1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Austro-Prussian War
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This conflict also paralleled the Third Independence War of Italian unification. It saw the abolition of the German Confederation and its replacement by a North German Confederation that excluded Austria. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia, for centuries, Central Europe was split into a few large states and hundreds of tiny entities, each maintaining its independence with the assistance of outside powers, particularly France. After 1815, the German states were again reorganized into a loose confederation. When Austria brought the dispute before the German Diet and also decided to convene the Diet of Holstein, when the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation was ended. Crown Prince Frederick was the member of the Prussian Crown Council to uphold the rights of the Duke of Augustenberg. Although he supported unification and the restoration of the medieval empire, the ultimate aim of most German nationalists was the gathering of all Germans under one state. Two ideas of national unity eventually came to the fore – once including, US newspaper The New York Times summarized its views of German nationalism shortly after the outbreak of the war, There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies, and Duchies and Principalities, inhabited by Germans, yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit. Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War, taylor thinks Bismarck manipulated events into the most beneficial solution possible for Prussia. On 22 February 1866, Count Karolyi, Austrian ambassador in Berlin, sent a dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, possible evidence can be found in Bismarcks orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic masterstroke. It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig, the alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian expansionist, rather than a German nationalist and it was at the Gastein Convention that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war. The timing of the declaration was perfect, because all other European powers were bound by alliances that forbade them from entering the conflict. Britain had no stake economically or politically in war between Prussia and Austria, the details of the discussion are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in the event of a war. Italy was already allied with Prussia, which meant that Austria would be fighting both with no major allies of its own, Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority but still he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation. When the Prussian victory became clear, France attempted to extract concessions in the Palatinate. Naturally I was not doubtful of the answer for a second, I answered him, Good, then its war
3.
Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
4.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
5.
Kingdom of Saxony
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The Kingdom of Saxony, lasting between 1806 and 1918, was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Germany. From 1871 it was part of the German Empire and it became a Free state in the era of Weimar Republic in 1918 after the end of World War I and the abdication of King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony. Its capital was the city of Dresden, and its successor state is the Free State of Saxony. Before 1806 Saxony was part of the Holy Roman Empire, an entity which had once aspired to be a single state. The rulers of Electorate of Saxony of the House of Wettin had held the title of elector for several centuries, the last elector of Saxony became King Frederick Augustus I. The Kingdom also joined the German Confederation, the new organization of the German states to replace the Holy Roman Empire. This effectiveness probably allowed Saxony to escape the fate of other north German states allied with Austria — notably the Kingdom of Hanover — which were annexed by Prussia after the war, the Austrians insisted as a point of honour that Saxony must be spared, and the Prussians acquiesced. Saxony nevertheless joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation the next year, with Prussias victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, the members of the Confederation were organised by Otto von Bismarck into the German Empire, with Wilhelm I as its Emperor. Wilhelm Is grandson Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated in 1918 as a result of Germanys defeat in World War I, King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony followed him into abdication and the erstwhile Kingdom of Saxony became the Free State of Saxony within the newly formed Weimar Republic. The 1831 Constitution of Saxony established the state as a parliamentary monarchy, the king was named as head of the nation. He was required to follow the provisions of the constitution, and could not become the ruler of any other state without the consent of the Diet, or parliament. The crown was hereditary in the line of the royal family through agnatic primogeniture. Added provisions concerned the formation of a if the king was too young or otherwise unable to rule. Any acts or decrees signed or issued by the king had to be countersigned by at least one of his ministers, without the ministerial countersignature, no act of the king was to be considered valid. The king was given the right to declare any accused person innocent, or alternately to mitigate or suspend their punishment or pardon them and he was also given supreme power over religious matters in Saxony. The king was given power to promulgate laws, and to carry them into effect. He could not, however, change the constitution itself or the laws in this manner. He was permitted to veto laws passed by the Diet, or to them back with proposed amendments for reconsideration
6.
Helmuth von Moltke the Elder
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Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf von Moltke was a German Field Marshal. The chief of staff of the Prussian Army for thirty years, he is regarded as the creator of a new, more modern method of directing armies in the field. He is often referred to as Moltke the Elder to distinguish him from his nephew Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, Moltke was born in Parchim, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, son of the Danish Generalleutnant Friedrich Philipp Victor von Moltke. Young Moltke therefore grew up under difficult circumstances, at nine he was sent as a boarder to Hohenfelde in Holstein, and at age twelve went to the cadet school at Copenhagen, being destined for the Danish army and court. In 1818 he became a page to the king of Denmark, at twenty-one Moltke resolved to enter the Swedish service, in spite of the loss of seniority. In 1822 he became a lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Regiment stationed at Frankfurt. At twenty-three, he was allowed to enter the war school. For a year Moltke had charge of a school at Frankfurt an der Oder. In 1832 he was seconded for service on the staff at Berlin. He was at this time regarded as a brilliant officer by his superiors, including Prince William, max Boot says of Moltke in his War Made New, Moltke loved music, poetry, art, archaeology, and theater. He was a prolific artist who filled sketchbooks with landscapes and portraits, as well as a popular author. For all his catholicity of interests and he was a nationalist to the core who was appalled by the liberal revolutions that swept Europe on 1848. He placed his faith in the king and the forces of the old regime, Moltke was well received at court and in the best society of Berlin. His tastes inclined him to literature, to study and to travel. In 1827 he had published a romance, The Two Friends. In 1831 he wrote an essay entitled Holland and Belgium in their Mutual Relations, a year later he wrote An Account of the Internal Circumstances and Social Conditions of Poland, a study based both on reading and on personal observation of Polish life and character. In eighteen months he had finished nine volumes out of twelve, in 1835 on his promotion as captain, Moltke obtained six months leave to travel in south-Eastern Europe. After a short stay in Constantinople he was requested by the Sultan Mahmud II to help modernize the Ottoman Empire army and he remained two years at Constantinople, learned Turkish and surveyed the city of Constantinople, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. He travelled through Wallachia, Bulgaria and Rumelia, and made other journeys on both sides of the Strait
7.
Karl Herwarth von Bittenfeld
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Karl Eberhard Herwarth von Bittenfeld was a Prussian field marshal. Herwarth von Bittenfeld was born in Werther, Thuringia, into a family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the Prussian army. Herwarth von Bittenfeld entered the infantry with the 2nd Guards Regiment in 1811, during the years of peace he rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848, he was on duty at the palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general of infantry, Bittenfeld was appointed commander of the VIII Corps that autumn. On 29 June he also received the Pour le Mérite order, in the Austro-Prussian War, Herwarth commanded the Army of the Elbe which overran Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe. His troops won the actions of Hühnerwasser and Münchengrätz, and at Königgrätz formed the wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left flank, returning to command of the VIII Corps after the war, Herwarth von Bittenfeld became a member of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation from 1867 until 1870. He would continue to plan the defense of western Germany against a possible French offensive until July 1870, in 1871, his great services were recognized by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at Bonn, since 1889 the 13th Infantry carried his name. Austrias war with Prussia and Italy in 1866, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Herwarth von Bittenfeld
8.
Frederick III, German Emperor
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Frederick III was German Emperor and King of Prussia for ninety-nine days in 1888, the Year of the Three Emperors. Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, known informally as Fritz, was the son of Emperor Wilhelm I and was raised in his familys tradition of military service. Following the unification of Germany in 1871 his father, then King of Prussia, Frederick was suffering from cancer of the larynx when he died on 15 June 1888, aged fifty-six, following unsuccessful medical treatments for his condition. Frederick married Victoria, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, the couple were well-matched, their shared liberal ideology led them to seek greater representation for commoners in the government. Frederick, in spite of his conservative militaristic family background, had developed liberal tendencies as a result of his ties with Britain, liberals in both Germany and Britain hoped that as emperor, Frederick III would move to liberalize the German Empire. Frederick and Victoria were great admirers of Prince Albert, Victorias father and they planned to rule as consorts, like Albert and Queen Victoria, and to reform what they saw as flaws in the executive branch that Bismarck had created for himself. The office of Chancellor, responsible to the Emperor, would be replaced with a British-style cabinet, government policy would be based on the consensus of the cabinet. Frederick described the Imperial Constitution as ingeniously contrived chaos and he sought to guard against such a turn by keeping the Crown Prince from a position of any influence and by using foul means as well as fair to make him unpopular. The timing of Fredericks death and the length of his reign are important topics among historians, Frederick William was born in the New Palace at Potsdam in Prussia on 18 October 1831. He was a scion of the House of Hohenzollern, rulers of Prussia, Fredericks father, Prince William, was a younger brother of King Frederick William IV and, having been raised in the military traditions of the Hohenzollerns, developed into a strict disciplinarian. Because of their differences, the couple did not have a marriage and, as a result, Frederick grew up in a troubled household. He had one sister, Louise, who was eight years his junior, Frederick also had a very good relationship with his uncle, King Frederick William IV, who has been called the romantic on the throne. Frederick grew up during a tumultuous political period as the concept of liberalism in Germany, overall, the liberals desired a government ruled by popular representation. When Frederick was 17, these emergent nationalistic and liberal sentiments sparked a series of uprisings across the German states. In Germany, their goal was to protect freedoms, such as the freedom of assembly and freedom of the press, although the uprisings ultimately brought about no lasting changes, liberal sentiments remained an influential force in German politics throughout Fredericks life. Despite the value placed by the Hohenzollern family on a military education. Accordingly, Frederick was thoroughly tutored in military traditions and the liberal arts. His private tutor was Ernst Curtius, a famous archaeologist, Frederick was a talented student, particularly good at foreign languages, becoming fluent in English and French, and studying Latin
9.
Ludwig von Benedek
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Benedek was born in Sopron as the son of a physician. He was trained at the Theresiana Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt, in 1822, he was assigned to the 27th infantry regiment of the Austrian Imperial Army. He was made a first lieutenant in 1833, and was assigned to the Quartermaster-General, in 1835, he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1840 Benedek was made a major and aide to the General Commander of Galicia, while still serving in Galicia he was again promoted to lieutenant-colonel in 1843. For suppressing an uprising in the town of Gdow in 1846 he was awarded the Knights Cross of the Order of Leopold as well as given the rank of colonel, in August 1847, Benedek was entrusted with the command of the 33rd infantry regiment in Italy. On 5 April 1848 he took over the command of a newly formed brigade that consisted of two battalions and this brigade saw battle in the first Italian war of independence several times, notably at Curtatone in 1848. The following day, Benedek led his troops in the Battle of Goito, Benedek was afterwards awarded the Commanders Cross of the Order of Leopold, and the Knights Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. This officially made Benedek a knight, on April 3,1849, he became major general and was appointed to the staff of the Chief of Quartermaster-General with the 2nd Army in Italy. In 1849, Benedek was sent to Hungary, leading troops in the Battle of Győr, he was instrumental in striking down the rebellion. At another battle in Szőny he was seriously wounded and he was given the Military Merit Cross and made regimental colonel. Benedek was made chief of staff to Radetzky in Italy and he was promoted to Feldmarschallleutnant in 1852 and, when Radetzky retired in 1857, Benedek became the commander of the II Army Corps. In early 1859, Benedek was commander general of the VIIIth army corps in the Second Italian War of Independence, on 27 May 1859, he was promoted to the rank of Feldzeugmeister, second in command of the entire Austrian Army. On 24 June, under the command of the young Emperor Franz Joseph I, Benedek was attacked on the right flank by the entire army of King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia, just a few kilometers north of Solferino in the Battle of San Martino. The Austrian units threw the Piedmontese back at first and were able to hold their ground, in the meantime Franz Joseph was defeated at Solferino and Benedek aided his retreat to San Martino. Benedek received the Commanders Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa in 1859, after the Austrian defeat, Benedek was appointed Chief of the General Quartermaster Staff on January 31,1860, and to the governorship of Hungary in April. A year later he stated in Verona that the armys purpose was to serve, fight. Benedek believed in a concept of war where valor and courage were of chief importance. Following in this vein, he opposed the notion of a national, Prussian-style general staff of officers selected for their education, at the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Benedek was made the commander in chief of the Northern Army
10.
Albert of Saxony
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Albert was a German King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Prince John, by his wife Amalie Auguste of Bavaria, Albert had a successful military career leading Saxon troops which participated in the First Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. Otherwise, his reign as king was largely uneventful, Alberts education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on military matters, but he attended lectures at the University of Bonn. His first experience of warfare came in 1849, when he served as a captain in the First War of Schleswig against Denmark. When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, Albert then Crown Prince, no attempt was made to defend Saxony, the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Jizera, the Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive Battle of Königgrätz he held the extreme left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity, but were involved in the defeat of their allies. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance, on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, his old opponent. At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat. He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, Alberts conduct in these engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the Siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Frankfurt, he was left in command of the German army of occupation, on the conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and a field marshal. On the death of his father King John on 29 October 1873, during his reign, the Saxon monarchy became constitutional. In the 1870s Albert initiated the construction of a Dresden suburb, at that time it was the largest garrison in Germany. Near the former suburb other buildings and places still bear his name, the Albertbrücke, the Alberthafen, the Albertplatz, in 1879 he initiated the re-construction of the Saint Afra School in Meissen. In 1897 he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the Principality of Lippe. In Dresden on 18 June 1853 Albert married Princess Carola, daughter of Gustav, Prince of Vasa and granddaughter of Gustav IV Adolf, Albert died at Sibyllenort on 19 June 1902, and was succeeded by his brother, who became King George. He was buried in Dresden on 23 June, among the present were both the German Emperor Wilhelm II and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. Konrad Sturmhoefel, König Albert von Sachsen, georg von Schimpff, König Albert, Fünfzig Jahre Soldat
11.
Third Italian War of Independence
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The Third Italian War of Independence was a conflict which paralleled the Austro-Prussian War, and was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire. Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy had been crowned King of Italy on March 17,1861, but did not control Venetia and the much reduced Papal States. The situation of the Irredente was a source of tension in the domestic politics of the newly created Kingdom. The first attempt to seize Rome was orchestrated by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1862, confident in the Kings neutrality, he set sail from Genoa to Palermo. Collecting 1,200 volunteers, he sailed from Catania and landed at Melito, in Calabria, on August 24 to reach Mount Aspromonte, the Piedmontese General Enrico Cialdini, however, sent a division under Colonel Pallavicino to stop the volunteer army. Garibaldi himself was wounded in the battle, and taken prisoner along with his men. The increasing discord between Austria and Prussia over the German Question turned into war in 1866, offering Italy an occasion to capture Venetia. On April 8,1866 the Italian government signed an alliance with Prussia. Italian armies, led by General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora, were to engage the Austrians on the southern front, simultaneously, taking advantage of their perceived naval superiority, the Italians planned to threaten the Dalmatian coast and seize Trieste. There were disputes among the chain of command as former enemies were now serving alongside one another, Prussia opened hostilities on 16 June 1866 by attacking several German states allied with Austria. Three days later, Italy declared war on Austria, starting operations on 23 June. La Marmora moved first through Mantua and Peschiera del Garda, but was defeated at the Battle of Custoza on 24 June and retreated disorderly back across the Mincio river. Cialdini, on the hand, did not act offensively for the first part of the war, conducting only several shows of force and failed to besiege the Austrian fortress of Borgoforte. Following the defeat at Custoza, the Italians reorganized in preparation for a presumed Austrian counter-offensive, the Austrians took this opportunity to raid Valtellina and Val Camonica. The course of the war, however, was to turn in Italys favour thanks to Prussian victories in Bohemia, the Austrians were compelled to redeploy one of their three army corps from Italy to Vienna. The remaining Austrian forces in the theatre concentrated their defenses around Trentino, the situation was embarrassing for Italy, as its forces had been beaten back in the only battle to date. Garibaldis volunteers, reinforced by a division of infantry, were to advance into Trentino, with the eventual objective of capturing the provinces capital. Cialdini crossed the Po on 8 July, advancing to Udine on 22 July without encountering the Austrian army, in the meantime, Garibaldis volunteers had advanced from Brescia in the direction of Trento in the Invasion of Trentino, winning the battle of Bezzecca on 21 July
12.
Battle of Custoza (1866)
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The Battle of Custoza took place on June 24,1866 during the Third Italian War of Independence in the Italian unification process. In June 1866, the German Kingdom of Prussia declared war on the Austrian Empire, the recently formed Kingdom of Italy decided to seize the opportunity and allied with Prussia with the intention of annexing Venetia and thus uniting the Italian Peninsula. The Italians rapidly built up a force that was twice the size of their Austrian counterparts defending Venetia. The Kings force was to move into the Trentino region, while La Marmoras crossed the Mincio River and invaded Venetia. At the start of June 24,1866, La Marmora changed the direction of his front, instead of an enveloping battle, the two forces collided head on, with both headquarters trying to discover what happened in the heights near Villafranca. On the Austrian left, the Austrian cavalry attacked the Italian I Corps without orders at 7 AM, during the morning isolated fights broke out in Oliosi, San Rocco, Custoza and San Giorgio between Rodic’s V Corps and Durando’s I Corps. After fierce fighting the division of Cerale was thrown out of Oliosi, broke, Sirtori’s division was blocked from Monte Vento by Rodic’s other troops and by 8 AM, he was thrown back by fierce bayonet attacks. By 8,30 AM however, gaps were opening in the Austrian line, brignone’s division had taken Belvedere Hill near Custoza after fighting with Hartung’s IX Corps. By 9 AM, Hartung started launching attacks up Monte Croce, trying to dislodge Brignone, the Italians however neglected reinforcing Brignone. The King’s younger son Amadeo led a counterattack, which failed, with the prince being severely wounded, La Marmora then ordered the divisions of Cugia and Govone up the heights to relieve Brignone. This forced the Austrian brigades of Böck and Scudier out of Custoza, Scudier then retired from the field, opening another gap in the Austrian line. On the Italian left Sirtori had managed to stabilize his front after Cerale’s flight, at this point in the battle, both sides were thinking they were facing a lost battle. By 1 PM La Marmora, deciding the battle was lost and wanting to secure his bridgeheads, unbeknownst to La Marmora, Govone’s division had beaten back the VII Corps and captured Belvedere Hill. By 2 PM Rodic launched an attack on Monte Vento and Santa Lucia, when Sirtori’s division gave way, a hole appeared in the Italian line, which the Austrians exploited. Govone, who thought he had broken through the Austrian line, suddenly found himself isolated near Custoza, with Rodic on one flank. At this point, he was attacked in his flank by Maroicic. At the same time Hartung’s Corps was ordered to restart the fight and they drove off the division of Cugia, capturing six guns and many prisoners on the top of Monte Torre, which they had earlier failed to capture. After a bombardment by 40 Austrian guns, at 5 PM the Italians were driven out of Custoza by Maroicic, the Austrians were victorious, both strategically and tactically
13.
Battle of Podol
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The Battle of Podol was a minor engagement in the opening days of the Königgrätz campaign of the Austro-Prussian War in Bohemia on 26 and 27 June 1866. The battle took place in modern day Svijany between troops from the Prussian First Army and soldiers of the Austrian I Corps, boses advance guard arrived near Podol in the evening of 26 June 1866. The Austrian commander Clam-Gallas met with his Saxon counterpart Prince Albert, holding Podol was important because of two strategic bridges over the Iser, which a further Prussian advance would need. The battle started around 8 PM when elements of Ferdinand Poschachers brigade encountered Prussian skirmishers, after driving them off, the brigade barricaded itself in the town. The Prussians returned them with three battalions of infantry and engaged the Austrian in street fighting. The technological advantage of the Dreyse needle gun allowed the Prussians to drive off the Austrians, another Prussian battalion crossed the river upstream and moved to attack the Austrians engaged in the town but stumbled across Poschachers two reserve battalions. Clam-Gallas ordered these reserves to attack, but they were beaten off by the Prussians superior firepower, however, after repulsing three attacks, the Prussians had exhausted their ammunition and retired over the river. Having lost the town, Clam-Gallas admitted defeat and withdrew around 2am and his losses amounted to around 1,048 men, including over 600 prisoners. Austrias war with Prussia and Italy in 1866, p. 131-135
14.
Battle of Nachod
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The Battle of Nachod on 27 June 1866 was the first major action of the Austro-Prussian War. The advance guard of General Karl Friedrich von Steinmetzs 5th Corps occupied some high ground near Nachod as part of a Prussian advance into Bohemia from Silesia, elements of the Austrian 6th Corps under General Von Ramming came on the scene and attacked the Prussians but were repulsed. As more Austrians arrived, they were ordered into attacks which proved costly and unsuccessful. Finally, the badly mauled Austrians retreated from the field, the Prussian infantry enjoyed a technical advantage in having the needle gun, a breech-loading rifle that could be fired and loaded from a prone position. Consequently, the Austrian infantry, which were equipped with muzzle-loading rifles. The Prussian Second Army, invading Bohemia, had to split up in order to negotiate the passes of the Riesen Mountains, General Karl Friedrich von Steinmetzs 5th Corps was nearly caught as it emerged from a gully by the village of Nachod, Bohemia. The King’s Grenadiers were in the guard, and raced forward, first to occupy some woods outside the gully’s opening. To counter the danger of the Prussians flanking his army, during the evening June 26, benedeks orders were only received by Ramming at 1,30 AM on June 27. The first Austrian troops started up at 3,30 AM and it was now that the superiority of Prussian equipment made itself felt. Their new breech-loading needle guns enabled them to three shots to the Austrians’ muzzle-loaders one. The Prussian cavalry now rode forward along the road to stop the Austrians reaching Vysokov, the King’s Grenadiers now came down the slope over the bodies of Herwegh’s men and occupied Wenzelsberg. At 10,45 AM a new Austrian brigade arrived and a struggle ensued over the churchyard. The grenadiers were out of it but held on to most of the village for two hours while the rest of the 9th Division arrived. A third Austrian brigade appeared, and this time it had orders to take Vysokov. Though the fighting continued, the result was now not in doubt, Steinmetz elected not to follow up the Austrians but decided to concentrate his scattered units at the heights. The Prussian firepower goaded the Austrians into courageous but costly bayonet charges, their officers lost control, and five, Von Steinmetz was hailed as the “Lion of Nachod, ” and Bismarck found for the first time in his life that he was popular. Strategically, Rammings loss meant the Austrians lost control of one of the passes giving entry into Bohemia and it also meant that Glabenz Corps was left in the air at Trautenau, and ultimately meant that the Prussian army could advance towards a union with the other Prussian armies. Http, //usacac. army. mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/cannae/maps_41_60. pdf See Map 45 Courtesy of US Combined Arms Center Geoffrey Wawro, überarbeitete Auflage, Militärverlag der deutschen demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1988, ISBN 3-327-00222-3
15.
Battle of Trautenau
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The Battle of Trautenau or Battle of Trutnov was fought on June 27,1866, during the Austro-Prussian War. It was the battle of the war that ended in an Austrian victory over the Prussians. The Prussian Second Army invading Bohemia had to split up in order to negotiate the passes of the Giant Mountains. As they emerged on the Bohemian side, they met Austrian forces, Bonins vanguard cleared the passes during the late morning and entered Trautenau at 10,00. The Austrian X Corps, led by Ludwig von Gablenz, had broken camp at 8,00 and marched towards Trautenau to stop Bonins advance. The Austrian troops arrived piecemeal with the Mondel brigade – which had started its march before the bulk of the Corps – being in position on the heights behind Trautenau at 7,45. The advance guard of the Prussians was attacked by skirmishing Austrian Jäger when resting in the town square, Mondel, who had been ordered to avoid a general engagement until the whole Corps had assembled, pulled back his troops to the heights. Mondels rear guard managed to hold up the Prussians until noon, by 12,00 Bonins 1st division had driven off Mondel and pushed up to the town of Neu-Rognitz, his 2nd division had taken the heights and was scouting in the direction of the town of Alt-Rognitz. This gave the Prussians the time to move troops and guns up the commanding heights, as the Austrian brigades started arriving, Gablenz ordered a second brigade to pass Mondel and take the Johannesberg, while a third brigade was to envelop the Prussian left and storm the Hopfenberg. To prepare the attack, Gablenz ordered a grand battery of 40 guns to open up fire on the Prussian held heights, upon this heavy bombardment Bonin panicked and started to withdraw back towards the passes. Before this retreat could be enacted, the Austrians attacked in half-battalion masses, the Austrian attacks of Grivicic and Wimpffen were uncoordinated and stalled against the Prussian fire from the Dreyse needle gun. Four Prussian battalions from the rear guard managed to hold up the Austrian brigades. By 17,00 Gablenz fourth brigade had arrived and was placed in reserve. Although an Austrian victory, the cost had been high, the Austrians lost about 5000 men to the Prussians 1400. Although the Prussian I Corps had been back, Gablenzs position had become untenable. To his left Steinmetzs V Corps had broken through at Nachod and to his right the Prussian Guard Corps was nearing Eipel, Matthias Blazek, Die Schlacht bei Trautenau – Der einzige Sieg Österreichs im Deutschen Krieg 1866. Ibidem, Stuttgart 2012 ISBN 978-3-8382-0367-6 Heinz Helmert and Hans-Jürgen Usczeck, 6th edition, Militärverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1988, ISBN 3-327-00222-3 Adolf Strobl, Trautenau – Kurze Darstellung des gleichnamigen Treffens am 27. Wien 1901 Matthias Blazek, Die Schlacht bei Trautenau, Sachsenspiegel 52, Cellesche Zeitung,31 December,2011 www. kuk-wehrmacht. de www. marlesreuth. de www. trutnov. cz
16.
Battle of Langensalza (1866)
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The Battle of Langensalza was fought on 27 June 1866 near Bad Langensalza in what is now modern Germany, between the Kingdom of Hanover and the Prussians. The Hanoverians won the battle but were surrounded by a larger and reinforced Prussian army. This marked the demise of the Hanoverian Army and the annexation of Hanover into the kingdom of Prussia as it systematically unified Germany into the modern nation state. Many small German states existed prior to 1866, and, in anticipation of war, they allied themselves with either Austria or Prussia depending on their desires, most kingdoms surrounding Prussia allied with Austria in fear of losing their autonomy to the Prussian state. As a result, this geographically isolated Prussia, boxing it against the Baltic Sea, King George V of Hanover believed he could negotiate independently with the Austrians and Prussians, wasting time when he could have strengthened his forces by joining other German states. When he finally attempted to do so, it was too late, General von Falckenstein, recognizing the absence of an army to fight, marched unopposed into the Hanoverian capital, north of the marching Hanoverians. The much larger Hanoverian force and artillery drove them back toward the actual city of Langensalza. Having a force more than twice the Prussian detachment’s size, Arentschildt severely routed Flies’ troops, out of options, King George and the Hanoverians pulled back to the East, further from their Bavarian allies. It wiped out Flies’ detachment of troops and could have allowed an avenue of escape for the Hanoverian army, at the same time, this battle provided just enough time for the northern and southern Prussian contingents to link up at the battle site, which ultimately forced Hanoverian surrender. The Prussians also quickly overran Kassel and Saxony at the time they were attacking Hanover. Another long lasting result of the Battle of Langensalza is the use of the Red Cross by medical personnel, created by the First Geneva Convention in 1864, the Red Cross began an international humanitarian aid group. This organization, which would greatly expand in size, was originally very small. Involving just thirty trained volunteer nurses from Gotha, the first actual combat mission of the Red Cross occurred on the Prussian side at Langensalza, although Austria and Hanover were not involved at the time, in 1866 Prussia was a member of the Red Cross Convention. Arden Bucholz, Moltke and the German Wars, 1864-1871, dupuy, A Genius for War, The German Army and General Staff, 1807-1945. Heinrich Friedjung, The Struggle for Supremacy in Germany 1859-1866, malleson, The Refounding of the German Empire, 1848-1871. Geoffrey Wawro, The Austro-Prussian War, Austria’s War with Prussia, Bad Langensalza Official Site Site describing the Actions of the Red Cross John Breuilly, Austria, Prussia, and Germany 1806-1871. Der Krieg zwischen Österreich und Preussen, alexander Malet, The Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866
17.
Battle of Gitschin
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The Battle of Gitschin or Jičín was a battle of the Austro-Prussian War on 29 June 1866, ending with a Prussian victory over the Austrian forces. There is a memorial today at Jičín in the Czech Republic. After being beaten at Münchengrätz, Iser army under Clam-Gallas redeployed at Jičín, the gap was temporarily filled by a 56 gun Austrian grand battery. On June 29,1866 after having won at Münchengrätz, the Prussian Elbe army, from the north, the Prussian 5th Division, under Ludwig Tümpling, advanced towards Jičín. After using his artillery batteries to soften up the Austrian position Tümpling attacked the center, the cannon fire startled the Saxons, whose advance brigade was still four kilometers from their designated position in the battle line. At 6,00 PM advancing from the west, advance units from the Prussian 3rd Division, part of Elbe army and led by August von Werder, attacked Ringelsheim but were held off. The next Prussian attack was directed at the position at the hamlet of Zames where they encountered the Veronese 45th regiment of Pirets brigade. 9th Brigade was able to occupy the hamlet in the center of the Austrian position with two battalions, neither Pirets brigade, nor Leiningens reserve, were sent in to plug the hole in the Austrian center, leaving the Prussians in control of the center of the Austrian line. The feeble counterattacks by hussars from 1st Light Cavalry Division were easily held off by the Prussians, the Austrian artillery, bombarding the hamlet, then set Zames aflame, forcing the Prussians holding the hamlet to attack forward towards Dilec. The advancing Prussians were then able to beat the Saxons to Dilec, at 8,00 PM the Austrian staff received Benedeks new orders, which had been sent by horseback, announcing North Armys about face and his order for Iser army to join him. Although occupying a strong position Iser Army was beaten by two Prussian divisions due to strategic and tactical blunders. Tardy staff work at main headquarters caused Clam-Gallas to believe he would be supported by the Austrian main army, as was originally planned, but which made him fight the battle unsupported. The Saxon army camping some ten kilometers south of their position in the Austrian line, made them late and caused a hole in the battle line. Lastly the superior Dreyse needle gun, gave the Prussians a huge advantage over the Austrian storm tactics. Gordon Craig, The Battle of Königgrätz, Prussia’s Victory over Austria,1866, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA,2003 Theodor Fontane, Der Feldzug in Böhmen und Mähren 1866, Königl. Geheime Ober-Hofbuchdruckerei R. v. Decker Berlin,1871 Heinz Helmert, Hans-Jürgen Usczeck, überarbeitete Auflage, Militärverlag der deutschen demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1988, ISBN 3-327-00222-3 Wilhelm Rüstow, Der Krieg von 1866 in Deutschland und Italien
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