Portuguese kingdom, its king pledging allegiance to the King of Portugal
8.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
9.
Enlightenment in Spain
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The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment came to Spain in the eighteenth century with the new Bourbon dynasty, following the death of the last Habsburg monarch, Charles II, in 1700. Like the Spanish Enlightenment, the Spanish Bourbon monarchs were imbued with Spains Catholic identity, the Bourbon monarchs sought the expansion of scientific knowledge, which had been urged by Benedictine friar Benito Feijóo. From 1777 to 1816, the Spanish crown funded scientific expeditions to gather information about the potential wealth of the empire. Spanish scholars sought to understand the decline of the Spanish empire from its glory days. In Spanish America, the Enlightenment also had an impact in the intellectual and scientific sphere, the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula was enormously destabilizing for Spain and the Spanish overseas empire. The ideas of the Hispanic Enlightenment have been seen as a contributor to the Spanish American wars of independence. The French Bourbons had a claim on the Spanish throne following the 1700 death of the last Hapsburg monarch, Charles II. France won War of the Spanish Succession and the Bourbon monarchy was established in Spain, once it consolidated rule in Spain, the Bourbon monarchs embarked upon a series of reforms to revitalize the Spanish empire, which had significantly declined in power in the late Hapsburg era. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment had an impact in Spain. A cortes was convened in Cádiz, which ratified a constitution in 1812. Ferdinand VII claimed he supported the liberal constitutions, but once restored to power in 1814, he renounced it, New Spain and Peru were the exceptions, becoming independent in 1821 and 1824. Mexico briefly had a monarchy under royalist military officer turned insurgent Agustín de Iturbide, Spain was at the center of this political crisis, but it was the object not the arbiter. The vastness of the Spanish Empire in the New World, along with her naval resources, had made Spain a vital part of European power politics. If the throne of Spain was to go to a relative of the king of France, if it remained in the hands of another member of the anti-French, Austrian Habsburg dynasty, the status quo would remain. European politics during the century became dominated by establishing an orderly succession in Spain that would not alter the balance between Europes great powers. Castilian legitimists, who valued the succession of the closest heir of the king over the continuation of Habsburg rule, Spanish officials were also concerned with Spain remaining an independent country, rather than another part of the French or Austrian empires. Even so, on hearing the news that his grandson had become King of Spain, Louis XIV proclaimed, at age 17, Philip V arrived in Madrid in early 1701 without visible opposition. Philip confirmed the fueros of Catalunya and Aragon, and to all appearances the Bourbon succession was successful, the Austrian Hapsburg claimant to the Spanish throne, Archduke Charles of Austria, argued that he had been cheated out of the throne of Spain unfairly
10.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
11.
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
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Berwick was a successful general in the pay of Louis XIV of France. FitzJames was born at Moulins in France before his fathers accession to the throne and he was the son of James and his mistress Arabella Churchill, who was the sister to the English captain general and statesman John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. He was educated at the Stuarts expense in the College of Juilly, the Collège du Plessis, and he went into the service of Charles, Duke of Lorraine and was present at the siege of Buda. FitzJames was created Duke of Berwick, Earl of Tinmouth and Baron Bosworth by his father in 1687 and he then returned to Hungary and participated at the Battle of Mohács. Berwick returned to England and was made Governor of Portsmouth, King James made him a Knight of the Garter, and appointed him Colonel of The Blues to replace the Protestant Earl of Oxford. The post had been coveted by his uncle the Earl of Marlborough, officers were required to answer three questions designed by the king to test their loyalty. Berwick was with his father at Salisbury, when key units deserted to the Prince of Orange, but due to the invasion of the Prince of Orange and the subsequent Glorious Revolution, the installation never took place. Berwick in all conscience could not remain with the Colonel of The Blues Troop he had served since 1682, he refused to betray his old patronne. On 22 June 1691, Berwick was with the French generals command, St Ruth, at Aughrim, the defenders were surrounded on one side by peat bog, and on the other Kilcommodon Hill. General St Ruth was decapitated by a cannonball, but Sarsfield was too late to rescue the situation. He retired with Berwick to the safety of Limerick, which Ginckel besieged on 25 August. Under the terms of Treaty of Limerick, signed on 3 October and these soldiers became known as the Wild Geese, mercenaries forbidden from setting foot in Britain. James II created Berwick Colonel of the 1st Troop, Wild Geese, Berwick arrived too late at the siege of Cork with 4,000 French troops, but unable to effect a result, he withdrew, Marlborough marched west to Kinsale to deal with 18,000 Frenchmen. It was at time that he undertook a number of secret visits to England on behalf of the Jacobite cause. After his fathers exile, Berwick served in the French army under Marshal Luxemburg. He fought at the battles of Steenkerque, Luxemburg fell into King Williams trap set against superior numbers. But reinforcements failed the English, and the French rallied to send the Maison Militaire du Roi infantry downhill, Berwick was in the charge of the division that broke the English lines. They were driven from the field with heavy losses, Berwick was one of Luxemburgs principal officers, and in 1694 commanded the centre of a large French army
12.
Siege of Landau (1702)
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The Siege of Landau saw an army from the Holy Roman Empire led by Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden lay siege to the fortress city of Landau which was held for the Kingdom of France. The French defenders led by Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac resisted vigorously but were forced to surrender after a three-month leaguer and this action of the War of the Spanish Succession occurred at Landau in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, located 49 kilometres southwest of Mannheim. The earliest actions from the war were focused in northern Italy in 1701, in the Palatinate, Louis of Baden and an Imperial army crossed the Rhine River at Speyer and moved south to invest Landau. After losing a key position, Mélac and his garrison were forced to capitulate. At this time, the Electorate of Bavaria became a French ally, tipping the balance of power, the next clash was the Battle of Friedlingen on 14 October 1702. Once an Imperial city, Landau was awarded to the Kingdom of France by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, in 1689 a fire burned down three-quarters of the city, allowing the French to redesign the streets under the direction of another engineer officer Jacques Tarade. In 1700 Tarade added the Crownwork on a hill on the northwest side of the city as additional protection, the Queich River split Landau into northern and southern parts. The eight-sided fortress was protected by a bastion at each corner, a clever system of locks allowed the defenders to control the depth of water in the ditches. A fast-flowing waterway called the Flaque made assault impossible on two-thirds of the fortress, a single bridge over the Flaque linked Landau with the Crownwork. The first fighting in the War of the Spanish Succession began in Italy, the baffled Catinat was soon transferred to defend Alsace. On 7 September 1701 the Grand Alliance was formed to halt the aggression of the Kingdom of France, the Grand Alliance included the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of England, Dutch Republic, Margraviate of Brandenburg, Electoral Palatinate and most German states. Frances allies were the Duchy of Savoy, Electorate of Cologne, in early 1702, Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden was given command of the troops of the Swabian, Franconian, Upper Rhenish and Westphalian Imperial Circles and the Electoral Palatinate. In April Louis crossed to the west bank of the Rhine near Speyer, the Imperial army occupied Wissembourg and Lauterbourg before marching on Landau. The Palatine army was camped at Lustadt while 2,000 men under Count Leiningen held Germersheim, Count Friesen was first stationed at Rastatt on the east bank, he crossed to the west bank on 22 April and joined the army of Louis. On 24 April, Louis reconnoitered the fortress and then building an entrenched camp at Langenkandel for his own army. These activities preceded the declaration of war occurred on 15 May. In fact the Holy Roman Empire was not officially at war until 6 October, Louis of Baden was named commander of all troops on the Rhine on 18 June. Louis of Badens Imperial host numbered 25,900 infantry and 10,920 cavalry organized into 41 battalions and 71 squadrons, the largest segment of the army were the Imperial troops, consisting of 8,400 foot and 8,000 horse
13.
Battle of Friedlingen
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The Battle of Friedlingen was fought in 1702 between France and the Holy Roman Empire. The Imperial forces were led by Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden, the French were seeking to expand their influence on the eastern bank of the river Rhine. In the autumn of 1702, Villars received orders from Louis XIV to attack Swabia, the French forces needed to join their Bavarian allies and defeat the Imperial troops that stood between them. The French crossed the Rhine at Weil am Rhein, just north of Basle on 14 October 1702, Villars attacked the Imperial army at Friedlingen. The future field marshal Louis William entrenched his army and managed to hold the French for some time and he then retreated in good order to the North. It was a Pyrrhic victory for Villars, French losses were high,1,703 dead and 2,601 wounded, whereas the Imperial forces lost 3,000 dead and 742 wounded. Villars was also prevented from joining the Bavarians, the villages on the eastern bank of the Rhine suffered much damage, especially Weil am Rhein. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, the Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-05629-9 Villars writes about the battle of Friedlingen
14.
Siege of Bonn (1703)
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The Siege of Bonn took place in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession when an Allied force laid siege to and forced the surrender of the French garrison of the city of Bonn. The Allied forces were part of a field army commanded by John Churchill. The siege was portrayed in a painting by Alexander van Gaelen. It was the siege of the city in thirty years
15.
Battle of Ekeren
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The Battle of Ekeren, June 30,1703 was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The French surrounded a Dutch force, which avoided destruction. This battle ended hope of an allied victory in the Spanish Netherlands in 1703. After taking Bonn on May 15, Marlborough now wanted to conquer Ostend, Antwerp and he ordered the Dutch general, Coehoorn, to march to Ostend and lay siege to it. Dutch general Van Sparre would march south west of Antwerp, Dutch general Obdam would march south from Bergen op Zoom, the United Provinces, however, were not keen to open the ports of Antwerp and Ostend to English commerce and thus to their competition with the Dutch. Therefore, Coehoorn did not besiege Ostend, but plundered the countryside between Ostend and Antwerp, Obdam marched on June 28 from Bergen op Zoom to Antwerp, arriving the next day at Ekeren, seven kilometres from Antwerp. Villeroi was not misled by Marlboroughs diversionary manoeuver, and sent all his troops from Diest to Antwerp to protect it, after hearing of this Marlborough tried to warn Obdam, ordering a withdrawal to Lillo, but he was too late. The Marquis of Bedmar and his Spanish troops were positioned near Wilmarsdonk and this ensured that the Dutch forces were surrounded on all sides by a superior force. Soon Dutch reconnaissance discovered the French dragoons and Obdam immediately sent his cavalry to Hoevenen, but it was too late, an attempt to conquer neighboring Muisbroek also failed. Then the French attacked, and Obdam tried to take Oorderen, the fighting went on for the entire day. By eight oclock there was no sign of Obdam, and Slangenburg decided to attempt an attack on Oorderen. Friesheim sent his men wading through the water, appearing where the French had not expected them to and this action enabled the remaining Dutch troops to break through and retreat in the darkness towards the Netherlands. The battle was a victory for the French, but Boufflers wasnt congratulated at all, Obdam survived and escaped south in the afternoon with thirty horsemen, disguising themselves as Frenchmen. His behaviour was not forgiven by the Dutch military, and his career was destroyed. Slangenburg, for his part, was acclaimed as a Dutch hero and he was also furious at Marlborough, who had been outmanoeuvered by the French and had not come to the aid of the Dutch. The Dutch lost 1,717 killed,1,003 wounded, the French and Spaniards lost 1,750 men. A large part of the battlefield, including the villages of Oorderen, Wilmarsdonk and Lillo, has disappeared under the Port of Antwerp expansion in the 1960s
16.
Battle of Schellenberg
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The Battle of Schellenberg, also known as the Battle of Donauwörth, was fought on 2 July 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The engagement was part of the Duke of Marlboroughs campaign to save the Habsburg capital of Vienna from an advance by King Louis XIVs Franco-Bavarian forces ranged in southern Germany. For this purpose, Marlborough selected the town of Donauwörth, rejecting a protracted siege, Marlborough decided in favour of a quick assault, before the position could be made impregnable. After two failed attempts to storm the barricades, the Allied commanders, acting in unison, finally managed to overwhelm the defenders. It had taken just two hours to secure the bridgehead over the river in a hard fought contest, but following the victory, the deliberate devastation of the Electors lands in Bavaria failed to bring Max Emanuel to battle or persuade him back into the Imperial fold. The Battle of Schellenberg was part of the Grand Alliances campaign of 1704 to prevent the Franco-Bavarian army from threatening Vienna, the capital of Habsburg Austria. However, when the Elector was notified on 5 June of Marlboroughs march from the Low Countries, holy Roman Emperor Leopold I was keen to lure the Elector back into the Imperial fold after he had switched allegiance to fight for King Louis XIV before the war. By 22 June Marlboroughs army had linked up with elements of the Margrave of Badens Imperial forces at Launsheim, by the end of June their combined strength totalled nearly 80,000 men. Once the Allies had combined their forces, the Elector and Marsin moved their 40,000 troops into the camp between Dillingen and Lauingen on the north bank of the Danube. The Schellenberg heights dominate the skyline to the northeast of Donauwörth – the walled town on the confluence of the Wörnitz, the western section of the lines ran steeply downhill from the fort to the city walls. Here, there was little to show in terms of defences, in 1703 Marshal Villars had advised the Elector to fortify his towns. And above all the Schellenberg, that fort above Donauwörth, the importance of which the great Gustavus taught us. DArco was entrusted with 12,000 men, most of whom were drawn from Bavarias best units including the Electors Guards, in addition, Donauwörth was held by a French battalion and two battalions of Bavarian militia. On the night of 1–2 July, the Allies were camped at Armerdingen,15 miles from Donauwörth, dArco knew of the whereabouts of the Allied camp at Armerdingen, and was confident he had at least a full day and night to prepare his defences. At 03,00 on 2 July the Allied advance guard began to camp for the march towards Donauwörth. Marlborough personally oversaw the advance of the assault force of 5, 850-foot. The Dutch General Johan Wijnand van Goor would lead this vanguard, in all, the Allies were deploying 22,000 men in the operation. There was, therefore, no time to be lost, as the Allies marched, work on the defences of Donauwörth and the Schellenberg were proceeding in earnest
17.
Battle of Blenheim
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The Battle of Blenheim, fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, Louis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. Vienna was also pressure from Rákóczis Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg, after securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage the Electors and Marsins army before Marshal Tallard could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest. However, with the Franco-Bavarian commanders reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, the battle has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis hopes for a victory came to an end. France suffered over 30,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following years campaign into France itself. By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year, Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to the brilliant Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Marsin. In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Viennas fall was confidently anticipated, a scarlet caterpillar, upon which all eyes were at once fixed, began to crawl steadfastly day by day across the map of Europe, dragging the whole war with it. Marlboroughs march started on 19 May from Bedburg,20 miles north-west of Cologne, the army consisted of 66 squadrons,31 battalions and 38 guns and mortars totalling 21,000 men. This force was to be augmented en route such that by the time Marlborough reached the Danube, whilst Marlborough led his army, General Overkirk would maintain a defensive position in the Dutch Republic in case Villeroi mounted an attack. In this assumption Marlborough proved correct, Villeroi shadowed the Duke with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions, such a long march would almost certainly involve a high wastage of men and horses through exhaustion and disease. However, Marlborough was convinced of the urgency – I am very sensible that I take a deal upon me, he had earlier written to Godolphin, but should I act otherwise. Whilst Allied preparations had progressed, the French were striving to maintain, Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngens efforts to intercept him. The whole operation was a military achievement. On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine, If he intended an attack along the Moselle the Duke must now turn west, but, instead, the following day the army crossed to the right bank of the Rhine. There will be no campaign on the Moselle, wrote Villeroi who had taken up a position on the river. A second possible objective now occurred to the French – an Allied incursion into Alsace, with Villeroi shadowing Marlboroughs every move, Marlboroughs gamble that the French would not move against the weakened Dutch position in the Netherlands paid off
18.
Battle of Ramillies
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The Battle of Ramillies /ˈræmɪliːz/, fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed a campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands. Yet despite his opponents setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace –, for this end and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706. Encouraged by these early gains Louis XIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a fair peace. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen, as if to threaten Zoutleeuw. Also determined to fight an engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his army – some 62,000 men – near Maastricht. With both sides seeking battle, they encountered each other on the dry ground between the Mehaigne and Petite Gheete rivers, close to the small village of Ramillies. In less than four hours Marlboroughs Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villerois, the Dukes subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battle – something his opponents failed to realise until it was too late – caught the French in a tactical vice. With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to exploit their victory. Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp, with Prince Eugenes subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that Louis XIV would suffer during the war. Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an annus mirabilis, after their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the next year brought the French some respite. Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor Leopold I in May and the accession of Joseph I, the resilience of the French King and the efforts of his generals, also added to Marlborough’s problems. Marshal Villeroi, exerting pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commander – whose supplies had by now very short – was forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. What a disgrace for Marlborough, exulted Villeroi, to have made false movements without any result, with Marlborough’s departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine. On 11 January 1706, Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour and it seems that the Duke’s favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic, shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war
19.
Battle of Oudenarde
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It took place at Oudenaarde and was a great victory for the allies. The commander of the armies was John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, whose chief deputy was the commander of the Empires army Prince Eugène of Savoy. Meanwhile, the two French army commanders were very quarrelsome, Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme was a seasoned, experienced soldier. The Duke of Burgundy had considerably less experience and owed his position to the fact he was the grandson of the King, Marlboroughs army consisted of about 90,000 men just south of Brussels. Eugènes forces were assembled at Coblenz, in modern Germany and these two areas were somewhat far apart, while the French armys 100,000 soldiers were concentrated near Mons, in modern Belgium. At this time, the French commanders began quarrelling, Vendôme wanted to attack the city of Huy, which could draw Marlborough in pursuit. The eventual plan adopted, however, was to attack Flanders, the army moved eastward, until they reached the city of Braine-lAlleud, which was about 25 km south of Brussels, and also threatened the nearby city of Leuven. Marlborough placed his forces a few south of Leuven, in order to cover both threatened cities. The French army then remained inactive for more than a month and this apparently allowed the extremely behind schedule Eugène to bring his army from the Rhine River. On 5 July, however, the French unexpectedly moved west, taking the cities of Bruges and this extremely demoralized Marlborough and his army, and he did not recover until Eugène was at his side. The French army had the length of the Scheldt River from the French border to the newly taken city of Ghent. Only one British fortress remained, Oudenaarde, if they took that city, Marlboroughs army would be cut off from the coast, causing them to lose communications with England. Marlborough detected this objective, and also correctly guessed the method by which the French troops would attempt to take it and they would march down the east bank of the Scheldt, while leaving a large covering force between the two opposing armies. The French army marched on 8 July, toward the city of Lessines, however, Marlborough made one of the most inspired forced marches in history, taking the city on 10 July. This forced the French commanders to attempt simply to march across the Scheldt, again Marlborough ordered a forced march. This time, though, he ordered 11,000 troops to hold the crossing point across the Scheldt, under the command of his Quartermaster General. Cadogans force built 5 additional pontoon bridges to allow Marlborough to get his 100, 000-strong army across the river, Cadogan, a superb Irish cavalry commander, ordered some dragoons, under Danish General Jørgen Rantzau, to take prisoners from the French advance guard. Many of those troops escaped and alerted Lieutenant General Charles-Armand de Gontaut, duc de Biron, when de Biron advanced, he was disagreeably surprised by the large number of Allied cavalry already across the river, along with the approaching Allied infantry
20.
Action of 2 May 1707
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The action began when three French ships, the Grifon, Blackoal and Dauphine, grappled HMS Hampton Court, killing her captain, George Clements, and taking her. Claude Forbins 60-gun Mars next attacked HMS Grafton and, when joined by the French ships Blackoal and Fidèle, killed the Captain Edward Acton, the French took 21 merchant ships, besides the two 70-gun ships of the line, and carried them all into Dunkirk. This squadron consisted of 7 sail of the line and 6 privateers, the action began when 3 French ships, Griffon, Blackoal and La Dauphine, grappled Hampton Court and killed Captain Clements. Commodore Wyld took five of his largest merchant ships into his line, for two and a half hours a heavy fire was kept up on both sides, Hampton Court fought desperately and was obliged to surrender. La Dauphine next vigorously attacked Grafton and when joined by the French ships Blackoal and Fidele, claude Forbins 60-gun Mars attacked Commodore Wylds Royal Oak. The ship having eleven feet water in her hold, managed to escape with great loss by running ashore, Mars 60 – Chevalier de Forbin, Chef de division. La Dauphine 56 – Comte de Roquefeuil, salisbury 50 – Chevalier de Vezins. Griffon 50 – Chevalir de Nangis, HMS Royal Oak 76 – Commodore Baron Wylde, Escaped. HMS Hampton Court 70 – Captain George Clements †, Captured, HMS Grafton 70 – Captain Edward Acton †, Captured. The Maritime History of the World, A Chronological Survey of Maritime Events from 5,000 B. C. Battles of the British Navy, from A. D.1000 to 1840 Bell & Daldy publishing, ASIN B00087UD9S Troude, O. Batailles navales de la France, Vol. I
21.
Battle at The Lizard
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Duguay-Trouin and Forbin were two of the most successful French naval commanders and they caused much damage to the allied merchant fleet. On 20 October 1707 a large merchant fleet consisting of 80 to 130 English ships left Plymouth for Portugal with supplies for the war in Spain, there were five escorting English ships under command of Commodore Edwards. The next day near Lizard Point they were spotted by 2 French squadrons of 6 ships each. This battle was almost a complete victory for the French, the 80-gun Cumberland and the 50-gun ships Chester and Ruby were taken, the 80-gun Devonshire defended herself for several hours against seven French ships until she caught fire and blew up, only three men escaping out of 500. French sources speak of 60 ships out of 80, some British of none at all, probably the truth is somewhere in between, Polak in Bibliographie maritime française speaks of 15 merchant ships captured. Battles of the British Navy, from A. D.1000 to 1840, bell & Daldy publishing ASIN, B00087UD9S Jean et Michèle Polak, Bibliographie maritime française Commission Française dHistoire Militaire HMS Chester HMS Devonshire
22.
Battle of Wijnendale
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It ended in a victory for the allies, leading to the taking of Lille. After their great victory in the Battle of Oudenaarde, Marlborough, but Lille was very well defended by modern fortifications designed by Vauban and a garrison of 16,000 men. The allied siege didnt go as well as planned and a lack of ammunition was imminent. To make things worst, the lines from the east were cut by the French, so the only remaining line of supply was by ship from England to the port of Ostend. Marlborough ordered the goods to be shipped to Ostend and a large convoy of 700 slow wagons was organised there to travel further over land to Lille. The convoy was protected by 6,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry under command of general-major John Richmond Webb. The commander of the French garrison of Bruges, Count de la Mothe, was informed of the convoy, Webb was aware of the advancing French army and knew a confrontation was unavoidable. He drew up a plan to compensate for his numerical disadvantage, using the wooded landscape around Wijnendale, he chose an open spot, flanked on both sides by woods and hedges. He placed his troops in two lines, closing off this open space. Later a third line was formed with reinforcements coming from Oudenburg, meanwhile, behind these lines, the convoy continued slowly towards Lille. Having arrived at the space, de la Mothe, expecting an easy victory. Between 4 and 5 pm the French artillery opened fire, when de la Mothe saw the effects on the enemy were limited, he ordered his infantry forward. The large French force was hampered by the terrain and suffered badly from the fire of the allied first line. Then Webb ordered the Prussian, Hanoverian and Dutch regiments who were hidden in the woods on both flanks, to open fire, despite suffering heavy casualties, de la Mothe ordered a second attack, which initially pushed the allied first line back. But with the help of the line and the continuous fire from the flanks. When the battle was as good as won, allied cavalry under command of William Cadogan arrived at the battlefield and he was sent from Lille by Marlborough, who was worried about the convoy. The toll of this battle was heavy,3,000 to 4,000 French. The allies lost 900 dead and wounded, the convoy reached Lille intact on 29 September, allowing the siege to continue
23.
Battle of Malplaquet
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After a late start to the campaigning season owing to the unusually harsh winter preceding it, the allied campaign of 1709 began in mid June. Villars moved after him, under new orders from Louis XIV to prevent the fall of Mons at all costs – effectively an order for the aggressive Marshal to give battle. After several complicated manoeuvres, the two faced each other across the gap of Malplaquet, south-west of Mons. Boufflers was officially Villars superior but voluntarily serving under him, the allies had about 86,000 troops and 100 guns and the French had about 75,000 and 80 guns, and they were encamped within cannon range of each other near what is now the France/Belgium border. At around 1.00 pm Villars was badly wounded by a ball which smashed his knee. The decisive final attack was made on the now weakened French centre by British infantry under the command of the Earl of Orkney and this enabled the Allied cavalry to advance through this line and confront the French cavalry behind it. A fierce cavalry battle now ensued, in which Boufflers personally led the troops of the Maison du Roi. He managed no less than six times to drive the Allied cavalry back upon the redans, finally, by 3.00 pm Boufflers, realising that the battle could not be won, ordered a retreat, which was made in good order. The Allies had suffered so many casualties in their attack that they could not pursue him, by this time they had lost over 21,000 men, almost twice as many as the French. Villars himself remarked on the enemys Pyrrhic victory via the flip-side of King Pyrrhus famous quote, If it please God to give your majestys enemies another such victory, they are ruined. A first-hand account of the Battle of Malplaquet is given in the book Amiable Renegade, Captain Peter Drake, an Irishman who spent most of his life as a mercenary in the service of various European armies, served the French cause in the battle and was wounded several times. Drake wrote his memoirs at an advanced age, in contrast with the Dukes previous victories, however, the French army was able to withdraw in good order and relatively intact, and remained a potent threat to further allied operations. Nonetheless, news of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the century, stunned Europe. For the last of his four great battlefield victories, the Duke of Marlborough received no letter of thanks from Queen Anne. The rumour post-battle that even Marlborough had died spawned one of the most popular French folk songs of all time, margery Allinghams mystery novel Sweet Danger includes a vital document hidden in the Malplaquet or Pontisbright drum. Battle of Malplaquet at Battlefield Anomalies, the French Army 1600–1900 Battle of Malplaquet at BritishBattles. com Amiable Renegade, The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake
24.
Battle of Denain
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The Battle of Denain was fought on 24 July 1712, as part of the War of the Spanish Succession. It resulted in a French victory under Marshal Villars against Austrian, the War of Spanish Succession had raged since 1701. After over a decade of war, France was in a dark period, in 1708, after the rout of Oudenaarde, nearly all the strongholds of northern France were under the control of the Austro-British coalition. There was also an economic crisis leading to famine and high mortality in the populace, the command of the French northern army went to Marshal Villars in 1709, who wasted no time in seeing to its reorganization. Frances precarious position had stabilized, the Allies were unable to achieve their goal of forcing harsh terms on the Bourbons. In May 1712, Villars prepared to take the offensive, the French gathered an army of 200,000 men on the northern border, stretching from Arras to Cambrai. The Allied northern army was positioned along the Scarpe between Douai and Marchiennes, occupying the communes of Denain and Landrecies, in June, Prince Eugene besieged and captured Le Quesnoy. The Duke of Ormonde withdrew his forces during the siege, leading to a rift between the British and the rest of the Allies, after a detailed examination of the enemy dispositions, Villars decided in the greatest secrecy to attack Denain. Elements of the French cavalry were sent to seize the bridges crossing the river Selle which ran through le Cateau to join the Scheldt opposite Denain. During the evening a French detachment also took up positions around a mill at Haspres and that night the French infantry began to march towards Prince Eugene’s forces at Landrecies. In response to threat, Prince Eugene reinforced Landrecies, weakening the Allied right wing holding Denain. At dawn, however, Villars swung the line of advance of his army, at seven o’clock the French infantrymen reached Neuville-sur-Escaut and were immediately ordered to seize the bridges across the Scheldt. At eight o’clock, the Allies were surprised to discover the large French presence in the area, the Earl of Albermarle, at the head of the Dutch garrison in and around Denain, warned Prince Eugene, but the Prince of Savoy was not greatly concerned at the time. By one in the afternoon the attack had developed to the point of an assault on the palisade at Denain, the French sappers led the infantry against heavy fire and took Denain at the point of the bayonet. Many defenders were killed and the remaining Dutch infantry attempted to escape across the mill bridge, realizing the gravity of the situation, Prince Eugene attempted to force his way across the Scheldt at Prouvy to help Albemarle. This left the Prince of Savoys army blocked on the flank by the Scheldt. There, Albemarle and his staff were taken prisoner, together with some 4,100 troops, the battle was not immediately recognised to be as decisive as it turned out to be, most of Prince Eugenes army was relatively unscathed. However, with the loss of Denain the Allied position began to unravel, chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander
25.
Battle of Carpi
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The Battle of Carpi was a series of manoeuvres in the summer of 1701, and the first battle of the War of the Spanish Succession that took place on 9 July 1701 between France and Austria. But supply difficulties hampered Eugene, and the French were able to occupy the positions of the Rivoli. There Catinat thought himself secure, as all the country to the east was Venetian and his first object was to cross the Adige without fighting, and also by ravaging the duke of Mantua Charles IVs private estates to induce that prince to change sides. His first dispositions had, of course, been for the defence of the Rivoli approaches, after five weeks cautious manoeuvring on both sides, Eugene found an unguarded spot about 10 km southeast of Legnago near the town of Castagnaro. With the usual precautions of secrecy, he crossed the lower Adige in the night of 8/9 July, Catinat at once concentrated his scattered army backwards on the Mincio, while Eugene turned northward and regained touch with his old line of supply, Roveredo-Rivoli. For some time Eugene was in difficulties for supplies, as the Venetians would not allow his barges to descend the Adige. At last, however, he made his preparations to cross the Mincio close to Peschiera del Garda and well beyond Catinats left and this was executed on 28 July. Catinats cavalry, though coming within sight of Eugenes bridges, offered no opposition and it seems that the marshal was well content to find that his opponent had no intention of attacking the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula, at any rate Catinat fell back quietly to the Oglio. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Hannay, David McDowall
26.
Battle of Chiari
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The Battle of Chiari was fought on 1 September 1701 during the War of the Spanish Succession. Marshal Villeroi replaced Catinat as commander of the Franco–Spanish–Savoyard forces in the theatre, foreseeing Villerois intention of attacking at any price, Eugene entrenched himself in front of the small fortress of Chiari, and waited for the attack. In a battle lasted several hours the Austrians inflicted heavy casualties on Villerois forces. The campaign established Eugene in Lombardy, and helped to persuade the Maritime Powers to come to the aid of the Emperor, within a week of the battle England, the Dutch Republic, and Leopold I, had signed the second treaty of the Grand Alliance. Eugene now effected the passage of the Mincio at Peschiera del Garda, the failure of Catinat to withstand the advance of a much smaller Imperial army evoked indignation at Versailles, leading King Louis XIV to replace Catinat with the ageing duc de Villeroi. Villeroi – with orders to risk a battle – arrived in theatre in late August, Louis XIV needed a victory to assure the continued loyalty of Italy to his grandsons regime. Villeroi joined the army, and his generals – the Duke of Savoy, Catinat, Eugene welcomed the prospect of a decisive battle, and waited on the eastern side of the Oglio to be attacked. The Imperial commander had chosen his ground carefully, entrenching his troops, streams protected his position on three sides, as there was not enough room for a cavalry engagement, Eugene could count on a frontal attack by the French infantry. Villeroi ignored Catinats warning that Eugene was in a strong position, on 1 September the Franco-Spanish infantry advanced. Firing from point-blank range the Austrians drove back the French with a withering fire, with only minor losses the Imperial army had inflicted over 3,000 casualties in the ranks, and over 250 officers. This number would grow rapidly as fever attacked the wounded, Villeroi lost personal control during the battle, and Catinat, despite being wounded, had to organise a retreat. The French dug themselves in only a mile or so away from the Austrians on the side of the Oglio. However, as advanced, conditions deteriorated in both camps, fodder was so short that Eugenes horses were forced to eat fallen leaves. But the French, whose camp was built on ground, suffered most. For his winter quarters Eugene proceeded to reduce the whole Duchy of Mantua, except the capital and Goito, since the beginning of the year Count Wratislaw had been in London as Imperial minister, pressing for assistance. With Eugenes two victories, Leopold I had proved he would fight to protect his interests, giving Wratislaw the arguments he needed to push through the alliance with the Maritime Powers. On 7 September 1701 – within a week of the battle – England, the French were still in Milan, but their position was weak, morale was poor and desertion was high. Louis XIV wrote to Villeroi urging him to work closely with Catinat and, if you do … the King, my grandson, will lose Italy
27.
Battle of Cassano (1705)
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The Battle of Cassano, fought on 16 August 1705, was a battle in the Italian theatre of the War of the Spanish Succession. Both sides suffered casualties, but the French were victorious. In 1705, Vendômes army and a fresh corps from France were engaged in the attempt to subdue Victor Amadeus, Vendômes success led to Amadeus asking the Emperor for a new army. Eugene of Savoy commanded this army, opposed to which was a force under Vendômes brother Philippe, at the start of the battle Philippe was surprised by Eugenes fierce attack on the line of the Adda. Eugene nearly crossed the river until the arrival of Vendôme, which prevented him from crossing, eugene of Savoy was wounded during the battle and left Italy for treatment in Austria. Dessau was also wounded and his Prussian contingent was decimated, the Austrian army had finally to retire towards Tyrol for the winter. Eugenes activity had greatly relieved the pressure on Piedmont, enabled Turin to hold out, the French put off the subjugation of Piedmont until the following year, on Louiss orders. The battle had taken a toll on both sides. It is estimated that on both sides,4000 men were killed,6000 were wounded and an unknown amount drowned in the river, the Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. ISBN 0-582-05629-2 I morti delle tre bocche
28.
Battle of Calcinato
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The Battle of Calcinato was fought on 19 April 1706 near Calcinato, Italy, during the War of the Spanish Succession, between the forces of Bourbon France and Spain and those of the Austrian Habsburgs. It ended in a victory for Marshal Vendômes French and Spanish army, the latter, repulsed by Vendôme at Cassano, had retired to Brescia and Lake Garda, Vendôme following up and wintering about Castiglione and Mantua. Vandome was now in a position to move his forces to isolate and overwhelm the enemy, the French assault finally began, that day, with the march of Vandomes infantry upon the enemy positions. Passing ditches in the presence of fire, the French pushed into a melee on the Imperialist right wing, throwing it into disorder. Similarly, the French bore the charge of the Imperialist left wing without firing a single piece, and fell upon it in turn. Similarly, he deployed components of his army to Salò and Gavardo, as a result of the disastrous Siege of Turin the French position in Italy deteriorated drastically, and by the end of the year, all French forces had been chased from Italy. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714
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Siege of Turin
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The Siege of Turin was undertaken by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans and General Louis dAubusson de la Feuillade against the Savoyard city of Turin during the War of the Spanish Succession. The French Royal Army was unable to break down Turins defences or obtain the citys surrender, the besiegers were attacked on 7 September by a Habsburg Austrian relief column under Prince Eugene of Savoy and Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy and routed at the Battle of the Stura. The siege of Turin was broken and the withdrawal of French forces from northern Italy began, coupled with its twin disaster in Flanders—the destruction of a French army at the Battle of Ramillies—Turin marked 1706 as the annus horribilis for Louis XIV of France. However, in case of defeat, Piedmont and Savoy would be wiped off the European maps, king Louis XIV of France, allied with Spain, replied by invading first Savoy and then Piedmont itself. As the Spanish armies occupied Lombardy, Piedmont found itself surrounded from every side, attacked by three armies, the Savoyards lost Susa, Vercelli, Chivasso, Ivrea and Nice. The last stronghold was the Citadel of Turin, a built in the mid-16th century. In August 1705 the French-Spanish armies were ready to attack, but La Feuillade deemed his troops insufficient and this choice turned out to be wrong, as it allowed the Piedmontese to fortify the city up to the neighbouring hills and to prepare for a long siege. In May, the Franco-Spanish army approached Turin with more than 40,000 men, marshal Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, expert of siege techniques, volunteered for the campaign but was dismissed due to his age. But La Feuillade had different ideas and, dismissing Vaubans counsel, old Vauban vocally condemned La Feuillades methods from Paris, publicly offering to have his throat cut if the French succeeded in taking Turin on La Feuillades chosen point of attack. Digging began on 14 May, although La Feuillades lines never fully surrounded Turin, the siege began in June and was pursued for three months against dogged resistance. The besieged, supported by the participation of the population to the battle, offered a strenuous defence. Fighting continued during the summer of 1706. On 17 June Victor Amadeus left Turin to meet Eugene, who was marching from the Trentino with Austrian troops under his command, on 2 September the two Savoyards analyzed the tactical situation from the hill of Superga, which commands Turin and the neighbouring area. The manoeuvre succeeded and the Austrians managed to set up camp between the Dora Riparia and the Stura di Lanzo rivers, Eugene declared, These men are already half defeated. The final clash began at 10 AM on 7 September with an attack against the front of the besiegers. After three failed attacks, the Prussian infantry led by Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau was able to break the French right wing because the La Marine Regiment ran out of ammunition. Two attempts to relieve the pocket formed in this way were driven back, the advance of the Allied army towards Pinerolo started in the early afternoon of the same day. Franco-Spanish losses totaled 9,800, including 6,000 captured, marshal Ferdinand de Marsin, adviser to the Duke of Orleans, was fatally wounded and died in Allied custody
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Battle of Toulon (1707)
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The Battle of Toulon was fought from 29 July to 21 August 1707 at Toulon, France during the War of the Spanish Succession. During the battle, a French and Spanish force defeated one from Austria, in July 1707, Prince Eugene tried to take the French naval port of Toulon. Eugene had crossed the Var on the 11th, and – although hampered by the negligence and he was in touch with the British fleet under Admiral Shovell by the 16th. Shovell, before he evacuated, bombarded the French harbour and was able to sink two French ships of the line and damage two others. King Louis XIV gave orders that they be sunk and later be refloated and he was concerned that the Royal Navy would burn the ships, the three deckers would lie with only their upper decks showing above the water. Marlborough, Britains Greatest General, Englands Fragile Genius, Harper Perennial,2009 ISBN 0-00-722572-5 Gazetteer Entry
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Cesana Torinese
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Cesana Torinese is a comune in the Province of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 70 kilometres west of Turin, on the border with France. Cesana Torinese is sited on the route of the Roman road leading from the Po Valley to Gaul, during the Dark Ages the road lost its commercial importance but retained its military significance. Cesana was controlled by the counts of Albon and dauphins of Viennois until the half of the 14th century. In 1343, with the concession, the Escarton Republic was born. Cesana thus found itself in Escarton dOulx until 1713, when it was ceded to the Kingdom of Savoy by the Treaty of Utrecht. Between the 14th and 17th centuries the Cesana valley was damaged directly and indirectly by the wars of religion, during the War of the Spanish Succession the territory was attacked and conquered by French troops. In the 18th century Cesanas strategic importance declined until an era when new roads were constructed, in 1928 some previously independent towns were merged with that of Cesana - Désèrtes, Bousson, Fenils, Mollières, Solomiac and Thures. Cesana was also one of the venues for the 2006 Winter Olympics, hosting the biathlon, womens alpine skiing, bobsleigh, luge and it also hosted the biathlon for the 2007 Winter Universiade. Reggio Calabria, Italy Punta Ramiere Official website
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Battle of Vigo Bay
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The Battle of Vigo Bay, also known as the Battle of Rande was a naval engagement fought on 23 October 1702 during the opening years of the War of the Spanish Succession. The engagement followed an Anglo-Dutch attempt to capture the Spanish port of Cádiz in September in an effort to secure a base in the Iberian Peninsula. From this station the Allies had hoped to conduct operations in the western Mediterranean Sea, Philips van Almonde convinced Rooke to attack the treasure ships, despite the lateness of the year and the fact that the vessels were protected by French ships-of-the-line. Yet because most of the treasure had been off-loaded before the attack, nevertheless, the victory was a welcome boost to Allied morale and had helped persuade the Portuguese King, Peter II, to abandon his earlier treaty with the French, and join the Grand Alliance. The accession of the Bourbon Philip V to the Spanish throne in 1700 had aroused opposition in Spain. In the Spanish American empire, however, officials and colonists resisted French attempts to take over their trade. The first French squadron sailed in April 1701 under the Marquis de Coëtlogon, but the Spanish governors would not even him to buy victuals. Nevertheless, the weakness of the Spanish navy left the government in Madrid little choice, every effort was made to ensure that the bullion was landed in Spain rather than France, from where it might never return. The naval campaign of 1702 was therefore played out in two distant theatres of America and Spain, linked together by the trail of the Spanish treasure ships across the Atlantic. The American theatre became a scene long remembered in popular English tradition following Admiral Benbows running battle in August off Santa Marta, however, the Royal Navys main effort was not off the Spanish Main, but off the Spanish coasts in Europe. It was hoped that this strategy would encourage Portugal to join the Allies, open the Strait of Gibraltar, and secure English naval power in the Mediterranean. Their allies, the Austrians, were clamouring for a naval presence in the Mediterranean to assist them in achieving their own primary ambitions – the capture of Spains provinces in Italy. To meet these ends, the Anglo-Dutch fleets would first need to seize a port in the Iberian Peninsula from which their ships could operate. The Allies, therefore, resolved upon an expedition, led by Admiral George Rooke, to capture the southern Spanish port of Cádiz, on 11 June 1702, the Spanish silver fleet from New Spain left Veracruz under escort of a French squadron commanded by Admiral Château-Renault. The Spanish vessels were commanded by Manuel de Velasco in his armed galleon, the whole convoy arrived at Havana on 7 July, before striking out across the Atlantic on the 24th. It was clear, therefore, a new harbour would be needed, valesco considered the small port of Los Pasajes, but Château-Renault favoured Brest or La Rochelle, or even Lisbon. A compromise was put forward, and on 23 September the Franco-Spanish fleet entered Vigo Bay in Galicia, there was, however, considerable delay in unloading the cargo. The whole administrative apparatus normally present at unloading, was in Seville and Cádiz, when the unloading eventually began, it was found that means of transporting the goods were lacking
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Battle of Cap de la Roque
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During this war the French and Spanish fleet could not face the English and Dutch in an open sea battle and therefore had switched to privateering. The allies were forced to protect their merchant convoys. On May 21,1703 a large merchant fleet consisting of about 110 English and Dutch ships transporting mainly salt, there were five escorting Dutch ships, line ships Muiderberg, Gaesterland and Schermer and frigats Rotterdam and Rozendaal under command of captain Roemer Vlacq on board the Muiderberg. The next day near Cabo da Roca they encountered the squadron of Coëtlogon composed of five warships, Vainqueur, Monarque, Éole, Orgueilleux. Vlack, after signalling the merchantmen to save themselves, lined up his ships to protect the fleet, the Dutch fought valiantly but the French were too strong and ship after ship had to capitulate. Vlack and the Muiderberg fought on until half of the crew was dead or wounded, vlack lost an arm and part of his shoulder, but he only surrendered when the main mast came down and the ship was on the point of sinking. The survivors were evacuated and what was left of the Muiderberg was burnt, thanks to the sacrifice of Vlacq, the convoy got away intact, meaning this Dutch defeat had little impact on the cause of the Grand Alliance. Vlacq, his men and the four ships were taken to Toulon, were Vlacq died of his wounds on July 17,1703. This battle is sometimes called The Battle of the Bay of Biscay, zeegevecht in de Golf van Biskaje
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Capture of Gibraltar
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The Capture of Gibraltar by Anglo-Dutch forces of the Grand Alliance occurred between 1–3 August 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. This strength helped persuade King Peter II of Portugal to sever his alliance with France and Bourbon controlled Spain, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt represented the Habsburg cause in the region. However, in order to compensate for their lack of success the Alliance commanders resolved to capture Gibraltar, following a heavy bombardment the town was invaded by English and Dutch marines and sailors. The governor, Diego de Salinas, agreed to surrender Gibraltar, three days later Prince George entered the town with Austrian and Spanish Habsburg troops in the name of Charles III of Spain. However, the Grand Alliance failed in its objective of replacing Philip V with Charles III as King of Spain but in the peace negotiations Gibraltar was ceded to Britain. At the start of the War of the Spanish Succession Portugal was nominally an ally of the Bourbons, France under Louis XIV, although not a belligerent, Portugals harbours were closed to the enemies of the Bourbon powers – principally the vessels of England and the Dutch Republic. However, following the Anglo-Dutch naval victory at Vigo Bay in 1702 the balance of forces had swung in favour of the Grand Alliance. Having now the ability to cut off Portugals food supplies and trade it was not hard for the Allied diplomats to induce King Peter II to sign the Methuen Treaties of May 1703 and join the Alliance. Once Peter II had committed himself to war the Alliance fleets gained access to Portugals harbours, known to his supporters as Charles III of Spain, the young pretender arrived in Lisbon – via London – with George Rookes fleet on 7 March 1704, amid great celebrations. Apart from the failed Grand Alliance attempt take Cádiz in 1702, and the subsequent attack on the Spanish treasure fleet in Vigo Bay, with Portugals change of allegiance, however, the war moved towards Spain. In May 1704 the court at Lisbon received news that French, but without supply for their forces, the coming summer heat made it impossible for them to continue with the campaign, and Philip V returned to Madrid on 16 July to a heros welcome. However, the heat did not affect the war at sea where the Alliance was in a position of strength, using Lisbon as an improvised forward base Admiral Rooke’s Anglo-Dutch fleet ventured into the Mediterranean Sea in May 1704. After seeing the Levant trading fleet safely through the Strait of Gibraltar Rooke headed towards Nice to put himself in touch with Victor Amadeus II, accompanying Rooke was Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt who had enjoyed popularity amongst the Catalans as their governor at the end of the Nine Years War. Moreover, the dissidents were incensed by the size of the Alliance force and had expected the personal appearance of Charles III, ultimatums for Velesco to surrender on pain of bombardment were ignored, and the plans for an insurrection from within the city’s walls failed to materialize. Rooke, fearing an attack from a French squadron, was impatient for departure, Prince George could do little more than order his local followers – a thousand in all – to disperse to their homes. The marines embarked on 1 June without loss, meanwhile, the comte de Toulouse, one of Louis XIV’s illegitimate sons, was sailing towards the Straits with the fleet from Brest. News from Lisbon of the French manoeuvres reached Rooke on 5 June, determined to prevent the junction of the Toulon and Brest fleets Rooke decided to risk a battle. Rooke met Shovell on 27 June off Lagos, Peter II and ‘Charles III’ sent word from Lisbon that they now wished another attempt to be made on Cádiz
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Siege of Ceuta (1694-1727)
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The Sieges of Ceuta were a series of blockades by Moroccan forces of the Spanish-held city of Ceuta on the North African coast. The first siege began on 23 October 1694 and finished in 1720 when reinforcements arrived, during the 26 years of the siege, the city underwent changes leading to the loss of its Portuguese character. The city was placed under a siege in 1721 until 22 April 1727. Muley Ismail had succeeded in creating a new state able to challenge European powers in North Africa and his forces had captured La Mámora, Tangier, Larache and most recently Arcila. In 1694 he gave the governor Ali ben Abdala the task of conquering Ceuta, following the occupation of the open country around Ceuta, the sultan’s troops began to construct buildings and cultivate the land to sustain themselves. The governor of Ceuta thereupon asked the Madrid court for help, troops were sent from Andalusian towns and from Portugal. The arrival of the Portuguese led to friction with the local population, the Portuguese troops were withdrawn without engaging in combat. During the whole of this there were bombardments, gains. In July 1695 during a dense fog – common at Ceuta in summer – the Moroccan troops made an attack on the Spanish during a change of guard. The besiegers captured the square and those among the defenders who did not succeed in crossing the drawbridge were killed in battle or when they jumped into the moat in an attempt to escape. A later Spanish counterattack regained the Plaza de Armas, in 1704, English and Dutch troops conquered Gibraltar. This was a blow for Ceuta, as Gibraltar had been on the main supply route from the peninsula. The Marquis of Gironella, governor of the city, and the population refused to surrender to the English, no English attack took place, as the fleet was diverted to confront a Franco-Spanish fleet which was aiming to retake Gibraltar. Once Gibraltar was in English hands, it became a source of supply for the Moroccan besiegers, during the following years the siege continued with little significant change until the arrival in 1720 of 16,000 soldiers under the command of the Marquis of Lede. These troops were returning from the War of the Quadruple Alliance, after the loss of all Spanish territory in Italy, Ceuta became a position of strategic importance in the Spanish defensive cordon in the Mediterranean. The Marquis launched an expedition against the besiegers, who retreated to Tetuán. However, upon an outbreak of plague a few months later in 1721, after the Marquis left, the Moroccans immediately recaptured the city. Another siege and several battles occurred from 1721 until the death of Muley Ismail in 1727
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Portugal
Dutch Republic
Bourbon Spain
Kingdom of France
Stephens, Henry Morse (1885–1900). "Fitzjames, James". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
