1.
Peruvian War of Independence
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Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the Lima oligarchy, who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires. During the first decade 1800s Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, among the most important events during the war was the proclamation of independence of Peru by José de San Martín on July 28,1821. During the Peninsular War central authority in the Spanish Empire was lost, after success of the royalist armies, Abascal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies, therefore, Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the continental campaigns of José de San Martín. Some of the early Spanish conquistadors that explored Peru made the first attempts for independence from the Spanish crown and they tried to liberate themselves from the Viceroyalty, who governed for the king of Castile. Throughout the eighteenth century, there were several uprisings against colonial rule. Some of these uprisings became true rebellions and it is debated whether these movements should be considered as precedents of the emancipation that was led by chiefs, Peruvian towns, and other countries in the American continent. The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence, the campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826, Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, there were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of Tacna in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives in Huánuco, began on February 22,1812 and it involved various leaders, including curacas and township magistrates, but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815, the rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia, Criollo leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua, who was curaca of Chinchero, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, in 1814, the first expedition was successful in reconquering Chile after winning the Battle of Rancagua. In 1817 following the royalist defeat in the Battle of Chacabuco, initially it was successful in the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, the expedition was finally defeated by José de San Martín in the Battle of Maipú. To begin the liberation of Peru, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty on February 5,1819 to prepare for the invasion, General José de San Martín believed that the liberation of Argentina wouldnt be secure until the royalist stronghold in Peru was defeated
2.
Antonio Herrera Toro
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Antonio Herrera Toro was a Venezuelan painter, art critic and professor. He began his studies in 1869, under the tutelage of Martín Tovar y Tovar. Five years later, he enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts in Caracas, in 1875, he received a government scholarship that allowed him to study in Paris and Rome. In 1883, he portrayed the final moments of Simón Bolívar, as it turned out, Herrera had to complete the Battle of Ayacucho after Tovars death. He later took up journalistic pursuits in addition to painting, signing his writings with the pseudonym Santoro and he was a major contributor to the cultural affairs bi-weekly, El Cojo Ilustrado, and a co-founder of El Granuja. In 1892, he was appointed Director of the government Office of Buildings and Ornamentation and, in 1908, became Director of the Art Academy, early the following year, he was faced with a strike by a large group of students who were demanding changes in the curriculum. He also tendered his resignation, which was not accepted so, despite being the target of student protests, he retained the position until his death
3.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
4.
Gran Colombia
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Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. It included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru, western Guyana, the first three were the successor states to Gran Colombia at its dissolution. Panama was separated from Colombia in 1903, since Gran Colombias territory corresponded more or less to the original jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada, it also claimed the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, the Mosquito Coast. Its existence was marked by a struggle between those who supported a government with a strong presidency and those who supported a decentralized. The two men had been allies in the war against Spanish rule, but by 1825, their differences had become public and were an important part of the political instability from that year onward, the official name of the country at the time was the Republic of Colombia. The name Colombia comes from the Spanish version of the eighteenth-century New Latin word Columbia and it was the term preferred by the revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to the New World, especially to all American territories and colonies under Spanish rule. He used an improvised, quasi-Greek adjectival version of the name, Colombeia, to papers and things relating to Colombia. Bolívar and other Spanish American revolutionaries also used the word Colombia in the continental sense, the establishment in 1819 of a nation with the name Colombia by the Congress of Angostura gave the term a specific geographic and political reference. The Republic of Colombia comprised more or less the former territories of the Viceroyalty of New Granada and it united the territories of the former Third Republic of Venezuela, the United Provinces of New Granada, the former Royal Audiencia of Panama and the Presidency of Quito. Before a new constitution could be written by the Congress of Cúcuta, under the Constitution of Cúcuta, the country was divided into twelve departments governed by an intendant. Departments were further divided into provinces headed by a governor. Military affairs at the department level were overseen by a commandant general, all three offices were appointed by the central government. The central government, which temporarily was to reside in Bogotá, consisted of a presidency, a bicameral congress, the president was the head of the executive branch of both the central and local governments. The president could be granted extraordinary powers in military fronts, such as the area that became Ecuador, the vice-president assumed the presidency in case of the absence, death, demotion, or illness of the president. Since President Bolívar was absent from Gran Colombia for the years of its existence, executive power was wielded by the vice-president. The vote was given to persons who owned 100 pesos in landed property or had an equivalent income from a profession, in that year, none of the provinces of Quito, nor many in Venezuela and New Granada, were free yet. The Constitution of Cúcuta was drafted in 1821 at the Congress of Cúcuta, Bolívar and Santander were elected as the nations president and vice-president. To break up regionalist tendencies and to set up efficient central control of local administration, the Gran Colombian army later consolidated the independence of Peru in 1824
5.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
6.
United Provinces of the River Plate
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It comprised most of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata dependencies and had Buenos Aires as its capital. It is best known in Spanish-language literature as Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata, the Argentine National Anthem refers to the state as the United Provinces of the South. The Constitution of Argentina recognises Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata as one of the names of the country. The United Provinces of South America were bordered on the south by the populated territories of the Pampas and Patagonia, home to the Mapuche, Ranquel. To the north, the Gran Chaco was populated by the Guaycuru nations, to the northwest, across the Upper Peru, lay the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. Across the Andes, to the west, was the Spanish-controlled Captaincy General of Chile, to the northeast was Colonial Brazil, a part of the Portuguese Empire, later the Empire of Brazil in 1821. The change from the Viceroyalty into the United Provinces was not merely a change of governors, the main influences in this were the Enlightenment in Spain, promoting new ideas, and the Peninsular War that left Spain without a legitimate king after the Abdications of Bayonne. The concept of separation of powers became a tool to prevent despotism. The new political situation generated great political conflict between the cities for two reasons, first, the vacatio regis removed the sovereignty from the King of Spain, but there was no clear view about who and how would be able to claim such sovereignty. The vertical organization of the absolutist monarchy was compromised as well, the other source of conflict was the nature of the new governments, which declared themselves to be provisional during the Kings absence but were making strong changes in the political organization. As it faced resistance in some quarters, the revolution soon turned to be a War of Independence. These conflicts involved coups détat, mutinies, politically motivated trials, banishments and imprisonments, ever since the revolution, there were serious conflicts among diverging views regarding the political organization of the provinces. As the latter gained the upper hand, the Primera Junta grew to incorporate delegates from the provinces in 1811. However, as it became evident that such an arrangement was not effective enough to lead the war efforts, infuriated by the passivity of Buenos Aires, Artigas declared war on Buenos Aires while he was losing to the Portuguese. Similarly, the Federal League effectively came to an end when its constituent provinces rejoined the United Provinces, Artigas, defeated by the Portuguese, retreated to Entre Ríos. From there, he denounced the Treaty of Pilar and entered into conflict with his former ally governor Ramírez, the former Protector of the Free Peoples was exiled in Paraguay until his death. The Eastern Province was annexed by Portugal to its Brazilian dependences in 1821, the result of the wars was the independence of the provinces. Misiones Orientales was de jure recognized as Brazilian, following the outcome of the Cisplatine War, pachecos partner Luis Vernet established a toehold in the islands in 1826 and a fledgling colony in 1828
7.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
8.
Foreign volunteers
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The armed forces of many nations have, at one time or another, used foreign volunteers who are motivated by political, ideological or other considerations to join a foreign army. These may be formed into units of a nationality or may be formed into mixed nationality foreign units. Sometimes foreign volunteers were or are incorporated into ordinary units, adventure - the volunteer joins a foreign army to see action. Long-term personal or family benefit - the volunteer serves in order to qualify for benefits, such as forgiveness of sins. This is an analysis and, in many cases, a volunteer will be influenced by two or more of these reasons. It follows, therefore, that a unit of volunteers may contain soldiers with different, or different combinations of. French Foreign Legion Hohenlohe Regiment of France during the Bourbon Restoration, International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War Islamic Legion Kings African Rifles Mahal - non-Israeli volunteers who fought for Israel in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. There is to this day a Mahal program in the Israeli army, the SS made extensive use of foreigners during World War II. The Legion today accepts male and female native Spanish speakers, mostly from Central American, recruits are required to have a valid Spanish residence permit. Rhodesian Light Infantry The United States Military has a tradition of foreign volunteers taking up arms for the United States. Foreign born officers, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, Tadeusz Kościuszko, during the nineteenth century the US Army made extensive use of foreign soldiers, particularly Irish and German. German Jewish troops were common during World War II, presently, many members of the US Marine Corps are of Latin American and not US nationality. During both world wars, American volunteers served on the side before the USA joined the war. Their citizenship rights were revoked as a result of their decision to serve in a foreign army, the British Free Corps of the Waffen SS in World War II2,500 British fought in the Spanish civil war on the side of the republicans. In the Paraguay Revolution of 1922, British pilots fought in the Escuela de Aviación Militar, many Britons fought during the American Civil War for both the United States and Confederate States. 67 British soldiers in the Union Army received the Medal of Honor, dozens of British volunteers joined Croatian units and fought in the Yugoslav Wars between 1991 and 1995, most of them on the King Tomislav Brigade. Later became part of the Yugoslav Army, about five thousand Filipinos served in a militia called the Makapili, which was under Japanese command. The unit was formed on 10 November 1944 and was issued around two thousand rifles by the Japanese and its headquarters was located at the Christ the King compound in Quezon City
9.
British Legions
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The British Legion or British Legions were foreign volunteer units that fought under Simón Bolívar against Spain for the independence of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru. Venezuelans generally called them the Albion Legion, Volunteers in the British Legion were motivated by a combination of both genuine political motives and mercenary motives. Their greatest achievements were at Boyacá, Carabobo, and Pichincha and they also took part of the last major campaign of the Independence wars, culminating in the Battle of Ayacucho in Peru, which marked the end of the Spanish rule in South America. The British Legions fought until the end of the wars, their number much depleted, in March 1819, Bolivar combined most of his foreign volunteers into a brigade of 250 men named the British Legions, with James Rooke as commander. The British Legions consisted of the 1st British Legion led by Colonel James Towers English, the 2nd British Legion led by Colonel John Blossett, the British Legions were an important part of Bolívars army. Nonetheless, for a time they were largely forgotten to history. The motivations of volunteers for the British Legions were mixed, many Britons were still concerned by the threat that Spain, as a restored world power, potentially posed to Britain. Despite Spain and Britain having been allies in the Peninsular War just a few years before, Volunteers were also motivated by the liberal propaganda of Bolívars supporters that portrayed the war as bringing freedom and rights to people under Spanish tyranny. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the British Empire no longer required a standing army. In April 1817, The Times calculated that there were 500,000 ex-soldiers in a British population of 25 million, South Americas wars of independence provided many of them with an opportunity to continue their military careers and escape from the prospect of inactivity and poverty at home. Spanish American wars of independence Latin American wars of independence James Towers English John Blossett Brown, adventuring through Spanish Colonies, Simón Bolívar, Foreign Mercenaries and the Birth of New Nations. Foreign Legionnaires in the Liberation of Spanish South America, British Volunteers in Bolivars War of Extermination 1817-21 Osprey ISBN1849081832 Lambert, Eric. Voluntarios británicos e irlandeses en la gesta bolivariana,3 vols, freedoms Mercenaries, British Volunteers in the Wars of Independence of Latin America,2 vols. El motín de la Legión Británica from Historia patria, English, James Towers in Irish Migration Studies in Latin America
10.
Monarchy of Spain
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The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as the Crown, is a constitutional institution and historic office of Spain. It used to be called the Hispanic Monarchy. The monarchy comprises the monarch, his or her family. The Spanish monarchy is represented by King Felipe VI, his wife Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 reestablished a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain. The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the personification and embodiment of the Spanish State, constitutionally, the king is the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. According to the constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community, the King of Spain serves as the president of the Ibero-American States Organization, purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. In 2008, Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, a dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century. The last pretender of the Crown of the Byzantine Empire, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his title to Ferdinand II of Aragon. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch has used the Byzantine imperial titles, the Spanish Empire became one of the first global powers as Isabella and Ferdinand funded Christopher Columbuss exploratory voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. This led to the discovery of America, which became the focus of Spanish colonization, in 2010, the budget for the Spanish monarchy was 7.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre until Urraca of León and Castile, the Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross-Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms. Urracas son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile, the first of the Spanish branch of the Burgundy Family, was the last to claim the title of Spain. The Castilian Civil War ended with the death of King Peter at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peters heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, married Henry III, reuniting the dynasties in the person of their son, each kingdom retained its basic structure. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain and this date marks the unification of Spain. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the crown of Castile, in the early 16th century, the Spanish monarchy controlled several territories in Europe under the Habsburg King Charles I, son of Queen Joanna of Castile. His reign ushered in the Spanish Golden Age a period of colonial expansion
11.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
12.
Mid-nineteenth century Spain
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Spain in the 19th century was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a destructive war of independence ensued. An era of reaction against the ideas associated with revolutionary France followed the war, personified by the rule of Ferdinand VII. Ferdinands rule included the loss of the Spanish colonies in the New World, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, disaffection with Isabellas government from many quarters led to repeated military intervention in political affairs and to several revolutionary attempts against the government. Two of these revolutions were successful, the moderate Vicalvarada or Vicálvaro Revolution of 1854, the latter marks the end of Isabellas monarchy. The Cádiz Cortes was the first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain and it represented the abolition of the old kingdoms. The opening session was held on 24 September 1810, the Central Junta dissolved itself on 29 January 1810, and set up a five-person Regency. The five regents convened the meeting of the Cortes in Cadiz and it operated as a government in exile. The Cortes Generales refuge in Cádiz during the Peninsular War, the Cortes opened their sessions in September 1810 on the Isle of Leon. They consisted of 97 deputies,47 of whom were alternates from Cadiz residents, the Cortes were representatives of the provinces but were unable to hold elections, either in Spain or Americas. The assembly thus try a territorial representation who approved a decree expressing represent the Spanish nation in which lay the national sovereignty over Spain, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was established on 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, Spains first national sovereign assembly. On 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, the decision to abrogate the Constitution was not welcomed by all, however. Liberals in Spain felt betrayed by the king who they had decided to support, the army, which had backed the pronouncements, had liberal leanings that made the kings position tenuous. Even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna starting a year later would cement international support for the old, the Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. Joseph had promised radical reform, particularly the centralization of the state, the Spanish Americans, however, did not support absolutism and wanted auto-governance. The juntas in the Americas did not accept the governments of the Europeans, a conspiracy of liberal mid-ranking officers in the expedition being outfitted at Cadiz mutinied before they were shipped to the Americas. Riego and his co-conspirators demanded that the liberal Constitution of 1812 be restored, before the coup became an outright revolution, King Ferdinand agreed to the demands of the revolutionaries and swore by the constitution. A Progresista government was appointed, though the king expressed his disaffection with the new administration and constitution, three years of liberal rule followed
13.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
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Hispanic America
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Hispanic America, more generally called Spanish America, is the region comprising the Spanish-speaking nations in the Americas. These countries have significant commonalities with other and with Spain. In all of these countries, Spanish is the language, sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages. Catholic Christianity is the predominant religion, Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under the term Ibero-America, meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula. Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America, which not only Hispanic America. Hispanic America became the part of the vast Spanish Empire. Napoleons takeover of Spain in 1808 and the consequent chaos initiated the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, by 1830, the only remaining Spanish American and Asian territories were Philippine archipelago and the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, until the 1898 Spanish–American War. While relatively unknown, there is a flag representing the countries of Spanish America, its people, history and it was created in October 1933 by Ángel Camblor, captain of the Uruguayan army. It was adopted by all the states of Spanish America during the Pan-American Conference of the year in Montevideo. The deep lilac color of the crosses evokes the color of the lion on the coat of arms of the medieval Crown of Castile
15.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
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Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
17.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
18.
Esmeralda (1791)
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The Spanish Esmeralda was a 44 gun frigate built in Port Mahón, Balearic Islands in 1791. The First Chilean Navy Squadron under the command of Thomas Cochrane captured her in the night from 5 to 6 November 1820 and she was renamed Valdivia in Chilean service. She was beached in Valparaíso in June 1825, the ship was 950 ton burthen frigate designed by engineer Bouyón in the Balearic Islands. The convoy arrived in Callao on 30 September 1817, except Tagle, on 31 March 1818 Esmeralda, the most powerful Spanish warship on the Pacific coast joined the Pezuela and Potrillo in the blockade of Valparaíso until 27 April 1818. On that day the Chilean ship Lautaro come alongside the Esmeralda, the boarders were unable to capture Esmeralda but the Spanish ships abandoned the blockade. The demoralization of his crews helped dissipate the power of the Viceroy. Later she was renamed Valdivia to commemorate Cochranes capture of Valdivia, the squadron was forced to move up and down the coast on supply gathering excursions, challenging shore fortifications. The Chilean ships sailed as far as the Gulf of Cortez off Mexico without finding a trace of the missing frigates
19.
Callao Affair
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The Callao affair occurred in November 1820, during the Peruvian War of Independence. It began when a Spanish fort opened fire on the United States warship USS Macedonian, though the ship was damaged, the Americans did not violate their neutrality by counterattacking. On the following day, a filled with United States Navy sailors was attacked. Two days after that, an American merchant ship was attacked, ultimately, there was no significant response by the United States to the attacks on their shipping and their citizens, though the Spanish government vowed to punish the perpetrators. Inspired by the French revolution in 1789, and the Peruvian revolution, the capture of the ship crippled Spains operational capabilities in the Pacific Ocean and infuriated the Royalist inhabitants of Callao. Because the Macedonian was so close to the area, the Spanish military in Callao assumed that she had supported Cochranes fleet in the attack. So instead of aiming for the Chilean ships, the garrison opened fire on the frigate, multiple rounds ripped through the ships rigging though the damage was repairable and no Americans were harmed. The Macedonians carpenter, Samuel Holbrook, later described the incident, Their shot flew round us like hail, cutting away our cross-jack yard, many of the red hot shot struck near us. Captain Downes was in Lima at the time and a first lieutenant was in command, on the following day, the lieutenant sent the tender Buckskin filled with sailors into port for provisions. However, while the sailors were still heading to shore, Spanish troops at the docks opened fire, Holbrook described the scene, blood and brain scattered round the inside as though a bullock had been killed in her. There was no landing as some claim and the survivors went back to their ship without obtaining the fresh food they were looking for. The Macedonian also took on board that day several American and British refugees who were in fear of being killed by the natives. Captain Downes was still not interested in exacting redress for the three incidents but he did send the Spanish Viceroy Joaquin de la Pezuela a letter of protest, Pezuela said he would punish those responsible but whether he actually did so or not remains unknown. So, when the Americans were leaving Callao, they expected to have to fight their way past the Chilean fleet, but Cochrane ignored the frigate and let it go without any opposition. In the end, there was no retaliation by the United States in response to the attacks on their vessels or their citizens, bahia incident Rio de Janeiro Affair Glenn, Myra C. Jack Tars Story, The Autobiographies and Memoirs of Sailors in Antebellum America, chronicles of the Frigate Macedonian, 1809–1922. Gold braid and foreign relations, diplomatic activities of U. S. naval officers, 1798–1883
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Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
21.
Spanish American wars of independence
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These conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War in 1898. The new republics from the abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century, criollos and mestizos replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions, both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in former French colony of St-Domingue, Haiti, a more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period. Political independence was not necessarily the outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. There was little interest in outright independence, humphreys and John Lynch note, it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. Since by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, because Spanish American independence did occur, there are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from kingdoms with independent standing with the crown to colonies and this meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crowns upending long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church, the crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. In the economic sphere, the sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo, in some areas—such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions, the Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire, the political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors
22.
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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The creation of juntas in Spanish America in 1810 was a direct reaction to developments in Spain during the previous two years. In 1808 Ferdinand VII had been convinced to abdicate by Napoleon in his favor, the Supreme Central Junta had led a resistance to Josephs government and the French occupation of Spain, but suffered a series of reverses resulting in the loss of the northern half of the country. On February 1,1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia, the Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself in favor of a Regency Council of Spain and the Indies. As news of this arrived throughout Spanish America during the three weeks to nine months—depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain—political fault lines appeared. It is important to note that, at first, the claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king. Juntas were successfully established in Venezuela, Río de la Plata and New Granada, in the months following the establishment of the Regency, it became clear that Spain was not lost, and furthermore the government was effectively reconstituting itself. The Regency successfully convened the Cortes Generales, the parliament of the Spanish Monarchy. The Regency and Cortes began issuing orders to, and appointing and those who supported the new government came to be called royalists. Those that supported the idea of maintaining independent juntas called themselves patriots, as the Cortes instituted liberal reforms and worked on drafting a constitution, a new division appeared among royalists. Conservatives did not want to see any innovations in government, while liberals supported them and these differences would become more acute after the restoration of Ferdinand VII, because the king opted to support the conservative position. Regional rivalry also played an important role in the wars that broke out in Spanish America as a result of the juntas. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority —initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire, more often than not, juntas sought to maintain a provinces independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general, as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of some provinces were to be subordinate to others in the manner that they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in New Granada and Río de la Plata and this rivalry also lead some regions to adopt the opposing political cause from their rivals. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had made by a Cortes assembled in his absence. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes, most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy
23.
Real Felipe
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The Real Felipe Fortress was built to defend the main Peruvian port and the city of Lima from pirates and corsairs during colonial times. The fortress was pivotal in the 1866 naval battle between a Spanish fleet sent to South America to reclaim its colonies and land batteries in the coast of Peru, the Real Felipe Fortress is currently the Peruvian Army Museum, displaying historical uniforms, weapons and other military paraphernalia. During the Viceroyalty of Peru, Callao was the port of the Americas, it connected the colonies with Spain. Due to the lack of adequate defenses. In an attempt to protect the port, the viceroy Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva decreed the construction of Walls of Lima between the years 1640 and 1647 to protect the city, however, the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake, destroyed most of the fortifications. Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco, orders the contraction of the fortress to bolster the defense of the port, in 1746, the design proposal of French architect Louis Godin is selected as the design of the fortress. Construction of the fortress began on 21 January 1747 and the first stone was erected 1 August of the same year and this was considered one of the most important constructions made by Spain in the New World, costing about three million pesetas. Most of the came from the San Lorenzo Island and from the ruins caused by the earthquake. The name was chosen to honour the Spanish king Felipe V from the House of Bourbon, construction ended during the reign of viceroy Manuel de Amat y Junient in 1774. In 1782, viceroy Manuel Guirior decided to bolster the defences of the fortress with the construction of two smaller fortresses, the «San Miguel» and the «San Rafael». This system came to be known as «Los Castillos del Callao», in 1806, viceroy José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa ordered the construction of a storage depot for arms, artillery and water to supply up to 2,000 soldiers for up to four months. On 21 January 1816, Admiral Guillermo Brown blockaded the port of Callao, captured several royalist boats, however, they were soon repulsed by the coastal batteries of the fortress. During 16 January 1819, the fortress repulsed an attack from Admiral Lord Thomas Cochrane during the government of viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela and this incident forced General José de San Martín to invade Lima from Pisco. Once the declaration of independence was decreed, General San Martín ordered to siege the fortress, the siege ended in 1821, when royalist General José de La Mar surrenderd to republican forces. However, the fortress was captured again by the Spaniards under Brigadier José Ramón Rodil y Campillo, only in 1826, would the fortress return to the republicans after Brigadier Rodil y Campillo surrendered. GUIDE TO PERU, Handbook for travelers, 6th, edition, by Gonzalo de Reparaz Ruiz, Ediciones de Arte Rep, Lima – Perú, Book edited in English language by the Fondo de Promoción Turística del Perú – FOPTUR, pages 114–115. The Emancipation of Peru, British Eyewitness Accounts,2014, online at https, //sites. google. com/site/jhemanperu Satellite photo of Real Felipe Fortress Real Felipe Fortress website
24.
Callao
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El Callao is the chief seaport of Peru. The city is also called Provincia Constitucional, the province of the Callao Region. The Historic Centre of Callao is located 15 km west of Historic Centre of Lima, the countrys capital, Callao borders Lima Province on the north, east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. El Callao was founded by Spanish colonists in 1537, just two years after Lima and it soon became the main port for Spanish commerce in the Pacific. The origin of its name is unknown, both Indian and Spanish sources are credited, but it is certain that it was known by name since 1550. Other sources point to the similarity with the Portuguese word calhau, on 20 August 1836, during the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, President Andrés de Santa Cruz mandated the creation of the Callao Littoral Province, which had political autonomy in its internal affairs. During the government of President Ramón Castilla, Callao was given the name of Constitutional Province, on 22 April 1857, before that, all of the other Peruvian provinces had been given their names by law, while Callao was given it by constitutional mandate. Callao was never part of the Lima Department nor of any other departments, the provinces first mayor was Col. Manuel Cipriano Dulanto. By 1949, Callao was known as one of the biggest centers of coca-based products, on 28 October 1746, a tsunami caused by the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake destroyed the entire port of Callao. On 22 January 22,1826, besieged by nationalist forces backed by Simón Bolívar, on 2 May 1866, during the Battle of Callao, the Spanish fleet tried to reconquer independent Peru. Kon-Tiki left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28,1947, on 19 June 1986, dozens of Sendero Luminoso terrorists tried to escape but encountered the governments naval forces on El Frontón, resulting in the so-called Peruvian prison massacres. Callao is built on and around a peninsula, the district of La Punta, a historical fortress, the Castillo de Real Felipe, stands on the promontory overlooking the harbor. A large naval base is sited in Callao and its prison holds Abimael Guzmán, the leader of the Shining Path terrorist organization, and Vladimiro Montesinos, the ex-director of internal security during the Fujimori regime. Jorge Chávez International Airport is located in Callao, on a bluff overlooking the harbor sits Colegio Militar Leoncio Prado, the military high school. The city also has a university, the National University of Callao, the main Naval Hospital, Centro Medico Naval is located on Avenida Venezuela in Bellavista. It contains the U. S. Navy command Naval Medical Research Unit Six, residents of Callao are known as chalacos. Callaos professional football teams are Sport Boys and Atlético Chalaco, Callao has several islands, San Lorenzo, El Frontón, the Cavinzas Islands, and the Palomino Islands, where numerous sea lions and sea birds live in a virtually untouched ecosystem. There are proposed plans to build a naval, terrestrial
25.
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho, is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for year of Jesus life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter and these celebrations include horse races featuring Peruvian Caballos de Paso and the traditional running of the bulls, known locally as the jalatoro or pascuatoro. The jalatoro is similar to the Spanish encierro, except that the bulls are led by horses of the Morochucos, the name is derived from the Quechua words aya and kuchu, referring to a major battle for independence. Another possible interpretation is soul or spirit corner, in reference to the devotion of its people. Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found in the site of Pikimachay, from 500 to 900, the region became occupied by the Wari culture, which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire. The Ayacucho region was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years, including the Wari, Chanka people, the Spanish colonial founding of Ayacucho was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25,1540, who named it San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga. On May 17,1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho was titled La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga, the citys main University was founded on July 3,1677 as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. On February 15,1825, Simón Bolívar changed the name to Ayacucho. The city is named after the historical Battle of Ayacucho, upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area Ayakuchu, aya meaning dead and kuchu meaning corner in Ayacucho Quechua. The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between Spanish armies and patriots during the Peruvian War of Independence, the battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9,1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívars lieutenant, viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army. The patriot victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America, La Paz, now the seat of government of Bolivia, was similarly renamed La Paz de Ayacucho following this battle. The citys economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua. In 1980, the insurgent organization known as the Shining Path used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, the campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country, with the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs. María Parado de Bellido, heroine in War of Independence, efraín Morote Best, anthropologist and university president
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Peruvian Army
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The Peruvian Army is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with safeguarding the independence, sovereignty and integrity of national territory on land through military force. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations and it celebrates the anniversary of the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9. Military traditions in Peruvian territory go back to times, ranging from small armed bands to the large armies assembled by the Inca Empire. After the Spanish conquest, small garrisons were kept at strategic locations, the main purpose of this force was the defense of the Viceroyalty from pirates and corsairs as well as internal rebellions. After the War of Independence the strong position of the Army, the Ejército del Perú also had a major role in the definition of national borders by participating in several wars against neighbor countries. This included an indecisive conflict against the Gran Colombia, the wars of the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, starting in 1842, increased state revenues from guano exports allowed the expansion and modernization of the Army, as well as the consolidation of its political power. These improvements were an important factor in the defeat of a Spanish naval expedition at the Battle of Callao, however, continuous overspending and a growing public debt led to a chronic fiscal crisis in the 1870s which severely affected defense budgets. The consequent lack of military preparedness combined with bad leadership were major causes of Perus defeat against Chile in the War of the Pacific, the reconstruction of the Army started slowly after the war due to a general lack of funds. A major turning point in this process was the arrival in 1896 of a French Military Mission contracted by president Nicolás de Piérola. By 1900 the peacetime strength of the army was evaluated at six infantry battalions, a military school was reportedly operating in the Chorrillos District of Lima and French officers were continuing to assist in the armys reorganization. Improvements such as these were instrumental in the performance of the Army in border skirmishes with Colombia. A US military mission started operations in 1945 followed by an influx of surplus American military equipment delivered as aid or sold at a very low cost. The Peruvian Army was the main protagonist of the Gobierno Revolucionario de las Fuerzas Armadas, during this period, defense expenditures underwent exponential growth allowing a rapid expansion of the Armed Forces and an unprecedented level of weapon acquisitions. Political power returned to the civilians in the 1980s, but the rise of the terrorist insurgent group Sendero Luminoso prompted the deployment of several Army units in a counter-insurgency role. The presidency of Alberto Fujimori saw the Army regain protagonism in the public scene, the internal conflict ceased for the most part after the capture in 1992 of Abimael Guzmán, leader of the terrorist group Shining Path, but a brief border war with Ecuador broke out in 1995. During this period, women were incorporated into the Army first as conscripts in 1993, Army commandos had an important participation in operation Chavín de Huantar which put an end to the Japanese embassy hostage crisis. In 1999, one year after the signing of a treaty with Ecuador conscription was abolished and replaced by a voluntary military service for both genders. The downfall of the Alberto Fujimori regime left the Peruvian Army in a state, with some of its senior officers compromised in scandals of corruption
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Rafael del Riego
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Rafael del Riego y Nuñez was a Spanish general and liberal politician, who played a key role in the outbreak of the Liberal Triennium. Riego was born on 9 April 1784 in Tineo in Asturias, after graduating from the University of Oviedo in 1807, he moved to Madrid, where he joined the army. In 1808, during the Spanish War of Independence he was taken captive by the French and imprisoned in El Escorial, on 10 November he took part in the Battle of Espinosa de los Monteros, after which he once again was taken prisoner. Three days later he was sent to France, and after he changed his name to Riego, was eventually released and he traveled around England and the German states, and in 1814 he returned to Spain right before the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was abolished by Fernando VII. In Spain, Riego once again joined the army with a rank of lieutenant colonel, during the six years of absolutism that followed the restoration of King Fernando VII, Spanish liberals wished to restore the Spanish Constitution, which the King had abolished in May 1814. Riego joined the freemasons and collaborated with liberals in several conspiracies against the King, in 1819, the King was forming an army of ten battalions to fight in the Spanish American wars of independence. Riego was given command of the Asturian Battalion, after arriving in Cádiz, together with other liberal officers, he started a mutiny on 1 January 1820, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. Riegos troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with the hope of starting an anti-absolutist uprising, an uprising, however, took in Galicia, and it quickly spread throughout Spain. On 7 March 1820, the palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros, and on 10 March. The new progressive government promoted Riego to field marshal and made him Captain General of Galicia, on 8 January 1821 he took command of Aragon, and moved to Zaragoza. On 18 June, he married his cousin Maria Teresa del Riego y Bustillos, on 4 September 1821, because of a failed republican revolt, he was wrongly accused of republicanism and imprisoned. However, his popularity grew, and demonstrations took place in Madrid demanding his release, in March 1822, he was elected to the Cortes Generales and eventually released from prison. On 7 April 1823, the French army crossed the borders, Riego took command of the Third Army and resisted the invaders as well as local absolutist groups. On 15 September he was betrayed and taken prisoner in an estate near the village of Arquillos. Despite asking for clemency from the King, Riego was found guilty of treason, on 7 November 1823, he was hanged at La Cebada Square in Madrid. El Himno de Riego, a written in honour of Riego. Currently his portrait is displayed in the building of the Cortes Generales
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Ferdinand VII of Spain
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Ferdinand VII was twice King of Spain, in 1808 and again from 1813 to his death. He was known to his supporters as the Desired and to his detractors as the Felon King and he reestablished the absolutist monarchy and rejected the liberal constitution of 1812. He suppressed the liberal press 1814-33 and jailed many of its editors and writers, under his rule, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions, and the country entered into civil war on his death. His reputation among historians is very low, historian Stanley Payne says, He proved in many ways the basest king in Spanish history. Cowardly, selfish, grasping, suspicious, and vengeful, seemed almost incapable of any perception of the commonwealth and he thought only in terms of his power and security and was unmoved by the enormous sacrifices of Spanish people to retain their independence and preserve his throne. Ferdinand was ostensibly the eldest surviving child of Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand was born in the palace of El Escorial near Madrid. The Queens confessor Fray Juan Almaraz wrote in his last will that she admitted in articulo mortis that none, none of her sons and daughters, none was of the legitimate marriage. In his youth Ferdinand occupied the position of an heir apparent who was excluded from all share in government by his parents and their advisor and Prime Minister. National discontent with the government produced a rebellion in 1805, in October 1807, Ferdinand was arrested for his complicity in the El Escorial Conspiracy in which the rebels aimed at securing foreign support from the French Emperor Napoleon. When the conspiracy was discovered, Ferdinand submitted to his parents, following a popular riot at Aranjuez Charles IV abdicated in March 1808. Ferdinand ascended the throne and turned to Napoleon for support and he abdicated on 6 May 1808. Napoleon kept Ferdinand under guard in France for six years at the Chateau of Valençay, while the upper echelons of the Spanish government accepted his abdication and Napoleons choice of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, the Spanish people did not. Uprisings broke out throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War, provincial juntas were established to control regions in opposition to the new French king. After the Battle of Bailén proved that the Spanish could resist the French, on 24 August, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king of Spain again, and negotiations between the Council and the provincial juntas for the establishment of a Supreme Central Junta were completed. Subsequently, on 14 January 1809, the British government acknowledged Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, the Spanish people, blaming the policies of the Francophiles for causing the Napoleonic occupation and the Peninsular War by allying Spain too closely to France, at first welcomed Fernando. Ferdinand soon found that in the years a new world had been born of foreign invasion. In his name Spain fought for its independence and in his name as well juntas had governed Spanish America, Spain was no longer the absolute monarchy he had relinquished six years earlier. Instead he was now asked to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812, before being allowed to enter Spanish soil, Ferdinand had to guarantee the liberals that he would govern on the basis of the Constitution, but, only gave lukewarm indications he would do so
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Spanish Constitution of 1812
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The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was established on 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, Spains first national sovereign assembly, the Cortes Generales, in refuge in Cádiz during the Peninsular War. It established the principles of universal suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy and freedom of the press. This constitution, one of the most liberal of its time, was effectively Spains first, on 24 March 1814, six weeks after returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution and had all monuments to it torn down. The Constitution Obelisk in Saint Augustine, Florida survived, the constitution was reinstated during the Trienio Liberal, and again briefly 1836—1837 while the Progressives prepared the Constitution of 1837. The Spaniards nicknamed the Constitution La Pepa, possibly because it was adopted on Saint Josephs Day, from a Spanish point of view, the Peninsular War was a war of independence against the French Empire and the king installed by Napoleon, his brother Joseph Bonaparte. While many in elite circles in Madrid were willing to accept Josephs rule, the war began on the night of 2 May 1808, and was immortalized by Francisco Goyas painting The Second of May 1808, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes. The Junta first met on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez and later in Seville, in any event, Floridablancas strength failed him and he died on 30 December 1808. When the Cortes convened in Cádiz in 1810, there appeared to be two possibilities for Spains political future if the French could be driven out. The first, represented especially by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, was the restoration of the absolutist Antiguo Régimen, the origins of the Cortes did not harbor any revolutionary intentions, since the Junta saw itself simply as a continuation of the legitimate government of Spain. The opening session of the new Cortes was held on 24 September 1810 in the now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes. Few of the most conservative voices were at Cádiz, and there was no communication with King Ferdinand. Three basic principles were soon ratified by the Cortes, that sovereignty resides in the nation, the legitimacy of Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and the inviolability of the deputies. Although the Cortes was not unanimous in its liberalism, the new Constitution reduced the power of the crown, the Catholic Church, the Cortes of Cádiz worked feverishly and the first written Spanish constitution was promulgated in Cádiz on 19 March 1812. The Constitution of 1812 is regarded as the document of liberalism in Spain. Suffrage, which was not determined by property qualifications, favored the position of the class in the new parliament. Repeal of traditional property restrictions gave liberals the freer economy they wanted, the first provincial government created under the Constitution was in the province of Guadalajara con Molina. Its deputation first met in the village of Anguita in April 1813, among the most debated questions during the drafting of the constitution was the status of the native and mixed-race populations in Spains possessions around the world. Most of the provinces were represented, especially the most populous regions
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Plan of Iguala
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The Plan of Iguala, also known as The Plan of the Three Guarantees, was a revolutionary proclamation promulgated on 24 February 1821, in the final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain. It took its name from the city of Iguala in the state of Guerrero. The two main figures behind the Plan were Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, revolutionary leader and later President of Mexico. The Army of the Three Guarantees was formed by the unified forces Iturbide, on 24 August 1821, Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan ODonojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba in Córdoba, Veracruz, ratifying the Plan of Iguala, and thus confirming Mexicos independence. These are the Three Guarantees by which the Plan is sometimes known, summarized as Religion, Independence, although the Spanish Viceroy had ratified the Treaty of Córdoba, the Spanish Congress meeting in Madrid on 13 February 1822 repudiated the Treaty as illegal, null, and void. The Mexican government, however, insisted upon ODonojús acceptance of the Plan as legally establishing the countrys independence, Spain responded with a series of efforts to reconquer Mexico over the following decade. Following the fall of Iturbides empire, the Mexican Congress abrogated both the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba as the basis for government on 8 April 1823. Instead, a new convention was called which led to the adoption of the 1824 Constitution of Mexico on 4 October 1824
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Mariano Osorio
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Mariano de Osorio was a Spanish general and Governor of Chile, from 1814 to 1815. Osorio was born in Seville, Spain, in 1810, was appointed head of the military factory of Catalonia. In 1812, was destined to the Royal Army in Peru, in 1812 he resettled in Peru, where he married Joaquina de la Pezuela, daughter of Peruvian Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela. In the Disaster of Rancagua he was able to defeat the forces of Bernardo OHiggins, in the same year he became the Governor of Chile. In Chile the time of the reconquest by the Spanish military was thus begun, Osorio sought to reinstate order and justice and with military measures he prevented the onslaught of the insurgents. In 1816 he returned to Lima and Francisco Marcó del Pont was made new Governor of Chile, when the Spaniards lost the Battle of Chacabuco, he returned to Chile. There he succeeded in securing victory in the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada on March 18,1818, at this battle OHigginss arm was injured. Osorio proceeded to Cuba, where he died in 1819 of malaria
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Cerro de Pasco
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Cerro de Pasco is a city in central Peru, located at the top of the Andean mountains. It is the capital of the Pasco region, and an important mining center and it is connected by road and by rail to the capital Lima, as far as 300 km. Cerro de Pasco became one of the worlds richest silver producing areas after silver was discovered there in 1630 and it is still an active mining center. The Spanish mined the rich Cerro de Pasco silver-bearing oxide ore deposits since colonial times, sulfide minerals are more common in the Atacocha district however. However, fighting in the Peruvian War of Independence brought production to a halt from 1820 to 1825, gray Brechin notes that the mines of Cerro de Pasco were a chief source of wealth for William Randolph Hearst and his family. Three major mines in the include the Machcan, Atacocha. SIlver ore occurs in veins or as sulfides and clay minerals replacing the Jurassic Pucara limestone. Porphyry dacite stocks are found intruded near the Atacocha and Milpo mines along the Atacocha Fault, compania Minera Atacocha started operations at the Atacocha Mine in 1936. Ore minerals include galena and sphalerite, at 4,330 metres above sea level, Cerro de Pasco has an Alpine Climate. The city has humid summers, dry winters and chilly to cold temperatures throughout the year, the average annual temperature in Cerro de Pasco is 5.5 °C and the average annual rainfall is 999 mm. Daniel Alcides Carrión Yanacocha Toquepala mine
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Ica Region
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It borders the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Lima Region on the north, the Huancavelica and Ayacucho regions on the east, and the Arequipa Region on the south. Its capital is the city of Ica, the Ica Region has a remarkable geography. It is the region of the southern coast formed by plains, also called coast plains. Some geological folds have determined the formation of dunes moving toward the sea, some isolated formations located at the southern part created the Marcona complex, with the biggest deposits of iron in the Pacific coast. Icas configuration is due to the geomorphology of its two big and unique fluvial watersheds, the Pasco and Ica rivers, also, it has a waterway called the Rio Grande, although its waters do not reach the ocean. Some waters are diverted for irrigation and agriculture in the provinces of Pampa, Nazca and Ingenio, there are extensive deserts in Ica, such as the Lancha Pampas. Pozo Santo and Villacuri pampas are extremely hot areas, strong and persistent winds called paracas are present and stir up large sandstorms. The first settlers are from 10,000 years ago, from which the Wari, Chincha, Nazca, Ica and Paracas cultures developed, the Paracas culture developed from the seventh through the 2nd century BC. It is distinguished by its matchless textile skills, trephinations, and this culture expanded from the 2nd century BC through the 7th century AD. They have left us their wonderful aqueducts that made use of underground water, of rivers and rain. In the 15th century, during the Inca empire, Pachacuti incorporated the territories of Ica, Nazca, years later, in 1563, with the arrival of the Spanish, Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera founded the Villa de Valverde del Valle de Ica. Since then, the became an important vineyard and cotton center. During the independence war, General José de San Martín landed in Paracas and fixed his headquarters in Pisco, the region is divided into five provinces, which are composed of 43 districts. The provinces, with their capitals in parentheses, are, Chincha Ica Nazca Palpa Pisco Capital of the Ica Department. A very modern city that has popular Peruvian street markets, many old churches and landmarks, modern malls, hotels, coffee shops, theatres. Located on the west side of the city of Ica, capital of the Ica Department, one of the most popular places to visit in Ica is La Huacachina. The famous desert oasis is located 5 km from Ica and it is a small lake with medicinal water, lying in the middle of a spectacular sand desert. Pisco is the most important port in Ica and a litoral province, the most important attractions within this province are likely Paracas, Paracas Bay and the Paracas National Reserve
34.
Guayaquil conference
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The Guayaquil Conference was a meeting that took place on July 26,1822, in Guayaquil, Ecuador, between José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar, to discuss the future of Perú. Lima, capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, was the most important city of the Spanish colonies in South America and it was a royalist stronghold during the Spanish American wars of independence, fighting against the several independentist outbreaks. However, there was still a strong royalist force in the Peruvian countryside, Simón Bolívar led another independentist campaign. With forces from Haiti, a former French colony, he liberated Venezuela, francisco de Paula Santander liberated the United Provinces of New Granada and joined forces with Bolívar, creating the Gran Colombia. The battles of Lake Maracaibo secured the independence of Venezuela, a revolt in Guayaquil proclaimed the independence of the city, followed by other Ecuatorian cities. Neither San Martín nor Bolívar took part in the development of the Ecuadorian War of Independence. The Ecuadorians discussed the future of the region, some wanted to join Colombia, others to join Peru. Bolívar ended the discussion by annexing Guayaquil into Colombia, there was Peruvian pressure on San Martín to do a similar thing, to annex Guayaquil to Peru. San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on July 25, where he was greeted by Bolívar. However, the two men could not come to an agreement, despite their common goals and mutual respect, both men had very different ideas about how to organize the governments of the countries that they had liberated. Bolívar was in favor of forming a series of republics in the independent nations, whereas San Martín preferred the European system of rule. San Martín was also in favor of placing a European prince in power as King of Peru when it was to be liberated, the conference, consequently, was a failure, at least for San Martín. San Martín, after meeting with Bolívar for several hours on July 26, stayed for a banquet, after the conference, San Martín abdicated his powers in Peru and returned to Argentina. Soon afterward, he left South America entirely and retired in France, the Guayaquil conference inspired a short story by Jorge Luis Borges, Guayaquil, in which he explores the possible psychological relation between San Martín and Bolívar. Spanish American wars of independence Galasso, Norberto, seamos libres y lo demás no importa nada. Bolívar and San Martín at Guayaquil
35.
Moquegua Region
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Moquegua is a department in southern Peru that extends from the coast to the highlands. The regions volcanoes and its geomorphology make its geography remarkable and these are veritable oasis enclaved in the rocks, arid hillsides and some terraces where horticulture is possible. High quality alfalfa as well as fruits, especially grapes, are produced here, due to a good climate, the second sector is the valley of Omate, one of the most populated and fertile soils of the department. The Ubinas Volcano, Perus most active volcano, is located nearby, in the hillsides, the land is fertile in contrast with the desolation and sterility of its highlands. In the southern part of the Tambo River is located the town of Carumas, the Moquegua River is a short run one and is formed by its tributaries, the Torata, Huaracane and Tumilaca rivers. After passing through the capital, it digs deep into a canyon called the Osmare. The Moquegua Region is bordered by the Arequipa Region in the north, the Puno Region in the east, the Tacna Region in the south, the region is divided into 3 provinces, which are composed of 20 districts. As of 2002, the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática estimates the population to be 156,750. According to the last census in Peru in 2007, the languages learnt first by the residents were Spanish, Aymara, Quechua, other indigenous languages were learnt first by 0. 19% and foreign languages by 0. 04%. The Quechua variety spoken in Moquegua is Cusco–Collao Quechua, the largest immigrant groups come from the Puno Region and the Arequipa Region. The population is out with 43. 3% under the age of 20,9. 9% from 20 to 24,28. 6% from 25 to 44,13. 4% from 45 to 64. Secondary education has been attended by 33. 3% of the population and 5. 5% also have graduated from non-university higher education,37. 9% only have attended primary education and 7. 1% have not had any education. The illiteracy rate in the region is 10%, according to chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega, it was Inca Mayta Cápac who organized the military expedition to expand the domains of the Cusco monarchs along this part of the coast. Since these were fertile lands, capable of supporting a larger population, in doing so, they were also protecting the Inca domain over the conquered lands. C. There is no data on the Spanish conquest or the founding of the city of Moquegua by its army. Presumably, it was founded on 25 November 1541 by Pedro Cansino and his wife, during the War of the Pacific, Moquegua suffered the invasion of Chilean troops. This army looted all buildings —including churches—, tortured women, Contisuyo Museum is also located in the city of Moquegua. The museum exhibits a variety of remains of the Uros
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Puno
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The Polish University Abroad, or Polish University in Exile, was initially established in London in 1949. The Polish University Abroad has a B. A. programme and it has outposts in Paris, France, and Munich, Germany. PUNO is based in Hammersmith, London, the nearest underground station is Ravenscourt Park
37.
La Paz
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La Paz, officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz, also named Chuqi Yapu in Aymara, is the seat of government of the Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 789,541 residents as of 2015, La Paz is the third-most populous city in Bolivia. Its metropolitan area, which is formed by La Paz, El Alto and Viacha, makes up the most populous area in Bolivia. It is also the capital of the La Paz Department, the city, located in west-central Bolivia 68 km southeast of Lake Titicaca, is set in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River. It is located in a depression surrounded by the high mountains of the Altiplano. Overlooking the city is the towering, triple-peaked Illimani and its peaks are always snow covered and can be seen from many parts of the city. At an elevation of roughly 3,650 m above sea level, due to its altitude, La Paz has an unusual subtropical highland climate, with rainy summers and dry winters. The city was moved to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago Marka. La Paz was under Spanish colonial rule as part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, since its founding, the city was the site of numerous revolts. In 1781, the leader and independence activist Túpac Katari laid siege to the city for a total of six months. Sucre is the capital of Bolivia and retains the judicial power. The city hosts numerous foreign embassies as well as missions in the country. The city is renowned for its markets, particularly the Witches Market. Its unusual topography offers unique views of the city and the mountains of the Cordillera Real from numerous natural viewing points. La Paz is also home to both the longest and highest urban cable car network in the world, in May 2015, it was officially recognized as one of the New 7 Wonders Cities together with Beirut, Doha, Durban, Havana, Kuala Lumpur and Vigan. La Paz is listed on the Global Cities Index 2015, and is considered a city type Gamma by Globalization. This area had been the site of an Inca city, located on a trading route. Although the Spanish conquistadors entered the area in 1535, they did not found La Paz until 1548, originally it was to be at the site of the Native American settlement, Laja, with the full name of the city being Nuestra Señora de La Paz
38.
Arequipa
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Arequipa is the capital and largest city of the Arequipa Region and the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru. Its industrial activity includes manufactured goods and camelid wool products for export, the city has close trade ties with Chile, Bolivia and Brazil. The city was founded on August 15,1540, by Garcí Manuel de Carbajal as Villa Hermosa de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, during the Colonial period, Arequipa became highly important for its economic prosperity and for its loyalty to the Spanish Crown. After Peru gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Arequipa acquired greater political significance, the historic center of Arequipa spans an area of 332 hectares and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its historic heritage, natural scenery and cultural sites make the city a major tourist destination and its religious, colonial, and republican architectural styles blend European and native characteristics into a unique style called Escuela Arequipeña. A local tradition states that Inca Mayta Capac received a petition from his subjects to reach the valley of the River Chili and they asked him for permission to stay in the region as they were impressed by the beauty of the landscape and the mild climate. However, another tale states that when the first Europeans arrived to the valley, they pointed at the ground. The local chief, not understanding the question, assumed they were asking for a permission to sit down and gave a positive answer, which sounded like Arequipa. Another possible origin of the name comes from the Aymara language phrase qhipaya ari or Ari qipa. The early inhabitants of the Arequipa City area were people who relied on activities such as hunting, fishing and gathering for survival. Later, pre-Inca cultures domesticated llamas and became sedentary with the development of agriculture, during this time, major irrigation channels were built within the valley of the Chili river, which allowed the development of agriculture by means of terraces built on both sides of the valley. The Yarabaya and Chimbe tribes settled in the current location. Lands were then distributed among three families who founded the towns of Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Socabaya, Characato and others. At the time of its foundation, Arequipa had already a city council, because the foundation of the town occurred in part as a relocation of Villa Hermosa de Camana, the name was partially conserved as Villa Hermosa de Arequipa. Charles V of Germany and I of Spain gave the town a status of city by Royal Decree on 22 September 1541, the relocation efforts were led by Garci Manuel de Carbajal, who was selected as the political authority for the foundation of the new town. Among the first public works carried out in the city are the Main Church, the City Hall, the bridge on the Chili River and the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Gracia. Since its Spanish founding and over three centuries, the population of the city was mostly of Spanish origin, which represented a strong following of Spain. One aspect that distinguished Arequipa from the rest of the country was the explicit and public commitment of the city to the Spanish Crown
39.
Oruro, Bolivia
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Oruro or Uru Uru is a city in Bolivia with a population of 264,683, located in the Altiplano about equidistant between La Paz and Sucre at approximately 3709 meters above sea level. It is the fifth-largest city in Bolivia by population, after Santa Cruz de la Sierra, El Alto, La Paz and it is the capital of the department of Oruro. The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oruro, Oruro has been subject to cycles of boom and bust owing to its dependence upon the mining industry, notably tin, tungsten, silver and copper. The city was founded on November 1,1606 by Don Manuel Castro de Padilla. as a center in the Urus region. At the time it was named Real Villa de San Felipe de Austria and it thrived for awhile, but it was eventually abandoned as the silver mines became exhausted. Oruro was reestablished by European Bolivians in the nineteenth century as a tin mining center. It was named after the native tribe Uru-Uru, for a time, the La Salvadora tin mine was the most important source of tin in the world. Gradually, as this became less plentiful, Oruro again went into a decline. Its economy is based on the mining industry. While traditionally based upon mining, beginning in the late 20th century Ouro has become a destination for increased tourism, in the early 21st century, the economy of Oruro grew through trade and economic connections with Chile, especially for exporting products to Pacific markets. Despite its economic decline, the city attracts tourists to its Carnaval de Oruro, considered one of the great folkloric events in South America for its masked diablada. The Oruro Symphony Orchestra is based in the city, aymara painter and printmaker Alejandro Mario Yllanes was born here. The Universidad Técnica de Oruro, noted for its school, is located in Oruro. Oruro lies north of the salty lakes Uru Uru and Poopó and it is three hours from La Paz. Located at an altitude of 3709 meters above sea level, Oruro is well known for its cold weather, warmer temperatures generally take place during August, September and October, after the worst of the winter chills and before the summer rains. From May to early July, night time temperatures combined with cool wind can bring the temperature down to about -20 °C, summers are warmer, and, although it is an arid area, it has considerable rainfall between November and March. The Köppen Climate System describes the climate as Tropical and Subtropical Steppe, abbreviated BSk. Due to the days and dry winters, snow is not a frequent occurrence as much as the bitter cold, however, flurries can fall usually once every few years
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Agustín Gamarra
Viceroy La Serna (WIA)
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