1.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
2.
Walloomsac, New York
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Walloomsac, New York is a location in New York State, on the Walloomsac River. It is to the east, and upstream, from North Hoosick and it includes the Bennington Battlefield, which was fought on both sides of the river and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. It is located in the northeast part of the Town of Hoosick, the nearest community is Hoosick Falls, to its southwest
3.
Hoosick, New York
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Hoosick is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 6,924 at the 2010 census and it was named from the Hoosic River. The Town of Hoosick is in the northeast corner of Rensselaer county, the town of Hoosick was organized in 1788, in Albany County, three years before the creation of Rensselaer County in 1791. The region was formerly the District of Hoosick and previous to that the Hoosick Patent, the Battle of Bennington of the American Revolution was fought northeast of Hoosick, on a farm owned by John Green, in the community of Walloomsac. Among the notable natives of Hoosick are, Chester Arthur, US President lived in Hoosick for a period of time, bob Eberly and Ray Eberle Romulus Whitaker, Indian herpetologist. Simon Fraser - Born in Mapletown, town of Hoosick and he was an explorer who charted much of what is now British Columbia. A river, mountain, and Simon Fraser University there are named after him, joshua Furnas, Athlete, Entrepreneur, Advocate Eugene Goossen, art critic and historian, and his wife Patricia Johanson, noted environmental sculptor, in Buskirk hamlet. Harriet Hoctor - Dancer Jenny Holzer, famous post-modern installation artist, phipps W. Lake, member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, was born in Hoosick. Grandma Moses - Famous painter whose work was first discovered in a Hoosick Falls drugstore in 1938, is buried in Hoosick, John Palmer, who served two non-consecutive terms in the United States Congress. William David Thomas, member of the U. S. House of Representatives, pharmacist and owner of the Thomas Pharmacy in Hoosick Falls where Grandma Moses paintings were discovered. Buried at Maplegrove Cemetery in the village, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 63.2 square miles, of which,63.0 square miles of it is land and 0.1 square miles of it is water. The north town line is the boundary of Washington County, New York, the Hoosic River is an important waterway in the town. As of the census of 2000, there were 6,759 people,2,620 households, the population density was 107.3 people per square mile. There were 2,892 housing units at a density of 45.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 96% White,0. 49% African American,0. 30% Native American,0. 38% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 34% from other races, and 0. 50% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 84% of the population,25. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the family size was 3.06. In the town, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,22. 3% from 45 to 64
4.
Rensselaer County, New York
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Rensselaer County /rɛnsəˈlɪər/ is a county in the state of New York, in the United States of America. As of the 2010 census, the population was 159,429, the county is named in honor of the family of Kiliaen van Rensselaer, the original Dutch owner of the land in the area. Rensselaer County is part of the Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area, the area that is now Rensselaer County was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Mohican Indian tribe at the time of European encounter. Kiliaen van Rensselaer, a Dutch jeweler and merchant, purchased the area in 1630, the land passed into English rule in 1664, the Dutch regained control in 1673, but the English took it back in 1674. Until 1776, the year of American independence, the county was under English or British control, the county was not organized as a legal entity until after the Revolution in 1791, when it was created from an area that was originally part of the very large Albany County. In 1807, in a county re-organization, the sections of Troy were set off as Towns. The two towns created were Brunswick and Grafton, a third town, Philipstown, was set off in 1806. In 1808 it was renamed Nassau after the duke of that area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 665 square miles, of which 652 square miles is land and 13 square miles is water. Rensselaer County is in the part of New York State. The eastern boundary of Rensselaer County runs along the New York–Vermont, the terrain runs from level and flat near the Hudson and then rises into the Rensselaer Plateau around Poestenkill and Sand Lake, then to the Taconic Mountains along the Massachusetts state line. The highest point is Berlin Mountain,2,818 feet above sea level, the lowest point is sea level at the Hudson. The Hoosic River, a tributary of the Hudson River, is in the part of the county. Depending on precise location within the county, road distance to New York City ranges between 132 miles and 178 miles. The population density was 233 people per square mile, there were 69,120 housing units at an average density of 109 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 73% White,7. 14% Black or African American,0. 23% Native American,1. 71% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 89% from other races, and 1. 34% from two or more races. 5. 01% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22. 3% were of Irish,14. 7% Italian,12. 8% German,7. 5% English,6. 2% French,5. 3% American and 2. 3% Puerto Rican ancestry according to Census 2010. 95. 4% spoke English and 2. 7% Spanish as their first language,27. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
5.
Bennington, Vermont
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Bennington is a town in Bennington County, Vermont, in the United States. It is one of two towns of the county, the other being Manchester. The population is 15,431, as of 2014 US Census estimates, the town is home to the Bennington Battle Monument, which is the tallest human-made structure in the state of Vermont. The town has access to natural resources and waterpower. The town is recognized nationally for its pottery, iron. First of the New Hampshire Grants, Bennington was chartered on January 3,1749, by Colonial Governor Benning Wentworth and it was granted to William Williams and 61 others, mostly from Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The town was first settled in 1761 by four families from Hardwick and they were led by Capt. Samuel Robinson, who camped in the river valley on his return from the French and Indian War. There are three districts within the town today, Old Bennington, Downtown Bennington and North Bennington. Of these, Old Bennington is the settlement, dating back to 1761 when Congregational Separatists arrived from Connecticut and from Amherst and Hardwick. In the early 1800s, Downtown Bennington started developing, and by 1854 the countys population had reached 18,589, the town is known in particular for the Battle of Bennington, which took place during the Revolutionary War. Although the battle took place approximately 12 miles to the west in what is now the state of New York, an ammunition storage building located in Bennington was an important strategic target. On August 16,1777, Gen. John Starks 1, 500-strong New Hampshire Militia defeated 800 German mercenaries, local Loyalists, in 1891, the Bennington Battle Monument was opened. The monument is a 306-foot-high stone obelisk that is the tallest human-made structure in Vermont and it is a popular tourist attraction. Bennington is located in southwestern Bennington County at 42°53′28″N 73°12′29″W, to the west is New York State, Pownal, Vermont is to the south, Shaftsbury, Vermont is to the north and Woodford, Vermont is to the east. Due to its location in the southernmost portion of Vermont, it is closer to the capital cities of Albany, Hartford. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 42.5 square miles, of which 42.2 square miles are land and 0.27 square miles. Bennington is drained by the Walloomsac River and its tributaries, flowing to the Hoosic, the town is located along the western edge of the Green Mountains, including Bald Mountain, which occupies the northeastern edge of town. In the southwest part of town is 2, 350-foot Mount Anthony, Bennington experiences a humid continental climate with cold, snowy winters and warm to hot, humid summers
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Vermont Republic
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The term Vermont Republic has been used by later historians for the government of Vermont that existed from 1777 to 1791. In January 1777, delegates from 28 towns met and declared independence from jurisdictions and they also abolished adult slavery within their boundaries. Many people in Vermont took part in the American Revolution, although the Continental Congress did not recognize the jurisdiction, because of vehement objections from New York, which had conflicting property claims, the Continental Congress declined to recognize Vermont, then called the New Hampshire Grants. Vermonts overtures to join the British Province of Quebec failed, in 1791, Vermont officially joined the United States as the 14th state. Vermont coined a currency called Vermont coppers from a mint operated by Reuben Harmon in East Rupert, while the Vermont coppers bore the legend Vermontis. Publica, the constitution and other official documents used the term State of Vermont and it referred to its chief executive as a governor. The Vermont Republic was called the reluctant republic because many early citizens favored political union with the United States rather than independence, both popular opinion and the legal construction of the government made clear that the independent State of Vermont would eventually join the original 13 states. While the Continental Congress did not allow a seat for Vermont, William Samuel Johnson, in 1785, Johnson was granted title to the former Kings College Tract by the Vermont General Assembly as a form of compensation for representing Vermont. After 1749, Benning Wentworth, the Royal Governor of New Hampshire, granted land to anyone in a land granting scheme designed to enrich himself, after 1763, settlement increased due to easing security concerns after the end of the French and Indian Wars. The Green Mountain Boys, led by Ethan Allen, was a force from Vermont that supported the New Hampshire claims. Following controversy between the holders of the New York grants and the New Hampshire grants, Ethan Allen, on January 15,1777, a convention of representatives from towns in the territory declared the region independent, choosing the name the Republic of New Connecticut. On June 2 of that year, the name of the nation was officially changed to Vermont upon the suggestion of Dr. Thomas Young. John Greenleaf Whittiers poem The Song of the Vermonters,1779 describes the period in ballad form, first published anonymously, the poem had characteristics in the last stanza that were similar to Ethan Allens prose and caused it to be attributed to Allen for nearly 60 years. The Constitution of Vermont was drafted and ratified at Elijah Wests Windsor Tavern in 1777, possessing an identifiable population or a people entitled them to the same constitutional rights of self-government as other Peoples in the American confederacy. In addition to creating a new government for the thirteen colonies. At the same time as they struggled for independence from Great Britain, Americans had to confront just how that formation should take place, during the time of the Vermont Republic, the government issued its own coinage and currency, and operated a postal service. The governor of Vermont, Thomas Chittenden, with consent of his council, Vermont exchanged ambassadors with the United States, the Netherlands, and France. Much of the associated with Vermont in this period expressed a desire for political union with the United States
9.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
10.
Loyalist (American Revolution)
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The Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or Kings Men and they were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution. Prominent Loyalists repeatedly assured the British government that many thousands of loyalists would spring to arms, the British government acted in expectation of that, especially in the southern campaigns in 1780-81. In practice, the number of loyalists in military service was far lower than expected, across the new United States, Patriots watched suspected Loyalists very closely, and would not tolerate any organized Loyalist opposition. Many outspoken or militarily active loyalists were forced to flee, especially to their stronghold of New York City, when their cause was defeated, about 15% of the Loyalists fled to other parts of the British Empire, to Britain itself, or to what is now Canada. The southern colonists moved mostly to Florida, which had remained loyal to the Crown, northern Loyalists largely migrated to Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. They called themselves United Empire Loyalists, most were compensated with Canadian land or British cash distributed through formal claims procedures. Exiled Loyalists received £3 million or about 37% of their losses from the British government, Loyalists who stayed in the U. S. were generally able to retain their property and become American citizens. Historians have estimated that between 15 and 20 percent of the 2.0 million whites in the colonies in 1775 were Loyalists, the American Revolution was a civil war based on who would rule in the Thirteen Colonies. Families were often divided as war forced colonists to choose sides in a conflict that remained for many years uncertain, colonists, especially recent arrivals, often felt themselves to be both American and British, subjects of the King, still owing a loyalty to the mother country. Many, like Maryland lawyer Daniel Dulaney, opposed taxation without representation, in one of his many pamphlets, Dulaney wrote, There may be a time when redress may not be obtained. Till then, I shall recommend a legal, orderly, most hoped for a peaceful reconciliation, and were forced by the Patriots who took control nearly everywhere in 1775-76 to choose sides. Likely the earliest formal meeting, and use of the term Loyalist, at the meeting, held at the suggestion of General Thomas Gage, these Loyalists formed a society called The Loyalist Associators Desiring the Unity of the Empire. They felt that rebellion against the Crown—the legitimate government—was morally wrong and they were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. They wanted to take a road position and were angry when forced by the Patriots to declare their opposition. They had a sentimental attachment to Britain. They were procrastinators who realized that independence was bound to come someday and they were cautious and afraid that chaos and mob rule would result. Some were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots, others recalled the dreadful experiences of many Jacobite rebels after the failure of the last Jacobite rebellion as recently as 1745 who often lost their lands when the Hanoverian government won
11.
Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
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His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rheinfels, the line of Landgraves was founded by William IV, surnamed the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his fathers death in 1567, he received one half of the Landgraviate of Hesse, with Kassel as his capital, and this formed the Landgraviate. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV and his younger sons received apanages, which created several cadet lines of the house. The family line of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Rotenburg survived till 1834, with the aid of the French and Swedes, she held it, together with part of Westphalia. During the Thirty Years War, the Calvinist Hesse-Kassel proved to be Swedens most loyal German ally and they maintained an army, garrisoning many strongholds, including Dorsten, the strongest fortress on the right bank of the Rhine which was subsequently lost as the Siege of Dorsten. Meanwhile, Hesse-Kassel was occupied by Imperial troops, at the Peace of Westphalia, accordingly, Hesse-Kassel was augmented by the larger part of the County of Schaumburg and by the Hersfeld Abbey, secularized as a principality of the Empire. The regent Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg introduced the rule of primogeniture, William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant and he was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, had become by marriage King of Sweden, on his death, he was succeeded in the landgraviate by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years War. This action, often criticized, has in later years found apologists. Historians now argue that the troops were Auxiliaries or mercenaries, Frederick II used the revenue thus derived to develop the economic and intellectual life of the country. Due to their involvement in the American War of Independence, Hessian has become an American slang term for all German soldiers deployed by the British against the American Revolution, one such regiment was the Musketeer Regiment Prinz Carl. Since the early years of the Reformation, the House of Hesse was Protestant, Landgraves Philip I, William V, and Maurice married descendants of King George of Bohemia. From William VI onwards, mothers of the heads of Hesse-Kassel were always descended from William the Silent, William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Under King Frederick I of Sweden, Hesse-Kassel was in union with Sweden from 1730–51. But the Kings younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother, Hesse-Kassel maintained 7% of its entire population under arms throughout the eighteenth century. This force served as a source of mercenaries for other European states, the principality thus became known as Kurhessen, although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel
12.
Hesse-Hanau
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Hanau is a town in the Main-Kinzig-Kreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 25 km east of Frankfurt am Main and its station is a major railway junction and it has a port on the river Main, making it an important transport centre. Hanau is known for being the birthplace of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, since the 16th century it was a centre of precious metal working with many goldsmiths. It is home to Heraeus, one of the largest family-owned companies in Germany, in 1963, the town hosted the third Hessentag state festival. Until 2005, Hanau was the centre of the Main-Kinzig-Kreis. The historic core of Hanau is situated within a semicircle of the river Kinzig which flows into the river Main just west of the town, after this change, Hanau for the first time also extended to the south bank of the Main river. The name is derived of Hagenowe which is an out of Haag. As a place of settlement Hanau was first mentioned in 1143, then it was the site of a castle which used the waters of the river Kinzig as a defense. The castle belonged to a family, calling themselves of Hanau since the 13th century. Starting from this castle a village developed and became a town in 1303, as a result of this history, the main church of Hanau stood outside its walls in the village of Kinzdorf. The villagers moved into the town, Kinzdorf became a village leaving only the church. Only in the 15th century was the status of the Hanau parish church transferred to the church of Mary Magdalene within the town walls, shortly after the first town walls were built at the beginning of the 14th century, the town outgrew this limit. These new fortifications enclosed three elements, The medieval castle, the town of Hanau and the Vorstadt. At the end of the 16th century, Count Philipp Ludwig II attracted Protestant refugees from the Netherlands and this was of high economic interest for him because these Walloons brought high-class trade, their knowledge of jewellery and other production of luxury items and therefore taxes to his county. Out of this tradition, goldsmiths are still trained in Hanau, Hanau also was the site of the first workshop to produce Faience within Germany. These new citizens were granted privileges and they formed their own community, church and it took more than 200 years to amalgamate both. The new town – larger than the old one – was protected by a very modern fortification in Baroque-style which proved a big asset only a few years later in the Thirty Years War. The town survived a siege in 1637 with only minor damage, in 1736 Johann Reinhard III of Hanau-Lichtenberg, the last of the Counts of Hanau, died
13.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
14.
John Stark
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John Stark was a New Hampshire native who served as an officer in the British Army during the French and Indian war and a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He became widely known as the Hero of Bennington for his service at the Battle of Bennington in 1777. John Stark was born in Londonderry, New Hampshire in 1728 and his father was born in Glasgow, Scotland to parents who were from Wiltshire, England, who met his wife when he moved to Derry in Ireland. When he was eight years old, he and his moved to Derryfield. Stark was married to Elizabeth Molly Page, with whom he had 11 children including his eldest son Caleb Stark, while a prisoner of the Abenaki, he and his fellow prisoner Amos Eastman were made to run a gauntlet of warriors armed with sticks. Stark grabbed the stick from the first warriors hands and proceeded to attack him, the chief was so impressed by this heroic act that Stark was adopted into the tribe, where he spent the winter. Alternatively, in The Invasion Within, Axtell describes how colonists were often abducted by Indians, the following spring a government agent sent from the Province of Massachusetts Bay to work on the exchange of prisoners paid his ransom of $103 Spanish dollars and $60 for Amos Eastman. Stark and Eastman then returned to New Hampshire safely, Stark served as a second lieutenant under Major Robert Rogers during the French and Indian War. His brother William Stark served beside him in Rogers Rangers, as a member of the daring Rogers Rangers, Stark gained valuable combat experience and a detailed knowledge of the northern frontier of the American colonies. While serving with the rangers in 1757, Stark went on a scouting mission toward Fort Carillon in which the rangers were ambushed, General Jeffery Amherst, in 1759 ordered Rogers Rangers to journey from Lake George to the Abenaki village of St. Francis, deep in Quebec. The Rangers went north and attacked the Indian town, Stark, Rogers second-in-command of all ranger companies, refused to accompany the attacking force out of respect for his Indian foster-parents residing there. He returned to New Hampshire to his wife, whom he had married the previous year, at the end of the war, Stark retired as a captain and returned to Derryfield, New Hampshire. The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, signaled the start of the American Revolutionary War, as soon as Stark could muster his men, he ferried and marched them south to Boston to support the blockaded rebels there. He made his headquarters in the confiscated Isaac Royall House in Medford, on June 16, the rebels, fearing a preemptive British attack on their positions in Cambridge and Roxbury, decided to take and hold Breeds Hill, a high point on the Charlestown peninsula near Boston. On the night of the 16th, American troops moved into position on the heights, as dawn approached, lookouts on HMS Lively, a 20-gun sloop of war noticed the activity and the sloop opened fire on the rebels and the works in progress. This in turn drew the attention of the British admiral, who demanded to know what the Lively was shooting at, subsequent to that, the entire British squadron opened fire. He ordered Major General William Howe to prepare to land his troops, thus began the Battle of Bunker Hill. American Col. William Prescott held the hill throughout the initial bombardment with only a few hundred American militia
15.
Seth Warner
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Seth Warner was a Revolutionary War officer from Vermont who rose to rank of Continental colonel and was often given the duties of a brigade commander. He is best known for his leadership in the capture of Fort Crown Point, the Battle of Longueuil, the siege of Quebec, the retreat from Canada, before the war, he was a captain in the Green Mountain Boys. He was outlawed by New York but never captured, in the final years of the war, he remained loyal to the United States while the independent state of Vermont negotiated separately with the British. Seth Warner was born on the Connecticut frontier in hilly western Woodbury and he was the fourth of ten children born to Dr. Benjamin Warner and Silence Hurd Warner. His grandfather was Dr. Ebenezer Warner, although Warner was not related to Ethan Allen, both men were cousins of Remember Baker, another notable Green Mountain Boy captain. An early historian wrote that Warner was “a fortunate and indefatigable hunter, as a teenager he served for two summers in the French and Indian War. Warner had a school education. He learned the rudiments medicine from his father. ”In 1763 his father purchased land in Bennington, now in the state of Vermont, a town that was chartered by a grant from the colonial governor of New Hampshire, Benning Wentworth. Beginning in the mid-1760s, New York asserted that the boundary of the colony extended to the Connecticut River and it is likely the Warner family worked their land in the New Hampshire Grants for two summers before settling full-time in 1765. Seth Warner was chosen highway surveyor and then captain of the militia company. Warner was second in command to Ethan Allen, who was spokesman and colonel-commandant, the largest confrontation between New York and the New Hampshire Grants took place at James Breakenridge’s farm in North Bennington on July 18,1771. Commanding the Bennington militia, Warner fortified Breakenridge’s house and property against a large posse from Albany, New York, no shots were fired, and the posse was turned back. Warner was outlawed by New York after he struck New York Justice of the Peace John Munro with the flat of his cutlass, but despite the violence, Warner gained a reputation as the Green Mountain Boy leader most likely to grant mercy to a New York settler. In one case, rather than burn a New Yorker’s house, he allowed him to remove the roof and then replace it once he had bought a New Hampshire Grant title. On May 8,1775, a council of officers appointed Warner third in command after Ethan Allen and James Easton of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, a day later, Warner captured Crown Point,13 miles to the north. The fort, once the largest British fortification in North America, was in ruins and was garrisoned by only nine soldiers, but Crown Point still held 111 cannon, the best of which were taken to Ticonderoga. During the following winter, artillery colonel Henry Knox, acting under orders from George Washington, following the capture of the forts, Warner accompanied Allen to St. John, a British outpost on the Richelieu River, the outlet of Lake Champlain. Arnold had successfully raided the outpost, destroying supplies and seizing a British sloop, Allen attempted to hold the outpost but was driven off by British reinforcements
16.
Saratoga campaign
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The primary thrust of the campaign was planned and initiated by General John Burgoyne. Commanding a main force of some 8,000 men, he moved south in June from Quebec, boated up Lake Champlain to middle New York, then marched over the divide and he initially skirmished there with the Patriot defenders with mixed results. The elaborate plans drawn up in London all failed, Colonel Barry St. Leger had been assigned to move east through the Mohawk River valley on Albany, New York, but was forced to retreat during the siege of Fort Stanwix after losing his Indian allies. A last-minute effort to reinforce Burgoyne from New York City was made in early October, the American victory was an enormous morale boost to the fledgling nation. More important, it convinced France to enter the war in alliance with the United States, openly providing money, soldiers, and munitions, as well as fighting a naval war worldwide against Britain. In December 1776 General John Burgoyne met with Lord Germain, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, on November 30,1776, Howe—the British commander-in-chief in North America—wrote to Germain, outlining an ambitious plan for the 1777 campaign. Howe said that if Germain sent him reinforcements, he could launch multiple offensives, including sending 10,000 men up the Hudson River to take Albany. Then, in the autumn, Howe could move south and capture the U. S. capital of Philadelphia, therefore, Howe decided that he would make the capture of Philadelphia the primary object of the 1777 campaign. Howe sent Germain this revised plan, which Germain received on February 23,1777, Burgoyne, seeking to command a major force, proposed to isolate New England by an invasion from Quebec into New York. This had already been attempted by General Carleton in 1776, although he had stopped short of a full-scale invasion due to the lateness of the season. Carleton was heavily criticized in London for not taking advantage of the American retreat from Quebec and this, combined with rival Henry Clintons failed attempt to capture Charleston, South Carolina, placed Burgoyne in a good position to get command of the 1777 northern campaign. Burgoyne presented a plan to Lord Germain on February 28,1777, Germain approved it. Both expeditions would converge upon Albany, where they would link up with troops from Howes army marching up the Hudson, control of the Lake Champlain-Lake George-Hudson River route from Canada to New York City would cut off New England from the rest of the American colonies. The last part of Burgoynes proposal, the advance by Howe up the Hudson from New York City, Germain approved Burgoynes plan after having received Howes letter detailing his proposed offensive against Philadelphia. Historian Robert Ketchum believes that Burgoyne would probably have been aware of the problems that lay ahead had he been notified of the Philadelphia plan. Whether Germain, Howe, and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear, what is clear is that Germain either left his generals with too much latitude, or without a clearly defined overall strategy. In March 1777 Germain had approved of Howes Philadelphia expedition and did not include any express orders for Howe to go to Albany. Yet Germain also sent Howe a copy of his instructions to Carleton which plainly stated that the army was to make a junction with Howes army at Albany
17.
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)
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The 1777 Siege of Fort Ticonderoga occurred between 2 and 6 July 1777 at Fort Ticonderoga, near the southern end of Lake Champlain in the state of New York. Lieutenant General John Burgoynes 8, 000-man army occupied high ground above the fort and these movements precipitated the occupying Continental Army, an under-strength force of 3,000 under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, to withdraw from Ticonderoga and the surrounding defences. Some gunfire was exchanged, and there were casualties, but there was no formal siege. Burgoynes army occupied Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, the fortifications on the Vermont side of the lake. Advance units pursued the retreating Americans, General St. Clair and his superior, General Philip Schuyler, were vilified by Congress. Both were eventually exonerated in courts martial, but their careers were adversely affected, Schuyler had already lost his command to Horatio Gates by the time of the court martial, and St. Clair held no more field commands for the remainder of the war. In September 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, the American Continental Army embarked on an invasion of Quebec, the invasion ended in disaster in July 1776, with the army chased back to Fort Ticonderoga by a large British army that arrived in Quebec in May 1776. A small Continental Navy fleet on Lake Champlain was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island, the delay required by the British to build their fleet on Lake Champlain caused General Guy Carleton to hold off on attempting an assault on Ticonderoga in 1776. His British Army troops consisted of the 9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 47th, 53rd and 62nd regiments, the light infantry and flank companies formed the armys advance force, and were commanded by Brigadier General Simon Fraser. The remaining regulars, under the leadership of Major General William Phillips, formed the wing of the army. His forces consisted of the Rhetz, Riedesel, Specht, Barner, most of these forces had arrived in 1776, and many participated in the campaign that drove the American army out of Quebec. The total size of Burgoynes regular army was about 7,000, in addition to the regulars, there were about 800 Indians, and a relatively small number of Canadiens and Loyalists, who acted primarily as scouts and screening reconnaissance. The army was accompanied by more than 1,000 civilians, including a pregnant woman. Including these non-military personnel, the number of people in Burgoynes army was more than 10,000. Burgoyne and General Carlton recited the troops at Fort Saint-Jean, near the end of Lake Champlain. By 21 June, the carrying the army was on the lake. While en route, Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans, written in the turgid, pompous style for which he was well-known, American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison. In 1776 and 1777, they undertook significant efforts to improve the defenses surrounding Ticonderoga, a peninsula on the east side of the lake, renamed Mount Independence, was heavily fortified
18.
Battle of Hubbardton
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The Battle of Hubbardton was an engagement in the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought in the village of Hubbardton, Vermont. On the morning of July 7,1777, British forces, under General Simon Fraser and it was the only battle in Vermont during the revolution. The American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga began late on July 5 after British cannons were seen on top of high ground, Mount Defiance that commanded the fort. The bulk of General Arthur St. Clairs army retreated through Hubbardton to Castleton, while the guard, commanded by Seth Warner, stopped at Hubbardton to rest. General Fraser, alerted to the American withdrawal early on July 6, immediately set out in pursuit and that night Fraser camped a few miles short of Hubbardton, and the German General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, leading reinforcements, camped a few miles further back. Rising early in the morning, Fraser reached Hubbardton, where he surprised some elements of the American rear, the battle took a large enough toll on the British forces that they did not further pursue the main American army. The many American prisoners were sent to Ticonderoga while most of the British troops made their way to Skenesboro to rejoin Burgoynes army, most of the scattered American remnants made their way to rejoin St. Clairs army on its way toward the Hudson River. General John Burgoyne began his 1777 campaign for control of the Hudson River valley by moving an army of 8,000 down Lake Champlain in late June, arriving near Fort Ticonderoga on July 1. On July 5, General Arthur St. Clairs American forces defending Fort Ticonderoga and they evacuated the fort that night, with the majority of the army marching down a rough road toward Hubbardton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory. The day was hot and sunny, and the pace was rapid and grueling, the British general, a Scotsman named Simon Fraser discovered early on July 6 that the Americans had abandoned Ticonderoga. Leaving a message for General Burgoyne, he set out in pursuit with companies of grenadiers and light infantry, as well as two companies of the 24th Regiment and about 100 Loyalists and Indian scouts. Burgoyne ordered Riedesel to follow, he set out with a few companies of Brunswick jägers and grenadiers, Frasers advance corps was only a few miles behind Colonel Ebenezer Francis 11th Massachusetts Regiment, which acted as St. Clairs rear guard. American general St. Clair paused at Hubbardton to give the main armys tired, when Francis and Hales men arrived, Warner decided, against St. Clairs orders, that they would spend the night there, rather than marching on to Castleton. Baron Riedesel caught up with Fraser around 4 pm, and insisted that his men could not go further before making camp. Fraser, who acquiesced to this as Riedesel was senior to him in the chain of command, pointed out that he was authorized to engage the enemy and he then advanced until he found a site about three miles from Hubbardton, where his troops camped for the night. Riedesel waited for the bulk of his men, about 1,500 strong, Frasers men were up at 3 am, but did not make good time due to the darkness. St. Clairs instructions were to him immediately to Rutland. Francis men had formed a column to march out around 7,15 when the British vanguard began cresting the hill behind them, rapidly reforming into a line behind some cover, the Massachusetts men unleashed a withering volley of fire at the winded British
19.
Battle of Fort Anne
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Burgoyne, surprised by the American withdrawal from Fort Ticonderoga, hurried as many of his troops as possible forward in pursuit of the retreating Americans. This group, which included about 600 men under arms, paused at Fort Anne, the British, clearly outnumbered, sent for reinforcements. The Americans decided to attack while they had the numerical advantage, the Americans retreated back to the fort when war whoops indicated the arrival of British reinforcements. While this was a ruse, it saved the British force from probable capture, more of Burgoynes army soon came down the road, forcing the Americans to retreat from Fort Anne to Fort Edward. It has been claimed that a flag was flown at Fort Anne that may have been the first instance of a flag consisting of stars and stripes, this claim is supposedly false. Burgoynes men had placed a gun battery on top of Mount Defiance, overlooking the fort, most of the American forces left Ticonderoga and the surrounding defense works via Fort Independence and the road to Hubbardton. About 600 men under Colonel Pierse Long, most of them from New Hampshire, sailed up the lake in a flotilla consisting of 5 armed galleys and over 200 smaller transport vessels. These vessels were loaded with as many of the sick from the fort as they could take, stores and supplies, the British, however, were hardly slowed down by the water defenses. Burgoyne, once he learned of the American withdrawal on the morning of July 6, with well-placed gunfire, the bridge and boom were eliminated as obstacles in the space of 30 minutes. At this point Burgoyne, breaking with rigid discipline, ordered troops to follow southward as rapidly as possible, instead of remaining in formation. Assisted by favorable winds, he was three miles of Skenesboro by the end of July 6, where the Americans, who arrived only two hours earlier, had a small stockade fort. The Americans were in the process of portaging around the falls at Skenesboro to Wood Creek when Burgoynes boats arrived and opened fire, enterprise, Liberty, and Gates were destroyed by the Americans, and two ships, Trumbull and Revenge, were forced to surrender. In the process many of the American supplies were destroyed or abandoned to the British. The Americans retreated toward Fort Anne in disarray, but not before starting a fire that engulfed most of the structures at Skenesboro. On the morning of July 8, a supposed American deserter, opting not to attack the numerically superior force, Hill sent a message back to Burgoyne outlining the situation. Burgoyne ordered the 20th and 21st regiments to quick-march toward Fort Anne in support, but poor weather hampered their movement, the deserter returned to Fort Anne and reported on the British position and troop strength. Long, seeing how few British soldiers were following him, decided to attack their position, moving as stealthily as possible, his force tried to surround the British while they were still on the road. However, Hills men heard the movements on their flanks and retreated to a higher position, abandoning some wounded men
20.
Jane McCrea
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Jane McCrea was a young woman who was killed by Native Americans associated with the British army of Lieutenant General John Burgoyne during the American Revolutionary War. Affianced to a Loyalist serving in Burgoynes army, her slaying led to expressions of outrage, the propaganda that followed greatly accentuated her beauty, and the fact that she was associated with Loyalists undermined British claims of protection for Loyalists. McCreas fiancé was reported to be bitter about the affair, the story of her life and death entered American folklore, and was used by James Fenimore Cooper in The Last of the Mohicans and Kenneth Lewis Roberts in Rabble in Arms. Jane McCrea was born one of the children in the large family of Rev. James McCrea of New Jersey. Since her mothers death and her fathers remarriage she had been living with her brother John near Saratoga, New York, when the war began two of her brothers joined the American forces while her fiancé fled with other Loyalists to Quebec. As John Burgoynes expedition neared the Hudson River during the summer of 1777, Jones was serving as a lieutenant in one of the Loyalist militia units accompanying Burgoyne, and was stationed at Fort Ticonderoga after its capture. McCrea left her brothers home and was travelling to join her fiancé at Ticonderoga and she had reached the village by the old Fort Edward, but so had the war. She was staying at the home of Sara McNeil, another Loyalist and an elderly cousin to the British General Simon Fraser. On the morning of July 27,1777, a group of Native Americans and they massacred a settler and his family, and then killed Lieutenant Tobias Van Vechten and four others when they walked into an ambush. What happened next is a subject of dispute, what is known is that Jane McCrea and Sara McNeil were taken by the natives. McNeil was eventually taken to the British camp, where either she or David Jones recognized McCreas supposedly distinctive scalp being carried by a native, the traditional version of what happened appears to be based on the account of Thomas Anburey, a British officer. Two warriors, one of whom was Wyandot Panther, were escorting McCrea to the British camp, one of them then killed and scalped her, and Wyandot Panther ended up with the scalp. Anburey claimed she was taken against her will, but there were rumors that she was being escorted at her fiancé. The second version of the story, apparently advanced by Wyandot Panther under questioning, was that McCrea was killed by a bullet fired by pursuing Americans. James Phinney Baxter, in supporting this version of events in his 1887 history of Burgoynes campaign, asserts that an exhumation of her body revealed only bullet wounds, and no tomahawk wounds. When Burgoyne heard of the killing he went to the Native American camp and ordered the culprit to be delivered, Burgoyne relented, and no action was taken against the Native Americans. News of her death traveled relatively quickly by the standards of the time, news accounts were published in Pennsylvania on August 11 and on August 22 as far away as Virginia. Often the accounts became more exaggerated as they traveled, describing indiscriminate killings of large numbers of Loyalists and Patriots alike
21.
Siege of Fort Stanwix
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The Siege of Fort Stanwix began on August 2,1777, and ended August 22. The fort was occupied by Continental Army forces from New York, St. Legers expedition was a diversion in support of General John Burgoynes campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley to the east. One attempt at relief was thwarted early in the siege when a force of New York militia under Nicholas Herkimer was stopped in the August 6 Battle of Oriskany by a detachment of St. Legers forces. While that battle did not involve the forts garrison, some of its occupants sortied and raided the nearly empty Indian and Loyalist camps, which was a blow to the morale of St. Legers Indian support. This misinformation, combined with the departure of Indian fighters not interested in siege warfare and upset over their losses from the raids, led St. Leger to abandon the effort and retreat. St. Legers failure to advance on Albany contributed to Burgoynes surrender following the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, although St. Leger reached Fort Ticonderoga in late September, he was too late to aid Burgoyne. The first official US flag was flown during battle on August 3,1777, there was a delay in displaying this flag. The resolution was not signed by the secretary of the Congress until September 3, Massachusetts reinforcements to Fort Schuyler brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes, scarlet material was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers wives, a voucher shows that Congress paid Capt. Swartwout for his coat for the flag. Built by the British in 1758 during the French and Indian War on the dry ground in the area. When the American Revolutionary War widened in 1776 to include the areas between New York and the Province of Quebec, the site again became strategically important. In March 1777 Germain issued orders assigning the expedition to Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger, arriving in May, they immediately began working on the forts defenses. Although they officially renamed the fort to Fort Schuyler, it was widely known by its original name. Warnings from the friendly Oneida Indians that the British were planning an expedition to the Mohawk Valley were confirmed by mid-July, in early July, Gansevoort reported on the state of affairs to Schuyler, noting that provisions and ammunition were in short supply. Schuyler ordered additional supplies sent to the fort on July 8 and his artillery consisted of two six-pound pieces, two 3-pounders, and four small mortars. He expected these to be adequate for the taking of a fort with about 60 defenders. St. Leger first learned that the Americans had occupied Stanwix in force when prisoners captured from its garrison were brought to him on the St. Lawrence and he learned from the prisoners that Fort Stanwix had been repaired and was garrisoned by upwards of 600 men. And the rebels are expecting us, and are acquainted with our strength, daniel Claus, the Indian agent accompanying the expedition, convinced St. Leger to go to Oswego, where a body of Indians could be recruited
22.
Battle of Oriskany
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An American party trying to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix was ambushed by a party of Loyalists and allies of several Native American tribes. The Loyalist and Indian force ambushed Herkimers force in a valley about six miles east of Fort Stanwix, near the present-day village of Oriskany. During the battle, Herkimer was mortally wounded, the battle cost the Patriots approximately 450 casualties, while the Loyalists and Indians lost approximately 150 dead and wounded. There were also internal divisions among the Oneida, some of whom went to Canada as allies of the British, the site is known in oral histories of the Iroquois nations as A Place of Great Sadness. The site has been designated as a National Historic Landmark and is marked by a monument at the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site. In June 1777, the British Army, under the command of General Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne, Burgoynes objective was to split New England from the other colonies by gaining control of New Yorks Hudson Valley. They traveled up the Saint Lawrence River and along the shore of Lake Ontario to the Oswego River and they began to besiege Fort Stanwix, a Continental Army post guarding the portage. Warned by friendly Oneidas on July 30 that the British were just four days from Fort Stanwix, the force raised totaled 800 from the Tryon County militia, it was composed primarily of poorly trained farmers, who were chiefly of Palatine German descent. Setting out on August 4, the column camped near the Oneida village of Oriska on August 5 and that evening, Herkimer sent three men toward the fort with messages for the forts commander, Colonel Peter Gansevoort. Gansevoort was to signal the receipt of the message with three shots, and then sortie to meet the approaching column. Due to difficulties in penetrating the British lines, these couriers did not deliver the message until late the next morning, although many of the Indians were armed with muskets, some were not, and only carried tomahawk and spear. On the morning of August 6, Herkimer held a war council, since his force had not yet heard the expected signal from the fort, he wanted to wait. However, his captains pressed him to continue, accusing Herkimer of being a Tory because his brother was serving under St. Leger, stung by these accusations, Herkimer ordered the column to march on toward Stanwix. About six miles from the fort, the road dipped more than fifty feet into a marshy ravine, Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter, two Seneca war chiefs, chose this place to set up an ambush. While the Kings Royal Yorkers waited behind a rise, the Indians concealed themselves on both sides of the ravine. The plan was for the Yorkers to stop the head of the column, at about 10 am, Herkimers column, with Herkimer on horseback near the front, descended into the ravine, crossed the stream, and began ascending the other side. Contrary to the plan, the Indians lying in wait near the rear of the column, apparently unable to contain themselves any longer, opened fire, leading the 1st Regiment, Colonel Ebenezer Cox was shot off his horse and killed in the first volley. Herkimer turned his horse to see the action, and was shortly thereafter struck by a ball
23.
Battles of Saratoga
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The Battles of Saratoga marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. Burgoyne fought two battles to break out. They took place eighteen days apart on the ground,9 miles south of Saratoga. Trapped by superior American forces, and with no relief in sight, Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga and his surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, was a great turning point of the war because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. Burgoynes strategy to divide New England from the colonies had started well. He won a tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freemans Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga and this battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain. The first battle, on September 19, began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights, Benedict Arnold, anticipating the maneuver, placed significant forces in his way. While Burgoyne did gain control of Freemans Farm, it came at the cost of significant casualties, skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Militia forces continued to arrive, swelling the size of the American army, disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent he would not receive relieving aid in time, when the American Revolutionary War approached the two-year point, the British changed their plans. Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies, they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what the British believed to be the more loyal middle, the British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three-way pincer movement in 1777. The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies. In June 1777 British General John Burgoyne, known as Gentleman Johnny for his manners, after his early capture of Fort Ticonderoga, his campaign had become bogged down in difficulties. Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, one attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington. Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Legers expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix. Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters, which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, consequent to this decision he made two further crucial decisions
24.
Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery
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The Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery was an American Revolutionary War battle fought in the highlands of the Hudson River valley, not far from West Point, on October 6,1777. British forces under the command of General Sir Henry Clinton captured Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery, and then dismantled the Hudson River Chain. Using a series of feints, Henry Clinton fooled Putnam into withdrawing most of his troops to the east, after several hours of hiking through the hilly terrain, Clinton divided his troops to stage simultaneous assaults on the two forts. More than half the defenders were killed, wounded, or captured, the British followed up this success with raids as far north as Kingston before being recalled to New York City. The action came too late to be of any assistance to Burgoyne, the only notable consequences of the action were the casualties suffered and the British destruction of the two forts on their departure. The Hudson River valley was a critical area throughout the American Revolutionary War. In June 1777, General John Burgoyne began an attempt to control of this key area by moving south from the British province of Quebec. After his early success at Ticonderoga, his campaign become bogged down in difficulties, not reaching Saratoga. Howes instructions to General Clinton were primarily to hold New York City, a letter from Howe reached Burgoyne on August 3 informing him of his move to Philadelphia, and of Clintons instructions. Clinton wrote a letter on September 12 that he would make a push at Montgomery in about ten days if you think 2000 men can assist you effectually. The highland region of the Hudson River valley was defended by Continental Army troops and state militia under the command of Major General Israel Putnam, the chains western end was guarded by Fort Montgomery, which also overlooked the gorge to the south. Also on the west side of the river, south of the gorge, Fort Montgomery, which was still undergoing construction, was under the command of General George Clinton, while Fort Clinton was under the command of his older brother James. Their combined forces numbered about 600, the primary camp at Peekskill, which any British naval movements would need to pass, had roughly 600 men. Of the men at the three sites, about 1,000 were regular troops, while the remainder were short-term New York militia. Putnam received word of the arrival of transports in New York on September 29, and wrote Governor Clinton for assistance, in mid-September, Sir Henry Clinton had around 7,000 men, including around 3,000 poorly trained Loyalists, to defend New York City. His letter to Burgoyne had been predicated on the expectation that the reinforcements would arrive in time for him to make a move up the Hudson within ten days. On September 29, he received a letter from Burgoyne in response to his that was a plea for action. By the end of September,1,700 additional troops were landed from the fleet arriving at New York, on October 3, Sir Henry started up the Hudson River with 3,000 men in three frigates and a number of smaller vessels
25.
New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
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Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
27.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
28.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
29.
Colonel (United States)
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It is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for colonel is O-6, the insignia of the rank of colonel, as seen on the right, is worn on the officers left side. The insignia for a colonel is an eagle which is a stylized representation of the eagle dominating the Great Seal of the United States. As on the Great Seal, the eagle has a U. S. shield superimposed on its chest and is holding an olive branch, however, in simplification of the Great Seal image, the insignia lacks the scroll in the eagles mouth and the rosette above its head. On the Great Seal, the branch is always clutched in the eagles right-side talons. The head of the eagle faces towards the branch, rather than the arrows. As a result, the head of the eagle faces towards the viewers left. During World War II the military insignia for the rank of Colonel changed somewhat with the eagle facing the arrows and this was done only during war years. These special war eagles, although rare, can sometimes be found in surplus or memorabilia sales. In the United States Army and United States Air Force, the eagle is worn with the head of the eagle to the wearers right. In the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and NOAA, the United States rank of colonel is a direct successor to the same rank in the British Army. The first colonels in America were appointed from Colonial militias maintained as reserves to the British Army in the American colonies, upon the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, colonial legislatures would grant commissions to men to raise a regiment and serve as its colonels. Thus, the first American colonels were usually respected men with ties in local communities, such was the origin of the phrase soldier and statesman. With the post-war reduction of the US Army, the rank of colonel disappeared, the first insignia for the rank of colonel consisted of gold epaulettes worn on the blue uniform of the Continental Army. The first recorded use of the insignia was in 1805 as this insignia was made official in uniform regulations by 1810. The rank of colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, partly because the U. S. Army was very small, and the rank was usually obtained only after long years of service. During the War of 1812 the Army grew rapidly and many colonels were appointed, a number of other colonels were appointed by brevet - an honorary promotion usually for distinguished service in combat. The American Civil War saw an influx of colonels as the rank was commonly held in both the Confederate army and Union Army by those who commanded a regiment
30.
John Burgoyne
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General John Burgoyne was a British army officer, politician and dramatist. He first saw action during the Seven Years War when he participated in several battles, John Burgoyne is best known for his role in the American Revolutionary War. He designed a scheme and was appointed to command a force moving south from Canada to split away New England and end the rebellion. Burgoyne advanced from Canada but his slow movement allowed the Americans to concentrate their forces, instead of coming to his aid according to the overall plan, the British Army in New York City moved south to capture Philadelphia. Surrounded, Burgoyne fought two battles near Saratoga to break out. Trapped by superior American forces, with no relief in sight and his surrender, says historian Edmund Morgan, was a great turning point of the war, because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory. He and his officers returned to England, the men became prisoners of war. Burgoyne came under criticism when he returned to London. Burgoyne was also an accomplished playwright known for his works such as The Maid of the Oaks and The Heiress and he served as a member of the House of Commons for a number of years, sitting for the seats of Midhurst and Preston. John Burgoyne was born in Sutton, Bedfordshire, location of the Burgoyne baronets family home Sutton Manor and his mother, Anna Maria Burgoyne, was the daughter of a wealthy Hackney merchant. His father was supposedly an army officer, Captain John Burgoyne, although there were rumours that he might be the son of Lord Bingley. When Bingley died in 1731 his will specified that Burgoyne was to inherit his estate if his daughters had no male issue. From the age of ten Burgoyne attended the prestigious Westminster School, Burgoyne was athletic and outgoing and enjoyed life at the school where he made numerous important friends, in particular Lord James Strange. In August 1737 Burgoyne purchased a commission in the Horse Guards and they were stationed in London and his duties were light, allowing him to cut a figure in high society. He soon acquired the nickname Gentleman Johnny and became known for his stylish uniforms. In 1741 Burgoyne sold his commission, possibly to settle gambling debts, the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession led to an expansion in the size of the British army. In April 1745 Burgoyne joined the newly raised 1st Royal Dragoons as a cornet, in April 1745 he was promoted to lieutenant. In 1747 Burgoyne managed to scrape the money together to purchase a captaincy, the end of the war in 1748 cut off any prospect of further active service
31.
Hessian (soldier)
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They took their name from the German state of Hesse-Kassel. The British hired Hessian troops for duty in several eighteenth century conflicts. About 30,000 German soldiers fought for the British during the American Revolutionary War and they entered the British service as entire units, fighting under their own German flags, commanded by their usual officers, and wearing their existing uniforms. The largest contingent came from the state of Hesse, which supplied about 40% of the German troops who fought for the British. The large number of troops from Hesse-Kassel led to the use of the term Hessians to refer to all German troops fighting on the British side, the others were rented from other small German states. Patriots presented the soldiers as foreign mercenaries with no stake in America, many of the men were press-ganged into Hessian service. Deserters were summarily executed or beaten by an entire company, Hessian prisoners of war were put to work on local farms. The small German states of the Holy Roman Empire had professional armies, when military conflict broke out, the German states provided a ready supply of trained troops that was ready to go into action immediately. Hesse-Kassel was particularly prominent in this role, Between 1706 and 1707,10,000 Hessians served as a corps in Eugene of Savoys army in Italy before moving to the Spanish Netherlands in 1708. In 1714,6,000 Hessians were rented to Sweden for its war with Russia whilst 12,000 Hessians were hired by George I of Great Britain in 1715 to combat the Jacobite Rebellion. In the midst of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744,6,000 Hessians were fighting with the British army in Flanders whilst another 6,000 were in the Bavarian army. By 1762,24,000 Hessians were serving with Ferdinand of Brunswicks army in Germany, in most of these wars, Hesse-Kassel never became a belligerent by declaring war on any other country. The troops were rented for service in other armies, and Hesse-Kassel itself had no stake in the outcome of the war. Thus, it was possible for Hessians to serve with the British and Bavarian armies in the War of the Austrian Succession, even though Britain, historian Charles Ingrao says that the local prince had turned Hesse into a mercenary state by renting out his regiments to fund his government. Of 30,067 German troops leased by Great Britain,12,992 were supplied by Hesse-Kassel and they came not as individuals but in entire units with their usual uniforms, flags, equipment, and officers. Hesse-Kassel like most of the other German principalities still had serfdom, once these troops entered British Territory, where serfdom was illegal, they were still bound by the military code. Their officers were for the most part the upper stratum of society, the only ways a Hessian regular soldier could become a free man under these circumstances was desertion or capture. Serfdom was only abolished in Hesse-Kassel in 1806 by Napoleon Bonaparte, Hessian troops included jäger, hussars, three artillery companies, and four battalions of grenadiers
32.
Duchy of Brunswick
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The Duchy of Brunswick was a historical German state. Its capital was the city of Brunswick and it was established as the successor state of the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the course of the 19th-century history of Germany, the duchy was part of the German Confederation and it was disestablished after the end of World War I, its territory incorporated into the Weimar Republic as the Free State of Brunswick. The title Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg was held, from 1235 on and these holdings did not have all of the formal characteristics of a modern unitary state, being neither compact nor indivisible. The unifying element of all territories was that they were ruled by male-line descendants of Duke Otto I. After several early divisions, Brunswick-Lüneburg re-unified under Duke Magnus II, following his death, his three sons jointly ruled the Duchy. After the murder of their brother Frederick I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, brothers Bernard and Henry redivided the land, received the southern half of Brunswick-Lüneburg as Prince of Wolfenbüttel while his brother John became Prince of Lüneburg. Wolfenbüttel fell to his brother Albert II, Otto the Mild 1318–1344, son of Albert II, was Prince of Wolfenbüttel and Prince of Göttingen. After his death his son Ernest became Prince of Göttingen 1344–1367, Magnus the Pious became Prince of Wolfenbüttel 1344–1369. Magnus son Magnus II with the Necklace, Prince of Wolfenbüttel 1369–1373, the War of the Lüneburg Succession continued until 1388. Frederick 1373–1400, son of Magnus II, conquered Lüneburg in 1388, succeeded by his brothers, Henry the Mild, 1400–1408 Bernard, 1409–1428. Returned control of Wolfenbüttel to his nephew, Henrys son, was deprived by his brother, Henry the Peaceful 1432–1473, moved the residence to Wolfenbüttel. William regained control of Wolfenbüttel after his brothers death, and left the Principality to his two sons, Frederick III 1482–1484, imprisoned and deprived of power by his younger brother, William IV 1484–1491. Took control of all of Wolfenbüttel, then ceded Wolfenbüttel to his sons, co-rulers, sons of William IV, Eric I 1491–1494. Divided the territory in 1494, taking Calenberg, sole ruler in Wolfenbüttel from 1494. Acquired Calenberg in 1584 on the death of his cousin Eric II, last of the male descendants of Albert the Tall. On Frederick Ulrichs death, his complex of territories passed to a line of distant cousins ruling in Lüneburg, Wolfenbüttel was eventually awarded to Augustus, son of Henry of Dannenberg. Augustus 1635–1666 Augustuss sons succeeded him, sometimes ruling together, Rudolph Augustus 1666–1704 Anthony Ulrich 1685–1702, deposed 1702–1704 for allying with France in the War of the Spanish Succession
33.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
34.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
35.
New Hampshire Grants
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The New Hampshire Grants or Benning Wentworth Grants were land grants made between 1749 and 1764 by the provincial governor of New Hampshire, Benning Wentworth. The land grants, totaling about 135, were made on land claimed by New Hampshire west of the Connecticut River, the resulting dispute led to the eventual establishment of the Vermont Republic, which later became the U. S. state of Vermont. Massachusetts laid claim to the territory west of the Merrimack River at the time, the border between Massachusetts and the neighboring Province of New Hampshire was fixed by royal decree in 1741 at a line 3 miles north of Pawtucket Falls, where the Merrimack River turns north. This decision eliminated claims by Massachusetts to the north of that line, the territory between the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain, however, was also claimed by the Province of New York, whose claims extended eastward to the Connecticut. Also in 1741, New Hampshire native Benning Wentworth was appointed the first governor of New Hampshire of the 18th century who was not also a governor of Massachusetts, Wentworth chose to read New Hampshires territorial claims broadly. He construed the decree setting the New Hampshire-Massachusetts border to mean that New Hampshires jurisdiction extended as far west as the jurisdiction of Massachusetts extended. Since the Massachusetts boundary extended to a point 20 miles east of the Hudson River, Wentworth assumed the area west of the Connecticut belonged to New Hampshire. New York based its claim on the letters Patent, which granted Prince James, Duke of York, brother of King Charles II, Wentworth made the first grant, Bennington, a township west of the Connecticut River, on January 3,1749. The grants were usually six miles square and cost the grantee £20, the permanent annual tax on each grant, called a quitrent, was one shilling, paid directly to the king or his representative. While Wentworths land sales were underway, New York also issued land patents in the same area, however, in contrast to the New Hampshire grants, the New York patents were generally irregularly shaped and issued to wealthy landowners. The New Hampshire grants were town-sized, and generally settled by middle-class farmers, in March 1764, Wentworth released a statement to the effect that the resolution of jurisdictional dispute required a royal verdict, which he was certain would be made in his favor. Meanwhile, he encouraged his grantees to settle in the land and to cultivate, New York appealed to the Board of Trade, requesting a confirmation of their original grant, which finally resolved the border dispute between New York and New Hampshire in favor of New York. Wentworth issued his final two grants on October 17 of that year, Walker and Waltham, New York required that grantees surrender their charters, and in many cases buy their lands back from New York at greatly increased prices. Those who would not pay lost legal title to their lands, land not previously granted by New Hampshire was considered open for distribution by New Yorks government. In 1770, the New York Supreme Court declared all of Wentworths grants invalid and this infuriated residents, including Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys, who rose up to resist those efforts. While the resistance faded, so did New Yorks desire to assert its claim on the land around the Upper Connecticut, as a more pressing issue—revolution—moved to center stage. In January 1775 Committees of Safety from over twenty towns in the New Hampshire Grants area met in Manchester to discuss the need for local Self-governance independent from New York, the Manchester meeting created a civil and political Body to regulate their community. Two months later, another meeting at Westminster renounced the authority of New Yorks government
36.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
37.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
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Thirteen Colonies
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
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Pincer movement
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The pincer movement, or double envelopment, is a military maneuver in which forces simultaneously attack both flanks of an enemy formation. The name comes from visualizing the action as the attacking forces pinching the enemy. The pincer movement typically occurs when opposing forces advance towards the center of an army that responds by moving its forces to the enemys flanks to surround it. At the same time, a layer of pincers may attack on the more distant flanks to keep reinforcements from the target units. A full pincer movement leads to the attacking army facing the enemy in front, if attacking pincers link up in the enemys rear, the enemy is encircled. Such battles often end in surrender or destruction of the enemy force and they can attack the encirclement from the inside to escape, or a friendly external force can attack from the outside to open an escape route. Sun Tzu, in The Art of War, speculated on the maneuver, the maneuver may have first been used at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The historian Herodotus describes how the Athenian general Miltiades deployed 10,000 Athenian and 900 Plataean hoplite forces in a U-formation, with the wings manned much more deeply than the centre. His enemy outnumbered him heavily, and Miltiades chose to match the breadth of the Persian battle line by thinning out the centre of his forces while reinforcing the wings, the tactic was used by Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Launching his attack at the Indian left flank, the Indian king Porus reacted by sending the cavalry on the right of his formation around in support. Alexander had positioned two cavalry units on the left of his formation, hidden from view, under the command of Coenus and Demitrius, the units were then able to follow Poruss cavalry around, trapping them in a classic pincer movement. That tactically-astute move from Alexander was key in ensuring what many regard as his last great victory, the most famous example of its use was at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, when Hannibal executed the maneuver against the Romans. Daniel Morgan used it effectively at the Battle of Cowpens in 1781 in South Carolina, many consider Morgans cunning plan at Cowpens the tactical masterpiece of the American War of Independence. Zulu impis used a version of the manoeuvre that they called the buffalo horn formation, genghis Khan used a rudimentary form known colloquially as the horns tactic. Two enveloping flanks of horsemen surrounded the enemy, but they usually remained unjoined, leaving the enemy an escape route to the rear and it was key to many of Genghiss early victories over other Mongolian tribes. Even in the era, the manoeuvre was used across many military cultures. In another battle at Kars in 1745, Nader routed the Ottoman army, the Ottoman army soon after collapsed under the pressure of the encirclement. The manoeuvre was used in the blitzkrieg of the forces of Nazi Germany during World War II
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Barry St. Leger
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Barrimore Matthew Barry St. Leger was a British army officer. St. Leger was active in the Saratoga Campaign, commanding a force that unsuccessfully besieged Fort Stanwix. St. Leger remained on the frontier for the duration of the war, after its conclusion, St. Leger was baptised on 1 May 1733 in County Kildare, Ireland. He was educated at Eton College, and then at Peterhouse and he joined the British Army in April 1756, serving as an ensign in the 28th Regiment of Foot. He saw service in the French and Indian War under the command of Jeffrey Amherst at the 1758 siege of Louisbourg and he was appointed brigade-major in July 1760 and served as a staff officer in the campaign against Montreal under James Murray. On 16 September 1762, St. Leger was promoted to major in the 95th Regiment of Foot, when the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, St. Leger was a lieutenant-colonel in the 34th Regiment of Foot. He saw service in the 1776 British relief of Quebec following the Continental Armys 1775 invasion of that province and he was selected to lead the western offensive that formed one leg of the 1777 Saratoga Campaign. John Burgoyne breveted him as brigadier-general for this mission so that he would outrank the militia officers involved and he moved a mixed force of British regulars, Hessians, Indians, Canadiens, and Loyalists up the Saint Lawrence River to Fort Oswego, and from there to Fort Stanwix. The fort was strongly defended than he and Burgoyne had anticipated. When word arrived that an American relief column was approaching to break the siege, he sent a group of mostly Indians and they ambushed Nicholas Herkimers force in the Battle of Oriskany, but the forts occupants sortied and raided their camp. When reports of a force under Benedict Arnold reached him he was abandoned by his Indian supporters. He then tried to join up with Burgoynes army near Saratoga, for the next several years, St. Leger was a leader of the British frontier war against the Americans. He was promoted to colonel in 1780, in 1781, he led an attempt to kidnap General Philip Schuyler. He was also involved in the negotiations between Frederick Haldimand, Quebecs governor, and the Vermont Republics leaders over the possibility of bringing Vermont into the British fold. These negotiations ended with the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, following the war he remained in Quebec, and briefly commanded the British forces there in 1784. He resigned his commission the year due to ill health. Americas military adversaries, from colonial times to the present, the British Campaign of 1777, Volume One - The St. Leger Expedition, The Forces of Crown and Congress, Second Edition Global Heritage Press, Milton,2003 Bio
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William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
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General William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British Army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence. Howe was one of three brothers who had distinguished military careers, having joined the army in 1746, Howe saw extensive service in the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years War. Howe also participated in the campaigns to take Louisbourg, Belle Île and he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, a post he would hold until 1795. Howe was sent to North America in March 1775, arriving in May after the American War of Independence broke out. After leading British troops to a victory in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Howes record in North America was marked by the capture of both New York City and Philadelphia. However, poor British campaign planning for 1777 contributed to the failure of John Burgoynes Saratoga campaign, Howes role in developing those plans and the degree to which he was responsible for British failures that year have both been subjects of contemporary and historic debate. He resigned his post as Commander in Chief, North America, in 1778, and returned to England and he served for many years in Parliament, and was knighted after his successes in 1776. He inherited the Viscountcy of Howe upon the death of his brother Richard in 1799 and he married, but had no children, and the viscountcy was extinguished with his death in 1814. His mother was a regular in the courts of George II and this connection with the crown may have improved the careers of all four sons, but all were also very capable officers. His father was a politician, who served as Governor of Barbados where he died in 1735, williams eldest brother, General George Howe, was killed just before the 1758 Battle of Carillon at Fort Ticonderoga. Another brother, Admiral Richard Howe, rose to one of Britains leading naval commanders. A third brother, Thomas, commanded ships for the East India Company, Winchelsea in 1762–4 and Nottingham in 1766, William entered the army when he was 17 by buying a cornets commission in the Duke of Cumberlands Dragoons in 1746. He then served for two years in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession, after the war he was transferred to the 20th Regiment of Foot, where he became a friend of James Wolfe. During the Seven Years War Howes service first brought him to America and he joined the newly formed 58th Regiment of Foot in February 1757, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in December of that year. He commanded the regiment at the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758 and this action won the attackers a flanking position and earned Howe a commendation from Wolfe. Howe commanded an infantry battalion under General Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec. Howe led a brigade in the 1761 Capture of Belle Île, off the French coast and he served as adjutant general of the force that captured Havana in 1762, playing a part in a skirmish at Guanabacoa
United States
Vermont Republic
Iroquois
Heinrich Breymann
