1.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
2.
Farmington, Pennsylvania
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Farmington is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Wharton Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is located along U. S. Route 40, the National Road, about 60 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and it is also home to the 5-star Nemacolin Woodlands Resort. As of the 2010 census the population of Farmington was 767, Farmington is located in northeastern Farmington Township at geographical coordinates 39° 48′ 28″ North, 79° 34′ 1″ West. Via US Route 40, Uniontown, the Fayette County seat, is 12 miles to the northwest, Pittsburgh is 60 miles to the northwest via US40 and Pennsylvania Route 51. The U. S. Postal Service ZIP code for Farmington is 15437
3.
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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Uniontown is a city in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States,46 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area. The population was 10,372 at the 2010 census, down from 12,422 at the 2000 census and it is the county seat and largest city of Fayette County. Popularly known as Beesontown, the town of Union was founded by Henry Beeson on July 4,1776, the National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, was routed through Uniontown in the early 19th century, and the town grew along with the road. Uniontowns role in the Underground Railroad in the years is commemorated by a marker on the corner of East Main Street. Residents helped slaves escaping from the South to freedom, in the late nineteenth century, the town grew based on the development of coal mines and the steel industry. Uniontown was the site of violent clashes between striking miners and guards at the local coke works during the bituminous coal miners strike of 1894. Fifteen guards armed with carbines and machine guns held off an attack by 1,500 strikers, killing five, the Columbia Rolling Mill, an iron and steel works, was located in Uniontown from 1887 to 1895. The mill was the top industry at that time. During the Coal Boom of the part of the 20th century, Uniontown was home to at least 13 millionaires. Coal barons and Carl Laemmle, the president of Universal Films and it was a mile and a quarter raceway. This decline continued into the 21st century, and the population is half its peak of 1940. The USS Uniontown, a Tacoma-class frigate, was named for the city by the United States Navy on August 16,1944, in 1967 Uniontown was the birthplace of the McDonalds Big Mac sandwich. In 2007 the Big Mac Museum was opened in North Huntingdon Township in Westmoreland County, according to a McDonalds spokesperson, the decision was based on logistics and access, but Uniontown residents complained in an article that was published in the Herald-Standard. The Uniontown Downtown Historic District, Gallatin School, John S. Douglas House, John P. Conn House, Uniontown is located slightly west of the center of Fayette County at 39°540 North, 79°4328 West. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.04 square miles. The city is 999 feet above sea level and rests at the base of Chestnut Ridge, the National Pike or Cumberland Road crossed over the mountains and passed through the area which became the center of Uniontown. The route is now Business Route 40, as the mainline of US40 bypasses the city center to the south, as of the census of 2010, there were 10,372 people,5,423 households, and 3,031 families residing in the city. The population density was 5136 people per square mile, there were 6,320 housing units at an average density of 3,103.0 per square mile
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
6.
British America
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English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
7.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
8.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
9.
Canada (New France)
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Canada was a French colony within New France discovered and named during Jacques Cartier second voyage in 1535. French explorations continued unto the Countreys of Canada, Hochelaga, even though a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac in 1600, it was under a trade monopoly and thus not constituted as an official French colonial settlement. As a result, the first official settlement was not established within Canada until the founding of Quebec by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. The other four colonies within New France were Hudsons Bay to the north, Acadia and Newfoundland to the east, Canada, the most developed colony of New France, was divided into three districts, Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montréal, each with its own government. The governor of the District of Quebec was also the governor-general of all New France, after the Treaty of Paris of 1763, when France ceded Canada to Great Britain, the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec. A1740 survey of the population of the St. Lawrence River valley counted about 44,000 colonists, of those,18,000 lived under the Government of Quebec,4,000 under the Government of Trois-Rivières and 22,000 under the Government of Montreal. The population was rural, Quebec had 4,600 inhabitants, Trois-Rivières had 378. Also, Île Royale had 4,000 inhabitants, and Île Saint-Jean had 500 inhabitants, before 1717, when it ceded territory to the new colony of Louisiana, it stretched as far south as the Illinois Country. North of the Great Lakes, a mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, was established in 1639, following the destruction of the Huron homeland in 1649 by the Iroquois, the French destroyed the mission themselves and left the area. In what are today Ontario and the prairies, various trading posts and forts were built such as Fort Kaministiquia, Fort Frontenac, Fort Saint Pierre, Fort Saint Charles. The mission and trading post at Sault Ste, marie would later be split by the Canada–US border. Today, the term Les Pays-den-Haut refers to a county municipality in the Laurentides region of Quebec, north of Montreal. In its civil law, customs and the aspects of the great majority of its population. The term Canada may also refer to todays Canadian federation created in 1867, or the historical Province of Canada, a British colony comprising southern Ontario and southern Quebec
10.
Wyandot people
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By the 15th century, the pre-contact Wyandots settled in the large area from the north shores of most of present-day Lake Ontario, northwards up to Georgian Bay. They were located in the part of what is now the Canadian province of Ontario around Georgian Bay. Drastically reduced in number by epidemic diseases after 1634, they were dispersed by war in 1649 from the Iroquois, today the Wyandot have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada. They also have three major settlements in the United States, two of which have independently governed, federally recognized tribes, due to differing development of the groups, they speak distinct forms of Wendat and Wyandot languages. Early theories placed Huron origin in the St. Lawrence Valley, with some arguing for a presence near Montreal, in 1975 and 1978, archeologists excavated a large 15th-century Huron village, now called the Draper Site, in Pickering, Ontario near Lake Ontario. In 2003 a larger village was discovered five kilometres away in Whitchurch-Stouffville, the sites each were surrounded by a palisade, as was typical of Iroquoian cultures. The Mantle Site had more than 70 multi-family longhouses, subsequently they moved from there to their historic territory on Georgian Bay, where they were encountered by Champlain in 1615. In the early 17th century, this Iroquoian people called themselves the Wendat, the Wendat historic territory was bordered on three sides, by the waters of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. Early French explorers referred to these natives as the Huron, either from the French huron, according to tradition, French sailors thought that the bristly hairstyle of Wendat warriors resembled that of a boar. However, these negative etymological meanings conflict with the bon Iroquois attitude held by the French fur traders and explorers, an alternate etymology is from the Algonquin words ronon, or Irri-ronon. It was pronounced Hirri-ronon by the French, eventually shortened to Hirr-on, other etymological possibilities come from the Algonquin words ka-ron or tu-ron. The Wendat were not a tribe, but a confederacy of four or more tribes with mutually intelligible languages, according to tradition, this Wendat Confederacy was initiated by the Attignawantans and the Attigneenongnahacs, who made their alliance in the 15th century. They were joined by the Arendarhonons about 1590, and the Tahontaenrats around 1610, a fifth group, the Ataronchronons, may not have attained full membership in the confederacy, and may have been a division of the Attignawantan. The largest Wendat settlement, and capital of the confederacy, was located at Ossossane, near modern-day Elmvale and they called their traditional territory Wendake. Closely related to the people of the Huron Confederacy were the Tionontate and they lived further south and were divided into two groups, the Deer and the Wolves. Considering that they formed the nucleus of the later known as the Wyandot. Tuberculosis was endemic among the Huron, aggravated by the close, despite this, the Huron on the whole were healthy, the Jesuits wrote that the Huron effectively employed natural remedies and were more healthy than we. The earliest written accounts of the Huron were made by the French, news of the Europeans reached the Huron, particularly when Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River in the early 17th century
11.
Odawa
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They are one of the Anishinaabeg, related to but distinct from the Ojibwe and Potawatomi peoples. They considered this their original homeland, after the 17th century, they also settled along the Ottawa River, and in the state of Michigan, United States, as well as through the Midwest south of the Great Lakes in the latter country. In the 21st century, there are approximately 15,000 Odawa living in Ontario, the Odawa language is part of the Algonquian language family. This large family has numerous smaller groups or “bands, ” commonly called “Tribe” in the United States. Their language is considered a divergent dialect of Ojibwe, characterized by frequent syncope, odaawaa, this term is common to the Cree, Algonquin, Nipissing, Montagnais, Odawa, and Ojibwe. The Potawatomi spelling of Odawa and the English derivative Ottawa are also common, the Anishinaabe word for Those men who trade, or buy and sell is Wadaawewinini. But, this meaning is more appropriately associated with the Matàwackariniwak. Their neighbors applied the Trader name to the Ottawa because in traditional times. From The Odawa dealt chiefly in cornmeal, sunflower oil, furs and skins, rugs and mats, tobacco, like the Ojibwe, the Odawa usually identify as Nishnaabe, meaning original people. The Odawa name in its English transcription is the source of the names of Ottawa, Ontario. The Odawas home territory at the time of early European contact, the tribe is source of the name for Tawas City, Michigan, and Tawas Point, which reflect the syncope-form of their name. Ottawa, Ohio is the county seat of Putnam County located at the site of the last Ottawa reservation in Ohio, the Odawa dialect is considered one of several divergent dialects of the Ojibwe language group, noted for its frequent syncope. In the Odawa language, the language group is known as Nishnabemwin. Of the estimated 5,000 ethnic Odawa and additional 10,000 people with some Odawa ancestry, in the early 21st century an estimated 500 people in Ontario, the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma has three fluent speakers. According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak, the Odawa people came from the areas of North America, or Turtle Island. Directed by the beings, the Anishinaabe peoples moved inland along the Saint Lawrence River. At the Third Stopping Place near what is now Detroit, Michigan, the Hopewell tradition was a widely extended trading network operating from about 200BCE to 500 CE. Some of these peoples constructed earthwork mounds for burials, a practice that ended about 250 CE, the Saugeen mounds have not been excavated
12.
Nipissing First Nation
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They are referred to by many names in European historical records, since the colonists often adopted names given to them by other nations. The Nipissing are generally considered part of the Anishinaabe peoples, a grouping of people speaking Algonquin languages and this broad heritage is likely the result of the Nipissings living at a geographical crossroads, a watershed divide. Lake Nipissing drains via the French River into Georgian Bay and, to the east of Lake Nipissing, living at the crossroads between two watersheds, the Nipissing were key to trade to the East, West, North and South of Lake Nipissing. The French portaged the watershed divide extensively to reach the Great Lakes by canoe from their settlements around Montreal on the St. Lawrence River. To the west the Nipissing trade routes extended as far as Lake Nipigon and their Ojibwa neighbours, and to the north as far James Bay, where they traded with the Cree and, later, the English. Their trade network to the east extended as far as present-day Quebec City, the Iroquoian-speaking Huron people lived nearby to the South. Archaeological evidence shows that the Nipissing integrated some Huron styles and techniques in their pottery and they obtained food primarily through hunting, fishing, and gathering. Their extensive trading likely allowed them to supplement their diets with corn, beans and squash as well, the land in the lake valleys would have supported some horticulture. Today Nipissing First Nation lies between the city of North Bay and the municipality of West Nipissing in northeastern Ontario, Canada, most members of the First Nation reside on the First Nations reserve of Nipissing Indian Reserve 10. The Iroquois, based south of Lake Ontario, conducted campaigns against the competing Huron. By 1647, the Nipissing regrouped in the Lake Nipigon area, the Nipissing continued to use their historical trade routes, but at greater risk. By 1670, the Nipissing are documented to have returned to Lake Nipissing, the noted 18th-century Cherokee chief Attakullakulla was born a Nipissing. He was captured as a child when the Cherokee raided his community and killed his parents, he was adopted by a Cherokee family. By the early 19th century, European Canadians and Métis had started trapping in the area in and around Lake Nipissing and this competition resulted in fewer pelts available to the Nipissing and other First Nation peoples in the area. In 1850 the Nipissing signed the Robinson Huron Treaty with the Canadian representatives of the British Crown, in the face of increasing European encroachment by settlers, they wanted to confirm their claim to the north shores of Lake Nipissing and its main waterways. Nipissing 10 is a First Nations reserve in northeastern Ontario, Canada located on the shores of Lake Nipissing in Nipissing District. The 21,007.3 hectares reserve is located west of North Bay, the reserve comprises the communities of Beaucage, Jocko Point, Duchesnay, and Garden Village. Beaucage is located directly on Highway 17, while Garden Village is accessible by municipal streets in Sturgeon Falls, traditionally, the Nipissing nation was structured around families and clans
13.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
14.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
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Virginia Regiment
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The Virginia Regiment was formed in 1754 by Virginias Royal Governor Robert Dinwiddie, initially as an all volunteer militia corps. He promoted George Washington, the future first president of the United States of America, Washington, who had previously been a lieutenant colonel of the Virginia militia, received a promotion to colonel when he assumed command. Small detachments of the regiment were involved in minor actions along Virginias extensive wilderness frontier. One of his officers was William Trent, a fur trader. Most recruits were characterized by Washington as loose, Idle Persons, quite destitute of House, and Home. Hampered by frequent desertions because of poor supplies, extremely low pay and hazardous duty, Virginia Regiment recruiters went to Pennsylvania, Washington said of them, and not a few. have Scarce a Coat, or Waistcoat, to their Backs. Later drafts pulled only those who could not provide a substitute or pay the £10 exemption fee, the Virginia Regiment is noteworthy in the colonies because it was the first all-colonial professional military force. Although colonials had served in the British Army, and local militias were common, the regiment was the only unit at the time to drill regularly and wear a standard uniform
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Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
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Battle of Jumonville Glen
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The British colonial force had been sent to protect a fort under construction under the auspices of the Ohio Company at the location of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A larger Canadien force had driven off the construction crew. Washington was alerted to Jumonvilles presence by Tanacharison, and they joined forces to surround the Canadian camp, some of the Canadians were killed in the ambush, and most of the others were captured. Jumonville was among the slain, although the circumstances of his death are a subject of historical controversy. Since Britain and France were not then at war, the event had international repercussions, after the action, Washington retreated to Fort Necessity, where Canadian forces from Fort Duquesne compelled his surrender. The terms of Washingtons surrender included a statement admitting that Jumonville was assassinated and this document and others were used by the French and Canadiens to level accusations that Washington had ordered Jumonvilles slaying. Authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to expel British traders and colonists from this area, the French action drew the attention of not just the British, but also the Indian tribes of the area. In particular, Tanacharison, a Mingo chief also known as the Half King, if the river is blocked up, I have the forces to burst it open and tread under my feet all that oppose me. I despise all the things you have said. He then threw down some wampum that Tanacharison had offered as a good will gesture, marin died not long after, and command of the operations was turned over to Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Virginia Royal Governor Robert Dinwiddie sent militia Major George Washington to the Ohio Country as an emissary in December 1753, Washington returned to Williamsburg and informed Governor Dinwiddie that the French refused to leave. The governor also issued a commission to Ohio Company employee William Trent, with instructions to raise a small force. Dinwiddie issued these instructions on his own authority, without asking for funding from the Virginia House of Burgesses until after the fact. Trents company arrived on site in February 1754, and began construction of a storehouse and stockade with the assistance of Tanacharison, when Contrecœur learned of Trents activity, he led a force of about 500 men to drive them off. On April 16, Contrecœurs force arrived at the forks, the day, Trents force of 36 men, led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trents absence. The French then began construction of the fort they called Fort Duquesne, historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddies instructions, which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government in London, as an invitation to start a war. Washington was ordered to gather up as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way, by the time he left for the frontier on April 2, he had recruited fewer than 160 men. Along their march through the forests of the frontier, Washington was joined by men at Winchester
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Braddock Expedition
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It was defeated at the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, and the survivors retreated. The expedition takes its name from General Edward Braddock, who led the British forces and died in the effort. Braddocks defeat was a setback for the British in the early stages of the war with France and has been described as one of the most disastrous defeats for the British in the 18th century. Braddocks expedition was part of a massive British offensive against the French in North America that summer, as commander-in-chief of the British Army in America, General Braddock led the main thrust against the Ohio Country with a column some 2,100 strong. With these men, Braddock expected to seize Fort Duquesne easily, George Washington, then just 23, knew the territory and served as a volunteer aide-de-camp to General Braddock. Braddocks Chief of Scouts was Lieutenant John Fraser of the Virginia Regiment, Fraser owned land at Turtle Creek, had been at Fort Necessity, and had served as Second-in-Command at Fort Prince George, at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Braddock mostly failed in his attempts to recruit Native American allies from those not yet allied with the French, he had but eight Mingo Indians with him. A number of Indians in the area, notably Delaware leader Shingas, caught between two powerful European empires at war, the local Indians could not afford to be on the side of the loser. They would decide based on Braddocks success or failure, Braddock had received important assistance from Benjamin Franklin, who helped procure wagons and supplies for the expedition. Among the wagoners were two men who would later become legends of American history, Daniel Boone and Daniel Morgan. Other members of the expedition included Ensign William Crawford and Charles Scott, among the British were Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, future American president George Washington, and Horatio Gates. In some cases, the column was able to progress at a rate of two miles a day, creating Braddocks Road—an important legacy of the march—as they went. They passed the ruins of Fort Necessity along the way, where the French, small French and Indian war bands skirmished with Braddocks men during the march. Meanwhile, at Fort Duquesne, the French garrison consisted of only about 250 regulars and Canadian militia, the Indians were from a variety of tribes long associated with the French, including Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis. Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander, received reports from Indian scouting parties that the British were on their way to besiege the fort. He realised he could not withstand Braddocks cannon, and decided to launch a preemptive strike, by July 8,1755, the Braddock force was on the land owned by the Chief Scout, Lieutenant John Fraser. That evening, the Indians sent a delegation to the British to request a conference, the Indians asked the British to halt their advance so that they could attempt to negotiate a peaceful withdrawal by the French from Fort Duquesne. Both Washington and Fraser recommended this to Braddock but he demurred, on July 9,1755, Braddocks men crossed the Monongahela without opposition, about 10 miles south of Fort Duquesne
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Battle of the Monongahela
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The Battle of the Monongahela, took place on 9 July 1755, at the beginning of the French and Indian War, at Braddocks Field in what is now Braddock, Pennsylvania,10 miles east of Pittsburgh. The defeat marked the end of the Braddock expedition, by which the British had hoped to capture Fort Duquesne, Braddock was mortally wounded in the battle and died during the retreat near present-day Uniontown, Pennsylvania. He specifically asked for George Washington, who accompanied him on the march, the remainder of the column retreated south-eastwards and the fort, and region, remained in French hands until its capture in 1758. Braddock had been dispatched to North America in the new position of Commander-in-Chief and he added to this by recruiting local troops in British America, swelling his forces to roughly 2,200 by the time he set out from Fort Cumberland, Maryland on 29 May. He was accompanied by Virginia Colonel George Washington, who had led the previous expedition to the area. Braddocks expedition was part of an attack on the French in North America. Braddocks orders were to launch an attack into the Ohio Country, disputed by Britain, control of the area was dominated by Fort Duquesne on the forks of the Ohio River. Once it was in his possession, he was to proceed on to Fort Niagara and he soon encountered a number of difficulties. He was scornful of the need to recruit local Native Americans as scouts and he found that the road he was trying to use was slow, and needed constant widening to move artillery and supply wagons along it. Frustrated, he split his force in two, leading a column ahead, with a slower force following with the cannon. The flying column of 1,300 crossed the Monongahela River on 9 July, within 10 miles of their target, Fort Duquesne had been very lightly defended, but had recently received significant reinforcements. Claude-Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander of the fort, had around 1,600 French troupes de la Marine, Canadian militiamen, concerned by the approach of the British, he dispatched Captain Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu with around 800 troops, to check their advance. The French and Indians arrived too late to set an ambush, as they had delayed. They ran into the British advance guard, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, seeing the enemy in the trees, Gage ordered his men to open fire. Despite firing at long range for a smooth-bored musket, their opening volleys succeeded in killing Captain Beaujeu. Unconcerned by the death of Beaujeu, the Indian warriors took up positions to attack and they were fighting on an Indian hunting ground which favored their tactics, with numerous trees and shrubbery separated by wide open spaces. Although roughly a hundred of the Canadians fled back to the fort, the Indian tribes allied with the French, the Ottawas and Potawatomis, used psychological warfare against the British forces. After the Indians killed British soldiers, they would nail their scalps to surrounding trees, during the battle, Indians made a terrifying whoop sound that caused fear and panic to spread in the British infantry
20.
Kittanning Expedition
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Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong, this raid deep into hostile territory was the only major expedition carried out by Pennsylvania Provincial troops during a brutal backcountry war. Early on September 8,1756 they launched an attack on the Indian village. Although it eventually became a conflict known as the Seven Years War. The French-allied Indians who had defeated General Edward Braddock at the Monongahela were primarily from the Great Lakes region to the north, with Fort Duquesne now secured, the victorious French encouraged the Delaware and Shawnee to take up the hatchet against those who had taken their land. Beginning about October 1755, Delaware and Shawnee war parties, often with French cooperation, although European-Americans also waged war with cruelty, they found Indian warfare particularly brutal and frightening. Notable among the Indian raiders were the Delaware war leaders Shingas and Captain Jacobs, the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia offered rewards for their scalps. Captain Jacobs was on an expedition led by Louis Coulon de Villiers that descended on Fort Granville on the morning of August 2,1756. The attackers were held off, but the commander was killed, and his second in command surrendered the garrison, including the women and children. The commanders brother, Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong, immediately organized an expedition against Kittanning in response, Armstrong led 300 Pennsylvania Provincial soldiers from Fort Shirley on August 31. By September 7, the column had reached the vicinity of Kittanning, signs of a small Indian camp prompted Colonel Armstrong to detach a dozen men under Lieutenant James Hogg to monitor it while the column moved on toward the village. The next morning Armstrong launched an attack on the village. Many of the Kittanning residents fled, but Captain Jacobs put up a defense, holing up with his wife, when he refused to surrender, his house and others were set on fire, touching off gunpowder that had been stored inside. Some buildings exploded, and pieces of Indian bodies flew high into the air, Captain Jacobs was killed and scalped after jumping from his home in an attempt to escape the flames. The battle ended when the village was engulfed in flames. Prisoners informed Armstrong that a party of 24 men had left the day before in advance of another planned raid and this news caused Armstrong some concern over the fate of Lieutenant Hogg, so he precipitately ordered a withdrawal. They were met after several miles by a mortally-wounded Hogg, who reported that his force had been attacked by a larger Indian force, some of his men had immediately fled, and most of the rest had been killed. By September 13, Armstrong and his force had returned to Fort Loudon. According to Armstrongs report, he took 11 scalps and freed 11 prisoners and he estimated that his men killed between 30 and 40 Indians
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Forbes Expedition
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The Forbes Expedition was a British military expedition led by Brigadier-General John Forbes in 1758, during the latter stages of the French and Indian War. Forbes commanded between 6,000 and 8,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington and this well organized expedition was in contrast to a similar expedition led by Edward Braddock in 1755 that ended in the disastrous Battle of the Monongahela. Working for most of the summer on the construction of the road, periodic fortified supply depots, in mid-September, a reconnaissance force was soundly defeated in the Battle of Fort Duquesne when its leader, Major James Grant, attempted to capture the fort instead of gathering information alone. This collapse of Native American support made it impossible for the French to hold Fort Duquesne, when the expedition neared to within a few miles of Fort Duquesne in mid-November, the French abandoned and blew up the fort. Three units of scouts led by Captain Hugh Waddell entered the smoking remnants of the fort under the orders of Colonel George Washington on November 24, general Forbes, who was ill with dysentery for much of the expedition, only briefly visited the ruins. He was returned to Philadelphia in a litter, and died not long afterward, Forbes Road Braddock Expedition Nemacolins Path Beaver Wars Susquehannock peoples Erie peoples Shawnee Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War, The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, the British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania,1758, A Military History of the Forbes Campaign Against Fort Duquesne. Fowler, William M. Empires at war, The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America 1754-1763
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Battle of Fort Duquesne
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The Battle of Fort Duquesne was a British assault on the eponymous French fort that was repulsed with heavy losses on 14 September 1758, during the French and Indian War. Forbes ordered Major James Grant of the 1st Highland Regiment to reconnoiter the area with 850 men. When Grant proceeded to attack the French position, his force was out manoeuvred, surrounded, Major Grant was taken prisoner and the British survivors retreated fitfully to Fort Ligonier. The battle for fort duquesne is what historians believe started the seven year war, after repulsing this advance party the French, deserted by some of their native allies and vastly outnumbered by the approaching Forbes, blew up their magazines and burnt Fort Duquesne. In November the French withdrew from the Ohio Valley and British colonists erected Fort Pitt on the site, Forbes commanded between 5,000 and 7,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington. Bouquet believed the fort to be held by 500 French and 300 Indians, Grant, who arrived in the vicinity of the fort on September 13, believed there were only 200 enemy within, and sent a small party of 50 men forward to scout. These saw no enemy outside the fort, they burned a storehouse and returned to Grants main position, the next morning, Grant divided his force into several parts. A company of the 77th, under a Capt. McDonald, approached the fort with drums beating, the French and Indian force was in fact much larger than anticipated, and moved swiftly. They overwhelmed McDonalds decoy force and overran the party that had meant to ambush them. Lewiss force left its positions and went to the aid of the rest of the force but the French and Indians had by then gained a point of high ground above them. The Indians used the forest to their advantage, concealed by a thick foliage, their heavy, in the one-sided battle in the woods, the British and American force suffered 342 casualties, of whom 232 were from the 77th Regiment, including Grant, who was taken prisoner. Out of the eight officers in Andrew Lewis’s Virginian contingent,5 were killed,1 was wounded, nevertheless, most of Grants force escaped to rejoin the main army under Forbes and Bouquet. The Franco-Indian force suffered only 8 killed and 8 wounded, French and Indians knew not that Grant and his men were there until they beat the drum and played upon the bag-pipes, just at day-light. A plaque on the Allegheny County Courthouse, erected in 1901 commemorates the site of the battle, the French continued to occupy Fort Duquesne until November 26, when the garrison set fire to the fort and left under the cover of darkness. As the British marched up to the remains, they were confronted with an appalling sight. The Indians had decapitated many of the dead Highlanders and impaled their heads on the stakes on top of the fort walls. The British and Americans rebuilt Fort Duquesne, naming it Fort Pitt after the British prime minister William Pitt, crucible of War, The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 pp 267–285 Chartrand, Rene. Tomahawk and Musket, French and Indian Raids in the Ohio Valley 1758, founders Son Leads Area Through Wars with French and British
23.
Battle of Fort Ligonier
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The Battle of Fort Ligonier was a battle of the French and Indian War. On 12 October 1758, French and Indian forces directed from nearby Fort Duquesne were repulsed in an attack on the British outpost of Fort Ligonier and his expedition methodically constructed a road across the Allegheny Mountains, which had reached a place known as Loyal Hannon by early September. Forbes advance force, about 1,500 men under the command of Henry Bouquet then began the construction of Fort Ligonier for the purpose of establishing winter quarters and they were subjected to regular harassment by French and Indian raiding parties sent from Fort Duquesne. To answer these raids, Bouquet authorized James Grant to lead 750 men on a reconnaissance in force of Duquesne, Grant, apparently seeking the glory of a quick victory, attempted the forts capture on 14 September. Grant had seriously underestimated the size of François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignerys French force, Lignery sent out virtually his entire garrison,440 troupes de la marine and 150 Delaware Indians, under the command of Charles Phillip Aubry. The command at Ligonier was temporarily under Pennsylvania provincial Colonel James Burd, outside the fort he had stationed a number of men to guard supplies and others to guard the expeditions animals as they grazed, about 1.5 miles from the fort. These guards, who were dispersed, suffered the brunt of the French. When the sounds of gunfire reached the fort, Colonel Burd sent out the Maryland Battalion, about 200 provincials and these were quickly driven back to the fort by the larger French force. By this time the garrison, numbering about 2,000, was under arms. Burd sent out the 1st Pennsylvania Battalion to assist the Marylanders, three companies of the North Carolina Provincials were also part of this force, led by Maj. Driven back by active British artillery, the French and Indians retreated and they seemingly made no attempt to block the road, Burd reported the arrival of men during the afternoon. Around 9,00 pm, an assault was attempted on one of the forts redoubts, the French and Indians remained near the fort through the night, sniping at sentries, probing the defenses, and killing or taking about 200 horses before they withdrew back to Fort Duquesne. James Smith reported what the French-allied Indians said about the battle, They met his army near Fort Ligoneer, and attacked them, casualties were relatively light for the attackers. Aubrys superior officer, General Montcalm, reported casualties at two killed and seven wounded, but Burd also reported burying four Frenchmen. British casualties were higher, the French reported taking 100 scalps and seven prisoners, while the British report 12 killed,18 wounded,3 men of the North Carolina Provincials were killed during the fighting. The British continued work on Ligonier, and after General Forbes arrived on 2 November, on 24 November, Lignery destroyed Fort Duquesne, sending his men to other forts to the north and west. Fort Ligonier continued to see service through Pontiacs Rebellion, after which it was abandoned and it was reconstructed, and the site is now on the National Register of Historic Places. The British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania,1758, A Military History of the Forbes Campaign Against Fort Duquesne, fowler, William M. Empires at war, The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America 1754-1763
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Fort Necessity National Battlefield
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Fort Necessity National Battlefield is a National Battlefield Site in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States, which preserves the site of the Battle of Fort Necessity. After returning to the meadows in what is now Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Supposedly named by Washington as Fort Necessity or Fort of Necessity, the structure protected a storehouse for supplies such as gunpowder, rum, the sutler of Washingtons force was John Fraser, who earlier had been second-in-command at Fort Prince George. Later he served as Chief Scout to General Edward Braddock and then Chief Teamster to the Forbes Expedition, by June 13,1754, Washington had under his command 295 colonials and the nominal command of 100 additional regular British army troops from South Carolina. Washington spent the remainder of June 1754 extending the road further west. He wanted to create a crossing point roughly 41 mi near Redstone Creek. This was a prehistoric Native American earthwork mound on a bluff overlooking the river crossing, the aboriginal mound structure may have once been part of a fortification. Five years later in the war, Fort Burd was constructed at Redstone Old Fort and he preferred this to following the ridge-hopping, high-altitude path traversed by the western part of the route that was later chosen for Braddocks Road. It jogged to the north near the fort and passed over another notch near Confluence, Pennsylvania into the valley, the Redstone destination at the terminus of Nemacolins Trail was a natural choice for an advanced base. The location was one of the few known good crossing points where both sides of the deep river had low accessible banks, steep sides were characteristic of the Monongahela River valley. Late in the day on July 3, Washington did not know the French situation, believing his situation was impossible, he accepted surrender terms which allowed the peaceful withdrawal of his forces, which he completed on July 4,1754. The French subsequently occupied the fort and then burned it, Washington did not speak French, and stated later that if he had known that he was confessing to the assassination of Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, he would not have signed the surrender document. During the Great Depression of the 20th century, attempts to preserve the location of Fort Necessity were undertaken, on March 4,1931, Congress declared the location a National Battlefield Site under management of the War Department. Transferred to the National Park Service in 1933, the park was redesignated a National Battlefield on August 10,1961, as with all historic sites administered by the National Park Service, the battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966. Subsequent archaeological research helped to uncover the majority of the original position, shape. A replica of the fort was constructed on site in the 1970s, a new visitor center, which also is home to a National Road interpretive center, opened on October 8,2005. The battlefield and fort are currently being improved, the land on which the tavern was built was originally owned by George Washington. In 1770 he purchased the site on which he had commanded his first battle, around the 1830s, Judge Nathanial Ewing of Uniontown constructed the tavern
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Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Fayette County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. Fayette County is located in southwestern Pennsylvania, adjacent to Maryland, as of the 2010 census, the population was 136,606. The county was created on September 26,1783, from part of Westmoreland County, Fayette County is part of the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The first Europeans in Fayette County were explorers, who had used an ancient American Indian trail that bisected the county on their journey across the Appalachian Mountains. In 1754, when control of the area was still in dispute between France and Great Britain, 22-year-old George Washington fought against the French at Jumonville Glen and Fort Necessity. British forces under Washington and General Edward Braddock improved roads throughout the region, during the American Revolution, Fayette County was plagued by attacks from British-allied Indians and remained isolated as a frontier region. Also retarding settlement was a dispute with Virginia, Virginias District of West Augusta. In 1780 the dispute was settled by the government in favor of Pennsylvania. President George Washington called out the militias to restore order, Fayette County continued to be important to travelers in the early 1800s. The National Road provided a route through the mountains of the county for settlers heading west, the shipyards in Brownsville on the Monongahela River built ships for both the domestic and international trade. As Pittsburgh developed its industries in the century, Fayette County become a center of coal mining. From the 1880s to the early 1900s, the great expansion in steel production became nationally important. Both new European immigrants and African Americans in the Great Migration from the rural South were attracted to the Pittsburgh area for industrial jobs, the historic Scottish and German farming communities established in the earlier 19th century were soon overshadowed by the wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. By World War II, Fayette County had a new unionized working class that enjoyed increased prosperity, in the 1950s, however, the coal industry fell into decline. In the 1970s, the restructuring and collapse of American steel resulted in a loss of industrial jobs. The population has declined since the peak in 1940, as residents have had to move elsewhere for work, the loss of union jobs caused many working families to drop out of the middle class. Only a few mines are being worked in the 21st century, the region is slowly transitioning toward the service sector, with an increase in jobs in fields such as telemarketing. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 798 square miles
26.
Alpine tundra
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Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high altitude. The high altitude causes an adverse climate, which is too cold, Alpine tundra transitions to sub-alpine forests below the tree line, stunted forests occurring at the forest-tundra ecotone are known as Krummholz. With increasing elevation it ends at the line where snow. Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide, the flora of the alpine tundra is characterized by dwarf shrubs close to the ground. The cold climate of the tundra is caused by the lack of greenhouse effect at high altitude. Alpine tundra occurs at high altitude at any latitude. Portions of Montane grasslands and shrublands ecoregions worldwide include alpine tundra, Alpine tundra occupies high-mountain summits, slopes, and ridges above timberline. Aspect plays a role as well, the treeline often occurs at higher elevations on warmer equator-facing slopes, with limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist in alpine zones. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on such as agriculture, mining. An example of such a town is La Rinconada, Peru, a gold-mining town. A counterexample is El Alto, Bolivia, at 4,150 metres, which has a diverse service and manufacturing economy. Alpine climate is the weather for the alpine tundra. The climate becomes colder at high elevations—this characteristic is described by the rate of air, air tends to get colder as it rises. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10 °C per km of elevation or altitude, therefore, moving up 100 metres on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometers towards the pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans can drastically modify the climate, typical high-elevation growing seasons range from 45 to 90 days, with average summer temperatures near 10 °C. Growing season temperatures frequently fall below freezing, and frost occurs throughout the season in many areas. Precipitation occurs mainly as snow, but soil water availability is highly variable with season, location. For example, snowfields commonly accumulate on the lee sides of ridges while ridgelines may remain nearly snow free due to redistribution by wind, some alpine habitats may be up to 70% snow free in winter
27.
Allegheny Mountains
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The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia
28.
Confluence, Pennsylvania
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Confluence is a borough in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is part of the Somerset, Pennsylvania, Metropolitan Statistical Area, the population was 834 at the 2000 census. Confluence is so named for the juncture of the Casselman River and it therefore provides many opportunities for boating and fishing. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 1.6 square miles. The borough is bordered to the south by the 2, 840-acre Youghiogheny River Lake and to the north by the 19, the climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year round. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Confluence has a marine west coast climate, as of the census of 2000, there were 834 people,349 households, and 211 families residing in the borough. The population density was 522.4 people per square mile, there were 404 housing units at an average density of 253.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 99. 52% White,0. 24% African American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 24% of the population. 34. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 21. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.91. In the borough the population was out with 20. 3% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,26. 9% from 25 to 44,22. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 84.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.7 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $23,462, and the median income for a family was $31,181. Males had an income of $26,705 versus $19,750 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $12,129, about 15. 0% of families and 21. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 7% of those under age 18 and 20. 4% of those age 65 or over
29.
Nemacolin's Trail
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Nemacolins Trail connected what are now Cumberland, Maryland and Brownsville, Pennsylvania. The path was a network of trails that had long used by indigenous peoples in pre-colonial America. Nemacolins Path starts near present-day Cumberland, Maryland, continuing on to Brownsville, in colonial America, the site was known as Redstone Old Fort for its defensive installation. During 1749 and 1750, the Delaware Indian chief Nemacolin and Maryland frontiersman Thomas Cresap supervised improving the trail for the Ohio Company and they developed the template trail and in large part the route for what became known on the eastern slopes as the eastern part of Braddocks Road. In 1755, the part of Nemacolins Path was used as military route by British General Edward Braddock in his attempt to capture Fort Duquesne. Crossing the Allegheny divide was a task, requiring much planning, time and effort. East-west highways were not built across the border between Virginia and West Virginia until late in the century, the two regions were separated by some of the harshest terrain in the mountain chain. Nemacolins Trail was later improved as the Cumberland Road, the National Road, the National Pike, U. S. Route 40 became one of the first officially recognized highways in the United States. The earlier road, known as the Cumberland Road/National Road, ran on the first cast iron bridge constructed in the United States, Nemacolins Trail became the gateway by which settlers in Conestoga wagons or stage coaches reached the lands west of the Appalachian mountains. Braddock Road Allegheny Mountains Nemacolins Path, The Free Dictionary Hulbert, washingtons Road the first chapter of the old French war. Cleveland, Ohio, Arthur H. Clark Company
30.
Allegheny Plateau
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It is divided into the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau and the glaciated Allegheny Plateau. The plateau extends southward into western West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the plateau terminates in the east at the Allegheny Mountains, which are the highest ridges just west of the Allegheny Front. The Front extends from central Pennsylvania through Maryland and into eastern West Virginia, the plateau is bordered on the west by glacial till plains in the north, generally north of the Ohio River, and the Bluegrass region in the south, generally south of the Ohio River. In the glaciated Allegheny Plateau, relief may only one hundred feet or less. In the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau in southeastern Ohio and westernmost West Virginia, absolute highest elevations in this area are often in the range of 900 to 1,500 feet. By the Allegheny Front, however, elevations may reach well over 4,000 feet, one of the more notable geologic areas within the Allegheny Plateau is the Hocking Hills region of southeast Ohio. The Allegheny Plateau is a section of the larger Appalachian Plateau province. Allegheny Front — transition escarpment from the Allegheny Plateau to the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, a Geologic History of the North-Central Appalachians, Part 1, Orogenesis from the Mesoproterozoic through the Taconic Orogeny. A Geologic History of the North-Central Appalachians, Part 2, The Appalachian Basin from the Silurian through the Carboniferous, a Geologic History of the North-Central Appalachians, Part 3, The Alleghany Orogeny. Photographs of the Allegheny Plateau and the Allegheny River watershed region
31.
Ohio Country
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The Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie. This area was disputed in the century by France and Great Britain. One of the first frontier regions of the United States, the area encompassed roughly all of present-day Ohio, northwestern West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Indiana. After the Revolution and resolution of claims to the territory, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the boundaries of the Northwest Territory. The territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and it covered all of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, in the 17th century, the area north of the Ohio River had been occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and some Siouan language-speaking tribes. The Iroquois conquered and absorbed the Erie tribe, who were one of the Iroquoian language family, the Ohio Country remained largely uninhabited for decades, and was used primarily as a hunting ground by the Iroquois. In the 1720s, a number of Native American groups began to migrate to the Ohio Country from the East, by 1724, Delaware Indians had established the village of Kittanning on the Allegheny River in present-day western Pennsylvania. With them came those Shawnee who had settled in the east. Other bands of the scattered Shawnee tribe began to return to the Ohio Country in the decades that followed, a number of Seneca and other Iroquois also migrated to the Ohio Country, moving away from the French and British imperial rivalries south of Lake Ontario. The Seneca were the westernmost of the Iroquois nations based in New York, in the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the territory. In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, with the arrival of the Europeans, both Great Britain and France claimed the area and both sent fur traders into the area to do business with the Ohio Country Indians. The Iroquois League claimed the region by right of conquest, the rivalry between the two European nations, the Iroquois, and the Ohio natives for control of the region played an important part in the French and Indian War from 1754 through 1760. After initially remaining neutral, the Ohio Country Indians largely sided with the French, armed with supplies and guns from the French, they raided via the Kittanning Path against British settlers east of the Alleghenies. After they destroyed Fort Granville in the summer of 1756, the colonial governor John Penn ordered Lt. Colonel John Armstrong to destroy the Shawnee villages west of the Alleghenies, the British defeated the French and their allies. Meanwhile, other British and colonial forces drove the French from Fort Duquesne and building Fort Pitt, in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France ceded control of the entire Ohio region to Great Britain, without consulting its native allies, who still believed they had territorial claims. Colonies such as Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed some of the lands by their original charters. The British ordered the settlers to leave or get special permission to stay
32.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
33.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
34.
Fortification
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Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
35.
French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
36.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
37.
Mingo
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The Mingo people are an Iroquoian-speaking group of Native Americans made up of peoples who migrated west to the Ohio Country in the mid-18th century, primarily Seneca and Cayuga. Anglo-Americans called these migrants mingos, a corruption of mingwe, an Eastern Algonquian name for Iroquoian-language groups in general, Mingos have also been called Ohio Iroquois and Ohio Seneca. Most were forced to move to Indian Territory in the early 1830s under the Indian Removal program, in the 1930s Mingo descendants reorganized as a tribe and were recognized in 1937 by the federal government as the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma. The Mingo may have been an independent group in the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the etymology of the name Mingo derives from the Delaware word, mingwe or Minque as transliterated from their Algonquian language, meaning treacherous or stealthy. In the 17th century, the terms Minqua or Minquaa were used interchangeably to refer to the Iroquois and to the Susquehannock, the Mingo were noted for having a bad reputation and were sometimes referred to as Blue Mingo or Black Mingo for their misdeeds. The Mingo dialect that dominated the Ohio valley from the late 17th to early 18th centuries is considered a variant most similar to the Seneca language. After the French and Indian War, many Cayuga people moved to Ohio and they were joined there by Shawnee of Ohio and the rest of the Mingo confederacy. Their villages were increasingly an amalgamation of Iroquoian Seneca, Wyandot and Susquehannock, although the Iroquois Confederacy had claimed hunting rights and sovereignty over much of the Ohio River Valley since the late 17th century, these people increasingly acted independently. When Pontiacs Rebellion broke out in 1763 at the end of the Seven Years War, at that time, most of the Iroquois nations based in New York were closely allied to the British. The Mingo-Seneca Chief Guyasuta was one of the leaders in Pontiacs War, another famous Mingo leader was Chief Logan, who had good relations with neighboring white settlers. Logan was not a war chief, but a village leader, in 1774, as tensions between whites and Indians were on the rise due to a series of violent conflicts, a band of white outlaws murdered Logans family. Local chiefs counseled restraint, but acknowledged Logans right to revenge, Logan exacted his vengeance in a series of raids with a dozen followers, not all of whom were Mingos. His vengeance satisfied, he did not participate in the resulting Lord Dunmores War and he was not likely to have been at the climactic Battle of Point Pleasant. Rather than take part in the conference, he expressed his thoughts in Logans Lament. His speech was printed and widely distributed and it is one of the most well-known examples of Native American oratory. By 1830, the Mingo were flourishing in western Ohio, where they had improved their farms and established schools, after the US passed the Indian Removal Act in that same year, the government pressured the Mingo to sell their lands and migrate to Kansas in 1832. In Kansas, the Mingo joined other Seneca and Cayuga bands, in 1869, after the American Civil War, the US government pressed for Indian removal to Indian Territory. The three tribes moved to present-day Ottawa County, Oklahoma, in 1881, a band of Cayuga from Canada joined the Seneca Tribe in Indian Territory
38.
Wampum
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Wampum is a traditional shell bead of the Eastern Woodlands tribes of the indigenous people of North America. Wampum includes the shell beads fashioned from the North Atlantic channeled whelk shell. Wampum was used by the northeastern Americans Indians as a form of exchange. Eventually, the colonists developed more efficient methods of producing wampum, Wampum was often kept on strings like Chinese cash. Before European contact, strings of wampum were used for storytelling, ceremonial gifts, according to the Onondaga Nation, the wampum is a living record and has many uses. These can include inviting a person to a meeting, showing title, at the Treaty of Niagara in 1764, at least 84 wampum belts were exchanged. The term wampum initially referred only to the beads, which are made of the inner spiral or columella of the Channeled whelk shell Busycotypus canaliculatus or Busycotypus carica. Sewant or suckauhock beads are the black or purple beads made from the quahog or poquahock clamshell Mercenaria mercenaria. Sewant or Zeewant was the used for this currency by the New Netherland colonists. Common terms for the dark and white beads are wampi and saki, the clams and whelks used for making wampum are found only along Long Island Sound and Narragansett Bay. The Lenape name for Long Island is Sewanacky, reflecting its connection to the dark wampum, Wampum beads are typically tubular in shape, often a quarter of an inch long and an eighth inch wide. One 17th-century Seneca wampum belt featured beads almost 2.5 inches long, women artisans traditionally made wampum beads by rounding small pieces of the shells of whelks, then piercing them with a hole before stringing them. Wooden pump drills with quartz drill bits and steatite weights were used to drill the shells, the unfinished beads would be strung together and rolled on a grinding stone with water and sand until they were smooth. The beads would be strung or woven on deer hide thongs, sinew, milkweed bast, the term wampum is a shortening of wampumpeag, which is derived from the Massachusett or Narragansett word meaning white strings of shell beads. The Proto-Algonquian reconstructed form is thought to be *wa·p-a·py-aki, white strings, in New York, wampum beads have been discovered dating before 1510. The Haudenosaunee The founding constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy was codified in a series of wampum belts, according to oral history of the Iroquois, the Great Peacemaker used wampum to record and relay messages. The introduction of European metal tools revolutionized the production of wampum, by the mid-seventeenth century, Dutch colonists discovered the importance of wampum as money for exchange between tribes, and they began mass-producing it in workshops. John Campbell established such a factory in Passaic, New Jersey which manufactured wampum into the early 20th century, the Iroquois used wampum as a person’s credentials or a certificate of authority
39.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
40.
Robert Dinwiddie
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Since the governors at that time were largely absentee, he was the de facto head of the colony for much of the time. Dinwiddie was born at Glasgow before 2 October 1692, the son of Robert Dinwiddie of Germiston and he matriculated at the University in 1707 before starting work as a merchant. Joining the British colonial service in 1727, Dinwiddie was appointed collector of the customs for Bermuda, Dinwiddies actions as lieutenant governor are cited by one historian as precipitating the French and Indian War, commonly held to have begun in 1754. In 1753, Dinwiddie learned the French had built Fort Presque Isle near Lake Erie and Fort Le Boeuf, in fact, he considered Winchester, Virginia, to be exposed to the enemy, Cumberland, Maryland, was only to be fortified the next year. Dinwiddie sent an expedition under George Washington to warn the French to withdraw. Washington, then only 21 years old, made the journey in midwinter of 1753–54, Washington arrived at Fort Le Boeuf on 11 December 1753. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, commandant at Fort Le Boeuf, a veteran of the west, received Washington politely. Jacques Saint-Pierre gave Washington three days hospitality at the fort, and then gave Washington a letter for him to deliver to Dinwiddie. The letter conveyed to Dinwiddie that he would send Dinwiddies on to Marquis de Duquesne in Quebec and would meantime maintain his post while he awaited the latters orders. The French quickly drove off the Virginians and built a fort on the site, calling it Fort Duquesne, in honour of the Marquis de Duquesne. Dinwiddie named Joshua Fry to the position of Commander-in-Chief of colonial forces, Fry was given command of the Virginia Regiment and was ordered to take Fort Duquesne, then held by the French. During the advance into the Ohio Country, Fry suddenly fell off his horse and died from his injuries on 31 May 1754 at Fort Cumberland, in early spring 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington to build a road to the Monongahela. Here he encountered the French in a skirmish on 3 July 1754 and was forced to surrender, in fact, the friction between the government and the Burgesses would eventually develop into the American Revolution. In January 1758 he left Virginia, to be replaced by Francis Fauquier, Dinwiddie County, Virginia, which lies 30 miles south of Richmond, is named in honor of Robert Dinwiddie. Dinwiddie Hall, since 1972 a dormitory at the College of William & Mary, is named in honor of Robert Dinwiddie. Robert Dinwiddie died on 27 July 1770 and he married some time before 1738 Rebecca Auchinleck, together they had two children Rebecca Dinwiddie and Elizabeth Dinwiddie. His official records, which were compiled by the Virginia Historical Society in 1883, are left in five volumes and they cover the years of his administration of the Virginia colony, from 1751 to 1758. His archival material resides at several places, and some related to the French and he was the subject of the book Robert Dinwiddie, Servant of the Crown
41.
Williamsburg, Virginia
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Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,068, in 2014, the population was estimated to be 14,691. Located on the Virginia Peninsula, Williamsburg is in the part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area. It is bordered by James City County and York County, Williamsburg was founded in 1632 as Middle Plantation, a fortified settlement on high ground between the James and York rivers. The city served as the capital of the Colony of Virginia from 1699 to 1780 and was the center of events in Virginia leading to the American Revolution. S. Presidents as well as other important figures in the nations early history. The citys tourism-based economy is driven by Colonial Williamsburg, the restored Historic Area of the city, along with nearby Jamestown and Yorktown, Williamsburg forms part of the Historic Triangle, which attracts more than four million tourists each year. Modern Williamsburg is also a town, inhabited in large part by William & Mary students. Prior to the arrival of the English colonists at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia in 1607, by the 1630s, English settlements had grown to dominate the lower portion of the Virginia Peninsula, and the Powhatan tribes had abandoned their nearby villages. Jamestown was the capital of Virginia Colony, but was burned down during the events of Bacons Rebellion in 1676. The members of the House of Burgesses discovered that the location was both safer and more pleasant environmentally than Jamestown, which was humid and plagued with mosquitoes. A school of education had long been an aspiration of the colonists. An early attempt at Henricus failed after the Indian Massacre of 1622, the location at the outskirts of the developed part of the colony had left it more vulnerable to the attack. In the 1690s, the colonists tried again to establish a school and they commissioned Reverend James Blair, who spent several years in England lobbying, and finally obtained a royal charter for the desired new school. It was to be named the College of William & Mary in honor of the monarchs of the time, when Reverend Blair returned to Virginia, the new school was founded in a safe place, Middle Plantation in 1693. Classes began in temporary quarters in 1694, and the College Building, four years later, in 1698, the rebuilt Statehouse in Jamestown burned down again, this time accidentally. The government again relocated temporarily to Middle Plantation, and in addition to the better climate now also enjoyed use of the Colleges facilities. The College students made a presentation to the House of Burgesses, a village was laid out and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg in honor of King William III of England, befitting the towns newly elevated status
France
Colony of Canada
George Washington 
