1.
Belgium
–
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
Belgium
–
Charlemagne and
Charles V
Belgium
–
Flaga
Belgium
Belgium
–
Episode of the
Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1834), by
Egide Charles Gustave Wappers
2.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
–
Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
–
Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
–
Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
3.
Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
Kingdom of England
–
The dominions of
Cnut the Great (1014–1035)
Kingdom of England
–
Flag
Kingdom of England
–
King John signs
Magna Carta at
Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.
Kingdom of England
–
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the
Battle of Agincourt.
4.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown
Kingdom of Scotland
–
James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ireland created a dynastic union in 1603
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Flag
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Coronation of
Alexander III of Scotland at
Scone Abbey; beside him are the
Mormaers of Strathearn and
Fife while his genealogy is recited by a royal poet.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The
Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of Scots law.
5.
Dutch Republic
–
It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
Dutch Republic
–
Dutch East-India trading ship 1600
Dutch Republic
–
Flag
Dutch Republic
–
Onrust Island near
Batavia, 1699
Dutch Republic
–
Courtyard of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, 1653
6.
William III of England
–
It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
William III of England
–
William III by Sir
Godfrey Kneller
William III of England
–
William's parents,
William II of Orange and
Mary Stuart, Princess Royal
William III of England
–
The young prince portrayed in a flower garland painting by
Jan Davidsz de Heem filled with symbols of the
House of Orange
William III of England
–
Johan de Witt took over William's education in 1666.
7.
Battle of Walcourt
–
The Battle of Walcourt was fought on 25 August 1689 during the Nine Years War. The action took place near the ancient walled town of Walcourt near Charleroi in the Spanish Netherlands, and brought to a close a summer of uneventful marching, manoeuvring, and foraging. The battle was a success for the Grand Alliance – the only significant engagement in the theatre during the campaign of 1689, the Allied army was commanded by the Prince of Waldeck, the French army by the duc de Humières. The battle incurred some 2,000 French casualties against the Allied losses of less than 300, in September 1688, King Louis XIV’s forces invaded the Rhineland and besieged the German town of Philippsburg. What was supposed to be a campaign lasting months, evolved into the Nine Years War. By moving into the Rhineland, Louis dispelled fears in the Dutch Republic of an attack upon them. The Spanish Netherlands would later become the theatre of the war. William entrusted overall command of his 35,000 troops in the theatre to the 69-year-old Prince of Waldeck, administrative problems and the late arrival of contingents delayed the opening of the Allied offensive in the region until late June. Waldeck moved from near Tienen and headed towards Fleurus, the two spent the next two months marching and counter-marching in an attempt to gain a strategic advantage. By 24 August Waldeck had crossed the Sambre and had camped near the ancient town of Walcourt where he was satisfied to live upon enemy territory. On 25 August, Allied foragers, escorted by 600 English troops of Colonel Hodges’ Regiment were sent out to the surrounding countryside, Humières, in an effort to expel the intruders, fell upon the foraging parties and allied outposts about 2 miles south of Walcourt. The foragers were recalled and the Allied camp made readiness for action, for nearly two hours Hodges’ regiment was able to prevent the development of the French vanguard, and covered the retreat of the surprised foragers before retiring his troops to a nearby mill. By 11,00, Marlborough had arrived within sight of the engagement. Waldeck later commented to William – and the English, who are with him, have accomplished miracles, despite his troop’s failure to overcome Hodges’ small force, Humières decided to attack Walcourt itself, which had since been occupied by 600 men. The ground was not favourable to the French – although the defences of the town were antiquated, nevertheless, several attacks were pressed home, but the French suffered heavy casualties from the Allied enfilading guns. Despite the losses Humières persisted, and sent a party of Gardes Françaises to try to set alight Walcourt’s gates. The attempt failed, and the safety of the garrison was assured after Brigadier-General Thomas Tollemache brought the Coldstream Guards, Humières saw himself forced to widen the battle and now flung his men in an improvised attack against the right wing of the main Allied line beyond the town. Humières had been humiliated, but due to problems, Waldeck made little attempt to follow up his success
Battle of Walcourt
–
The Spanish Netherlands. Walcourt lies south of Charleroi near the river Sambre.
8.
Siege of Bonn (1689)
–
The Siege of Bonn took place in 1689 during the Nine Years War when the forces of the Dutch Republic and the Elector of Brandenburg besieged and captured Bonn. It was part of the Rhineland campaign which Brandenburg was fighting as part of the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV of France, following Louis incursions into the Rhineland the previous year, a coalition of nations had formed to resist French hegemony. In Germany this involved an advance into the territory of Frances ally the Electorate of Cologne, while to the west the large armies of Waldeck. In June 1689 Brandenburg took Kaiserswerth, leaving Bonn as the major settlement in Cologne not in Allied hands. Bonn was already under threat and a blockade had been imposed on it, on 11 July the Allied commanders Hans Adam von Schöning and Adriaan van Flodroff captured a key fort close to Bonn, and eleven days later the main Allied field army arrived outside Bonn. Batteries opened fire, but a formal siege did not begin until the 16 September when Frederick of Brandenburg took over command, on 10 October the defenders surrendered after a very heavy bombardment that left much of Bonn in ruins. In 1703 Bonn again came under siege during the War of the Spanish Succession, the Nine Years War and the British Army, 1688-97. The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714
Siege of Bonn (1689)
–
A plan of Bonn in 1689.
9.
Battle of Fleurus (1690)
–
The Battle of Fleurus, fought on 1 July 1690, was a major engagement of the Nine Years War. Waldecks suffered heavy losses in prisoners and equipment, and Luxembourg moved ahead to control Flanders, the Allies, meanwhile, withdrew to Brussels to recover and rebuild their army. In 1690 the main theatre of the Nine Years War moved to the Spanish Netherlands, command of French forces now passed to the talented Marshal Luxembourg, superseding Marshal Humières who had suffered defeat at the Battle of Walcourt the previous year. Luxembourgs army consisted of 34 battalions and 94 squadrons, if necessary he could call upon support from Marshal Boufflers’ forces on the Moselle, once again King William entrusted Allied forces in the region to Prince Waldeck. In other theatres Marshal de Lorge commanded French forces in the Rhineland, de Lorge was opposed by the Elector of Bavaria, who had succeeded command of Allied forces in the region after the death of Charles of Lorraine. Meanwhile, Marshal Catinat led the French forces in Dauphiné against the Duke of Savoy, Waldeck, meanwhile, left his assembly point at Tienen and advanced to Wavre. After dispersing his troops to live off forage, the Allied army reassembled and advanced to Genappe on 8 June, in mid-June Luxembourg split his forces. Humières was relegated to supervise the garrison of the Lines of the Lys, meanwhile, detachments from Boufflers force under Rubantel had augmented Luxembourg’s army, which continued its march, camping at Boussu on 27 June. As Luxembourg manoeuvred south of Mons and Charleroi, Waldeck moved his camp between Nivelles and Pieton on 28 June and that same evening, Luxembourg personally led a detachment from Gerpinnes, to establish a crossing of the Sambre at Ham. With the bridgehead secure, the rest of the French army crossed the Sambre on 30 June, Waldeck decamped and moved towards the French bridgehead. On the morning of 1 July, Luxembourg marched his forces towards Fleurus, Luxembourg divided his forces to attack both flanks of the Allied army – an audacious plan that in order for it to succeed would require secrecy and deception. The columns of the first French line split to take position between Heppignies and Fleurus, with troops moving up towards St Amant. The two columns of Luxembourg’s right veered off to the north across the Orme, their passage covered by the hedges and wheat fields, forty cannon were positioned near the chateau of St Amant, and another 30 guns positioned between the chateau and Fleurus. Unnoticed by Waldeck, Luxembourg had enveloped his flanks, had the Allied commander realised that Luxembourg had split his army in two, he might have overwhelmed the isolated French left before the right came into position, but he did not. After the French right wing was in position, their artillery opened fire at about 10,00, a cavalry charge on the right wing however, met with more success, driving the enemy cavalry back. On the heels of this attack, the French infantry now advanced against both flanks of Waldeck’s line which, finding itself enveloped by the enemy, finally broke, some of the Allied troops managed to regroup on high ground near Fleurus, but were eventually overwhelmed. Despite being pressed by French cavalry, Waldeck was able to create a new line with his forces further back. However, this line also collapsed, broken by French infantry flushed with confidence from their initial success, the remainder of Waldeck’s troops streamed towards Nivelles in the best order they could
Battle of Fleurus (1690)
–
Battle of Fleurus by
Pierre-Denis Martin
10.
Siege of Mons (1691)
–
The Siege of Mons,15 March–10 April 1691, was a major operation fought during the Nine Years War, and was the main French objective for the 1691 campaign in the Spanish Netherlands. The city was besieged and captured before the commencement of the campaigning season with minimal losses. Strategically, however, little had changed in the war, French forces had secured considerable success in 1690. In August Catinat had triumphed at the Battle of Staffarda in northern Italy, the only bright spot for the Grand Alliance in 1690 was King William’s victory over James II in Ireland at the Battle of the Boyne. Yet despite the successes, French forces in 1690 had failed to break the coalition ranged against the ambitions of King Louis. In 1691 the French had planned for a strike, Nice in northern Italy. William entered The Hague on 5 February to organise his army for the coming campaign, after securing forces totalling 220,000 men, the Stadtholder-King retired to his country home. In mid-March, surrounded by representatives of the Grand Alliance, he received news that Mons was under siege. Louis, accompanied by members of his court, joined his army in the Spanish Netherlands to take control of the armies in theatre, the King’s besieging army of 46,000 surrounded the town and its garrison of some 4,800 men. The Allies had formed an army of 38,000 under William to relieve the city, marshal Boufflers began the investment on 15 March, the trenches were opened ten days later. Inevitably, at 17,00 on 8 April, the besieged inhabitants beat the chamade, conditions were settled, the siege had begun and ended before the normal commencement of campaigning. Louis returned to Versailles on 12 April, whilst William, after distributing his troops to various garrisons, returned to The Hague. The French now prepared for the rest of the 1691 campaign season with the creation of five large armies bound for five major fronts, Flanders, the Moselle, the Rhine, Piedmont, and Roussillon. Luxembourg devastated Halle at the end of May, whilst Boufflers bombarded neutral Liege in early June, louvois, however, suggested a bombardment of Brussels would force the issue, but was opposed by Luxembourg and Vauban. William, meanwhile, arrived at Anderlecht on 2 June to take command of the Allied army of 63 battalions and 180 squadrons, Luxembourg successfully manoeuvred to prevent William besieging Dinant, but subsequent manoeuvres produced little action. After William left his troops in the command of the Prince of Waldeck, Luxembourg’s cavalry routed part of the Allied army at Leuze on 18 September, the Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, the Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685–1715. ISBN 0-06-139750-4 Wolf, John B. Louis XIV
Siege of Mons (1691)
–
King Louis XIV at the Siege of Mons (1691) Engraving: "soldier killed by a cannon shot behind the king."
Siege of Mons (1691)
–
Contemporary plan showing the bombardment and investment of Mons in 1691.
11.
Battle of Leuze
–
The Battle of Leuze was a minor Cavalry engagement of the Nine Years War that took place on 18 September 1691 between a detachment of French and a slightly superior Allied force. Marshal Luxembourg had been informed that William III of Orange had left for England and he was also informed that Marshal Waldeck, who was left in charge, was preparing to retire into winter quarters. Luxembourg was near Tournai and sent out a reconnaissance under Marsilly and he send a detachment to follow the movements of the main body, and with the squadrons of Villars and Marsilly he attacked the smaller party without warning. The French cavalry charged, only using their swords, the Allied cavalry was superior in numbers, but could not deploy efficiently because of the limited space they were manoeuvred in. The Allied infantry, including Mackays Regiment also took part in the battle, the battle lasted for only two hours, and the French had the advantage. The surviving Allied cavalry was brought off by troops that Waldeck sent back, Luxembourg had been in the thick of the action and been forced to beat off an attack, directed at his person
Battle of Leuze
–
Combat de Leuze by
Joseph Parrocel
12.
Siege of Namur (1692)
–
Namur, sitting on the confluence of the Meuse and Sambre rivers, was a considerable fortress, and was a significant political and military asset. As in 1691, five large armies were created for the five major fronts of the war, Flanders, the Moselle, the Rhine, Piedmont, and Roussillon. To these was added a further force in Flanders to attack what was to be France’s major goal for 1692, to deter William from marching to the town’s relief, Louis arranged for a simultaneous landing in England to assist King James II in his attempt to regain his throne. This force consisted of 12,000 Catholic Irish troops, released after the conclusion of the Irish war under the terms of the Treaty of Limerick, however, an essential preliminary to the invasion was the acquisition of naval supremacy in the English Channel. Louis, accompanied by individuals of the court, left Versailles for Flanders on 10 May, French cavalry invested the town on the night of 25–26 May, the main army arrived the following day. Namur’s garrison, under the command of Octavius Ignatius, Prince of Arenberg and Barbançon, the Siege of Namur in 1692 was a particularly notable operation of King Louis’ reign. First, the action involved the two great military engineers of the day, Vauban, who oversaw the siege, and the Dutch engineer, Menno van Coehoorn, second, the location and topography of the position made the siege particularly challenging. The actual town of Namur sat on low, flat land on the bank of the Sambre. But by reason of the position of its citadel, it was one of the strongest frontiers in Flanders, Vauban had secretly reconnoitred Namur the year before and managed to draw up plans of the town’s defences. Guided by these drawings, the French constructed lines of circumvallation, William, meanwhile, moved his forces southwest closer to Namur, whilst Luxembourg moved his army of observation east from Gembloux to Longchamps, north of the town. William hoped to bring Luxembourg to battle on the Mehaigne, most of the garrison of Namur were Spanish troops, weak and in poor condition. The garrison managed a sortie to reinforce a battery covering the main town. Offering little resistance the town capitulated on 5 June, at time it was agreed there would be a truce until the morning of 7 June. During this respite the garrison crossed over to the complex. It was also agreed that during the rest of the siege the Allies would not fire down on the town from the heights, and, for their part, the section of the citadel overlooking the Meuse is on a rocky height and is inaccessible and impossible to attack. The key to the citadel, therefore, was Fort William and it was in this direction that the French were obliged to attack. The first task for the attackers was to take the redoubt of La Cachotte. The trench was opened on 8 June, a major assault – consisting of seven battalions, La Cachotte fell, and Vauban turned to seizing Fort William, which was personally defended by Coehoorn
Siege of Namur (1692)
–
Siege of Namur, June 1692 by Martin Jean-Baptiste le vieux
13.
Battle of Steenkerque
–
The Battle of Steenkerque was fought on 3 August 1692, as a part of the Nine Years War. It resulted in the victory of the French under Marshal François-Henri de Montmorency, the battle took place near the village of Steenkerque in the Southern Netherlands,50 kilometres south-west of Brussels. Steenkerque is now part of the Belgian municipality of Braine-le-Comte, the French had achieved their immediate object by capturing of Namur. The French, not wishing to fight, took up a defensive position in accordance with the strategical methods of the time. The French army lay facing north-west with its right on the Zenne at Steenkerque and their supposition was that the enemy would not dare to attack it. William III had replaced Waldeck as supreme allied commander, the allied army was encamped about Halle. Of the 20 British regiments in the Allied army,8 were Scottish, including the famed Mackay Regiment, who had landed with William at Torbay in 1688. The Allies, who would probably have done as the French marshal desired, were by the fortune of war afforded the opportunity of surprising a part of the enemys forces. Accordingly, William set his army in motion before dawn on 3 August and he completely misled the enemy by forcing a detected spy to give Luxemburg false news. The Allied advanced guard of infantry and pioneers, under the Duke of Wurttemberg, the main body of the French army was farther back and forming up after the passage of some woods. Belatedly, Luxembourg became aware of the impending blow, when the fight opened, Luxembourg was completely surprised and he could do no more than hurry the nearest foot and dragoons into action as each regiment came on the scene. The march of the Allies main body was mismanaged, Wurttemberg started methodically cannonading the enemy while waiting for support and for the order to advance. The French worked with feverish energy to form a strong and well-covered line of battle at the threatened point. The allied main body had marched in the order with one wing of cavalry leading, the infantry following. On arrival at the field they were sorted out into infantry and cavalry. Only a few Allied battalions had come up to support the guard when the real attack opened at 12,30. Although the advanced guard had already been under arms for nine hours, the British and Danes stubbornly advanced and the second and third lines of the French infantry gave ground before them. However, Luxembourg was rapidly massing his whole force to crush them, during this time the confusion in the allied main body had reached its height
Battle of Steenkerque
–
Duke of Württemberg
Battle of Steenkerque
–
Louis Francois de Boufflers
14.
Siege of Namur (1695)
–
The Siege of Namur,2 July –1 September 1695, was the second siege of the city of Namur in the Nine Years War. The Allied forces of the Grand Alliance retook the city from the French, the recapture of Namur has been called the most important event in the Nine Years War. The French captured the city of Namur in the first siege in 1692, under the command of the Duc de Luxembourg, namurs defensive works had been designed by Menno van Coehoorn, who oversaw the citadels defence during the first siege. His French counterpart, Vauban improved the defensive works significantly after the city was taken, given its strategic position at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse rivers, the Citadel of Namur became the most strategically important fortress in the Spanish Netherlands. By 3 July, they had invested the city, Menno van Coehoorn, in a reversal of roles, directed the siege works against the city. By 18 July, Allied forces had overcome the fortifications that Vauban had built. Five battalions of English and Dutch troops launched an assault on the Brussels Gate of Namur, the general assault began on 3 August, and the Duc de Boufflers, the French commander, offered the surrender of the city. The offer was accepted, and the day as part of the terms of surrender a six-day truce was granted to attend to the wounded. The truce was guaranteed by an exchange of high-ranking officers as hostages, after the six days had expired, the returned to their camps. The Duke of Villeroi made an attempt to draw the attackers away from Namur by bombing the militarily unimportant target of Brussels, the bombardment lasted from 13 –15 August, and did not divert any Allied troops from the siege of Namur. Villerois army later attempted to lift the Allied siege of Namur, after a further month of resistance, Boufflers surrendered the citadel to the besieging army on 1 September, having lost 8000 of his 13,000 men. William had Boufflers detained, as Boufflers had violated the terms of surrender and treated Allied prisoners of war poorly after battles at Deinze, other regiments taking part included the Bedfordshire Regiment In Laurence Sternes novel Tristram Shandy, Tristrams uncle Toby injured his groin at the Siege of Namur. A major subplot of the novel involves his obsession with the siege and reenacting battles from the war with his trusty sidekick, the siege and Tobys reconstruction of it are featured in the film version of the novel, A Cock and Bull Story. Asbl Les Amis de la Citadelle de Namur, Vauban et Coehoorn saffrontent à Namur, Namurcitadelle. be, archived from the original on 21 October 2013 Brewer, Shandy, Dictionary of Phrase & Fable
Siege of Namur (1695)
–
Siege of Namur (1695) by
Jan van Huchtenburg. In the foreground King William III, dressed in grey, confers with the Elector of Bavaria.
15.
Bombardment of Brussels
–
The bombardment of Brussels by French troops of Louis XIV on August 13,14, and 15,1695, and the resulting fire were together the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand Place was destroyed, along with a third of the buildings in the city, the reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed the appearance of the city and left numerous traces still visible today. The bombardment was part of the Nine Years War, the French forces hoped that by bombarding, or threatening to bombard Brussels, they would be able to divert Allied troops from the Siege of Namur. The strategy was unsuccessful, and no military gain came of the bombardment, the 17th century, called the Great Century by the French, was anything but great for the inhabitants of the Southern Netherlands. During this period, this went through a succession of wars and destruction. In 1695, nearly forty years after the Battle of the Dunes of 1658 and this expansion resulted in the gradual annexation of Spanish possessions to Frances north. Wars were fought and alliances made and broken, and fortresses continuously changed hands, the Nine Years War had been raging since 1688. Opposing France was a large European coalition, the Grand Alliance, with its head as William III of Orange, leader of the Netherlands, and soon to be king of England. Alongside William stood Spain, Sweden, the Holy Roman Empire as well several electors, among them Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In July 1695, the city of Namur, occupied for three years by the French, was besieged by William III of England, at the head of an allied army. After the death of the Duke of Luxembourg, the French army was led by the Duke of Villeroi, the king, irritated at the recent turn of events, urged Villeroi to destroy Bruges or Ghent in a surprise attack. Villeroi, eager to please the king, instead suggested that bombarding Brussels would have more of an effect in drawing the enemy to a place in which the French could attack them strategically. At the end of July, Villeroi sent the king a request for supplies, compiled by his master of artillery. He evaluated that 12 cannons,25 mortars,4000 cannonballs,5000 explosive shells, an amount of gunpowder, lead shot, grenades and fuses. In addition, there would need to be a train capable of supplying arms. The supplies and troops were taken out of French garrisons and strongholds in the region. These maneuvers did not pass unnoticed, as Villeroi let his intentions be known with the goal of worrying the allied armies besieging Namur, on August 3, a truce was declared in the siege in order to treat the wounded and restock the citadel. After six days, the siege resumed, with both William III and Maximilian II Emanuel standing their ground, only the small army of the Prince of Vaudemont, near the city of Ghent, was able to achieve anything, by controlling roads leading to Brussels
Bombardment of Brussels
–
A contemporary map and illustration of the 1695 bombardment of Brussels and the subsequent fire
Bombardment of Brussels
–
Maximilian II Emanuel,
Elector of Bavaria and governor of the Spanish Netherlands.
Bombardment of Brussels
–
François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi
Bombardment of Brussels
–
French map of the town from Louis XIV maps collection
16.
Battle of Staffarda
–
The Battle of Staffarda,18 August 1690, was fought during Nine Years War in Piedmont-Savoy, modern-day northern Italy. The engagement was the first major encounter in the Italian theatre since Victor Amadeus, the battle was a clear victory for the French commander, Nicolas Catinat, who proceeded to take other Piedmontese strongholds. The French also overran most of the Duchy of Savoy, but due to sickness, lack of infantry, by 1690, the Nine Years War was in its third year. The greater part of the involved on both sides was engaged in the Spanish Netherlands where the Dutch, with considerable English and a little Spanish help. Along the Rhine – where ultimately the war would no more decisive than the Netherlands campaign – the German Princes provided the bulk of the troops to face France. The one area where the Allies had great hopes of forcing – … a door … into France, big enough … for us to get in at, was Italy. The territories of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, split into distinct areas, the County of Nice, the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Aosta. At the beginning of 1690 Amadeus had yet to declare himself against Louis XIV, although his small army aroused only French contempt, Louis XIV understood that he had to retain Savoy in the French orbit. If he did not do so he would, in Louvois words, French demands from the Duke were nothing less than an attack on Savoyard independence, and the intimidation ultimately proved counter-productive. In the early summer of 1690 Amadeus realised he had to stand up to France, Amadeuss hectic preparations for war and his negotiations for financial assistance from England and Spain, were followed by a declaration of war against France on 4 June. In July Catinat took command of French forces in Piedmont, totalling some 12,000 men. Amadeus, meanwhile, received 10,000 Spanish reinforcements from the Spanish possession of Milan, little quarter was asked or given when fighting the French. However, the Marquis de Feuquieres, sent by Catinat with 1,200 troops to Luserna, although Savoy was far less important than Piedmont, its loss was a major setback for the Grand Alliance, making an invasion of France now much less likely. In a desperate attempt to halt the destruction and intimidation Amadeus – against the advice of Eugene – insisted on engaging the French with his own and Spanish troops. Believing that Feuquieres was lost, and anxious to catch the French whilst they were weak, Amadeus left his camp at Villafranca with the intention of attacking and surrounding Catinat. Catinat left his camp at Cavour and marched south with the intention of taking Saluzzo, when Amadeus moved to stop him, marshes and hedges impeded movement on the battlefield and sheltered the Savoyard line, but French troops eventually broke Amadeuss army. Only Eugenes command of the Savoyard cavalry and his conduct in retreat saved the Allied army from disaster, Amadeus suffered 2,800 casualties and 1,200 prisoners, he also lost 11 of his 12 cannon. Catinats casualties amount to some 2,000 troops, Catinat subsequently took Saluzzo, Savigliano, and Fossano
Battle of Staffarda
–
Victory of Staffarda by Jean Baptiste Morret
17.
Siege of Cuneo (1691)
–
The Siege of Cuneo was fought on 28 June 1691 during Nine Years War in Piedmont-Savoy, modern-day northern Italy. The siege was part of King Louis XIV’s campaign against Victor Amadeus, the Duke of Savoy, the siege was an attempt to gain a foothold on the Piedmont Plain, thus ensuring Marshal Catinats army could winter east of the Alps. Yet due to the incompetence of the two French commanders – and an arrival of Imperial reinforcements – the siege proved a disaster. Although French forces had taken Nice in the west, and Montmélian in the north, Catinat’s small, utilising France’s main base at Pinerolo Catinat subsequently captured several other towns in the region. However, due to problems and poor logistics, the French were obliged to withdraw from the Piedmont plain at the end of 1690. The French began the 1691 campaign early, in March Catinat crossed the border into the County of Nice to attack the southern coastal towns of Nice and Villefranche. Villefranche immediately capitulated to Catinat on 20 March, the town of Nice also quickly surrendered, Nice was captured for the loss of just 100 men, and the whole county was now almost entirely under the control of Louis XIV. Of all the Savoyard towns west of the Alps only Montmélian, in the Duchy of Savoy, in Piedmont the Marquis de Feuquières marched south-west out of Pinerolo on 18 April to attack the Vaudois and refugee French Huguenots in Luserna. Encountering little resistance Feuquières, who had suffered defeat at Luserna the previous year, sacked the town, Catinat, meanwhile, ravaged the Turin–Susa route. Cuneo’s capture would enable the French to spend the 1691–92 winter east of the Alps, on hearing the approach of a relief force of Imperial cavalry under Prince Eugene of Savoy and Spanish troops led by the Marquis of Leganés, Bulonde lost his nerve and raised the siege. Cuneo’s garrison had held out, and was still intact when Eugene arrived, having reinforced the town Eugene returned to Turin. In July Feuquières managed to get reinforcements and cash to the main French stronghold of Casale, nevertheless, French forces in the Italian theatre continued to be handicapped by supply and manning shortages. On 26 September the Allies crossed the river Po to retake the lost town, due to the lack of available French troops, Carmagnola capitulated to the Allies on 8 October. Meanwhile, the Marquis de La Hoguette, commanding French forces in the Duchy of Savoy, the valley was one of the two main routes into Savoy through which Amadeus could send assistance from Piedmont. Hoguette reached as far south as Bard before returning to Savoy, destroying behind him all the bridges, due to a lack of siege guns Montmélian could not be properly invested until November. However, when it became apparent that no relief was coming from Piedmont, although the French had achieved little in Piedmont Catinat now controlled almost all of the County of Nice and the Duchy of Savoy. By now, however, Amadeus was not prepared to negotiate seriously, especially as he anticipated military superiority for the following campaign, the peace terms were rejected and hostilities resumed the following year. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, Prince Eugene, Twin Marshal with Marlborough
Siege of Cuneo (1691)
–
At the beginning of the
Nine Years War, the territories of
Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, primarily split into several distinct regions, notably: County of Nice, the Duchy of Savoy and the Principality of Piedmont, which contained the capital city of
Turin.
18.
Battle of Marsaglia
–
Here, on 4 October, the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency of the French, and Catinats minute attention to details in arraying them, the Piedmontese and their allies lost c.10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as against Catinats 1,800. Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the Austrian service, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013
Battle of Marsaglia
–
Catinat at Marsaglia, 4 octobre 1693
Battle of Marsaglia
–
Map of Marsaglia
19.
Battle of Torroella
–
In the year 1694 the French king decided to make an effort in Catalonia, and put Catinats army in Piedmont on the defensive, reserving more troops to the Spanish front. The two armies were approximately of the same force, the French regiments were composed mostly of veteran troops, while the Spanish forces had a very large number of recruits and newly constituted units never tested on the field. Furthermore, the French army was superior in the number of pieces and firepower, served by good trained officers. The Spanish army was divided into three corps for guarding the fords at Verges, Ullà and Torroella, according to the Spanish viceroy all our army was constituted by 11, 900-foot and 4,000 horse which all included make the number of 16,300. The previous days the enemies attempted with no success to force the fording at Verges, the French made a general advance against the Spaniards, with little opposition, killing many soldiers and capturing baggage and artillery pieces, beside a large number of standards. According to the version the Spaniards lost 2, 931-foot and 324 horse, among dead, wounded. According to French sources Spanish losses exceeded 9,000 men including 2,000 prisoners, while their own losses amounted to about 500. In this situation the viceroy had no choice than sending some troops to Girona and marched with the largest part of his army towards Barcelona. In the meanwhile the French sacked over 10 villages in the surroundings of the river Ter. On 30 May, three days after the Spanish defeat at the river Ter, Noailles started the blocquade by land and sea of the fortress of Palamos, the city of Girona was taken on 29 June. Barcelona was saved by the French minister of war who reduced the money to the Marshal of Noailles, another factor was the approach of an English fleet under Edward Russell which made the supporting French fleet under Tourville retreat to Toulon. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013
Battle of Torroella
–
Battle of Torroella
20.
Siege of Barcelona (1697)
–
The Siege of Barcelona of 1697 was successfully conducted during the Nine Years War by France. Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme, commanding some 32,000 troops, forced the garrison, under Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Nine Years War and the British Army. El frente catalán en la Guerra de los Nueve Años, 1689-1697, departament dHistòria Moderna i Contemporània,1994. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714
Siege of Barcelona (1697)
–
Map of the siege of unknown author printed at
Paris.
21.
Battle of Beachy Head (1690)
–
The Battle of Beachy Head was a naval engagement fought on 10 July 1690 during the Nine Years War. The battle was the greatest French tactical naval victory over their English, the Dutch lost six ships of the line in total, as well as three fireships, and their English allies also lost one ship of the line, whereas the French did not lose a single vessel. Although control of the English Channel temporarily fell into French hands, Admiral Tourville failed to pursue the Allied fleet with sufficient ardour, Tourville was heavily criticised for not following up his victory and was relieved of his command. Although he was acquitted, King William dismissed him from the service, King James II was campaigning in Ireland as a first step in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne following his deposition after the Glorious Revolution. As early as January 1690 it was clear to William that he would have to sail personally to Ireland, with substantial reinforcements, in order to salvage the situation. Sir Cloudesley Shovell remained in the Irish Sea, but his squadron was too small to stop the French controlling these waters if they chose to do so. However, the French decided not to use their fleet as a subsidiary to the Irish campaign and this French inaction had provided William with the opportunity he desired. On 21 June William embarked his forces at Chester on board 280 transports, after evading Killigrew off Cadiz, Château-Renaults Toulon squadron joined Tourvilles fleet on 21 June. Tourville, now commanding the combined Brest and Mediterranean fleets totalling 75 ships of the line and 23 fireships, sailed on 23 June into the Channel, by 30 June, the French were off the Lizard. Torringtons fleet reached the Isle of Wight and was joined by a Dutch squadron under the command of Cornelis Evertsen, on 5 July, Torrington sighted the French fleet, calculating their strength at almost 80 ships of the line. In Williams absence, Queen Mary and her advisors – the Council of Nine – hastened to take measures for the defence of the country, as the two fleets moved slowly up the channel, Russell drafted the order to fight. Countersigned by Nottingham, the reached the admiral on 9 July whilst he was off Beachy Head. Torrington realised that not to battle was to be guilty of direct disobedience, to give battle was, in his judgment. Torrington called a council of war with his flag-officers, who concluded that they had no option, the following day,10 July, off Beachy Head near Eastbourne, Torrington advanced towards the French in line of battle. He placed the Dutch white squadron with 21 ships – commanded by Cornelis Evertsen – in the van, Torrington himself was in the centre red squadron, the rear blue squadron, commanded by Vice-Admiral Ralph Delaval, comprised both English and Dutch ships. The French admiral divided his force into the three squadrons, with white and blue, white, and blue pennants respectively. Tourville, aboard the Soleil Royal, commanded the centre, white squadron, the blue squadron in the French van was commanded by Château-Renault, Victor-Marie dEstrées commanded the rear white and blue squadron. In each fleet the squadron commanders were in the centre of their squadrons
Battle of Beachy Head (1690)
–
Battle of Beachy Head Steel engraving by
Jean Antoine Théodore de Gudin.
22.
Battles of Barfleur and La Hogue
–
The related naval battles of Barfleur and La Hogue took place between 29 May and 4 June New Style,1692. The first action took place near Barfleur, later actions were at Cherbourg and Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue in the Cotentin peninsula, Normandy and it was the decisive naval battle of the Nine Years War, known to the British as the War of the English Succession. Despite Tourville being in command of the fleet, strategic decisions were to be taken by James II, François dUsson de Bonrepaus and Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds. The French victory at the Battle of Beachy Head two years earlier, in June 1690, had opened up the possibility of destroying the allied fleet, Tourville boldly engaged the 82-vessel Anglo-Dutch fleet at Barfleur. After a fierce but indecisive clash that left many ships on both sides damaged, Tourville disengaged and he slipped off into light fog and for several days tried to escape the superior forces. The French fleet was scattered, and fifteen were lost–three at Cherbourg, the threat of invasion of England was lifted. King Louis XIV and his minister, Count Pontchartrain, planned to land an army in England. They first planned to launch the invasion in April 1692 before the English and Dutch fleets put to sea, troops were collected at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, and the cavalry and guns were to be loaded into transports at Le Havre. Tourville was to bring the French fleet up from Brest and collect the transports, tourvilles Brest fleet was undermanned, and when he sailed, on 29 April, he was forced to leave 20 ships under Chateau-Renault behind. His fleet was delayed by adverse winds and did not clear Berteaume Roads until 2 May. Tourville entered the Channel with 37 ships of the line, accompanied by 7 fireships, plus frigates, scouts, the Dutch had despatched a fleet, under Almonde, from the Texel in April, which was making its way south. Admiral of the Blue Sir John Ashby sailed from the Nore on 27 April, Admiral of the Fleet Edward Russell was delayed until 29 April, but gained time by making a risky passage through the Gull channel. He met Almonde at the Downs and a further Dutch squadron at Dungeness, more detachments joined over the next few days, until 14 May, when Russell had a force of over 80 ships of the line, plus auxiliaries. Thus by 14 May, when the fleet was fully assembled. However, Louis XIV had furnished Tourville with strict orders to seek battle, strong or weak, the fleets sighted each other at first light on 29 May 1692, off Cap Barfleur. On sighting the allied fleet Tourville held a conference with his officers and their advice, and his own opinion, was against action, however Tourville felt bound by strict orders from the king to engage. He may also have expected some defections by English captains with Jacobite sympathies, both fleets were in three squadrons, each split into three divisions and commanded by a flag officer. Because of the conditions it was not until after 11 am, five hours after first sighting each other
Battles of Barfleur and La Hogue
–
The Battle of Barfleur, 29 May 1692 by
Richard Paton, painted 18th century.
23.
Battle of Lagos (1693)
–
The Battle of Lagos was a sea battle during the Nine Years War on 27 June 1693, when a French fleet under Anne Hilarion de Tourville defeated an Anglo-Dutch fleet under George Rooke. Rookes squadron was protecting the Smyrna convoy, and it is by name that the action is sometimes known. This squadron was bound for the Mediterranean, to take up station there, the convoy was to be covered by the combined allied fleet for its passage across the Channel, until it was past the port of Brest, to guard against attack by the French stationed there. The fleet, which was charged with protecting England from the threat of invasion. To this end, Louis XIV had dispatched the French fleet under Tourville, his most able commander, by 7 June the convoy was about 150 miles southwest of Ushant, and the main allied fleet had turned back, leaving Rooke and the convoy to proceed south. The allies had made no move to check where the French fleet was, by this time Rooke and the convoy were in action off Lagos, having been sighted by the French on the morning of 17 June. Rooke could not avoid battle, but held the advantage of being to windward, ordering the merchant ships to disperse, his squadron took up battle positions. The battle started around 8 pm. when the rear of his squadron was overtaken by the French van, two Dutch ships, Zeeland and Wapen van Medemblik, engaged the French, thus sacrificing themselves. They fought valiantly, giving the rest of the ships time enough to escape. When the two Dutch ships finally surrendered, Tourville was very impressed and congratulated the two captains, asking if they were men or devils. Rooke declared it one of the best judged things I ever saw in action, the next day Rooke, with 54 merchant ships in company, was standing west. In pursuit were just four French warships, as they closed, Rookes flagship, the Royal Oak guns, turned to face them. After a short exchange they abandoned the chase and drew off, Rooke and his group were able to reach Madeira without further incident, where he found Monk with one of the Dutch warships, and 40 or 50 merchant ships in company. With this party and stragglers collected en route, Rooke was able to reach Ireland on 30 July, over half of the convoy was saved. Some 90 ships were lost, the majority were Dutch and 40 were captured by the French, the two main goals of the convoy, first, to deliver the traders to their destinations in the Mediterranean and second, to establish a naval presence there, were defeated. For the French there was a gain, with prizes valued at 30 million livres. The City of London judged it the worst financial disaster since the Great Fire,27 years previously, for Tourville it was worthy revenge for his defeat in the Battle of La Hogue one year earlier. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757
Battle of Lagos (1693)
–
Battle of Lagos by Théodore Gudin
24.
Battle of Camaret
–
It was successfully opposed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban. At the start of 1694, Louis XIV decided to take the fight to the Mediterranean, after Tourvilles victory at Lagos in 1693, William III of England had sent an expedition to take reprisals against Saint-Malo and planned to mount other similar operations against other French ports. Having got wind of the plan against Brest via spies, Louis XIV made Vauban military commander of Brest, Vauban started immediately to organize the defence of the city and the rocky coast around it. The bad weather kept the English fleet in its harbour for a month, in fact, in 1685, well before the start of the Nine Years War, Louis XIV had charged Vauban with inspecting the coast from Dunkirk to Bayonne. Vaubans first designs foresaw the building of a tower. While work on the tour de Camaret began in 1689, and forewarned by their spies and realising the importance of the works, when in 1691 sixteen Anglo-Dutch vessels were sighted in Camaret Bay, five French frigates happened to be present and routed the enemy fleet. At the start of 1694, having got wind of Tourville leaving Brest with 53 ships of the line, William III believed Brest would be easily taken and decided to launch his attack on it. In the face of more and more precise English threats, Louis XIV made Vauban supreme commander of all French land, Vauban had already been lieutenant-général des Armées since 1688 and accepted the new post on one condition, that he would not be honorary lieutenant-general of the Navy. The statement on the fortifications by the engineers Traverse and Mollart, dating to 23 April 1694, showed only 265 cannon and 17 in place. When Vauban received the royal directives at the start of May, Brest was defended by around 1,300 men and 6 battalions, one cavalry regiment, arriving in Brest on 23 May 1694, Vauban knew that the balance of power was in his favour. He expanded the extensions being made on strong points along the coast, in mid-June he inspected the defences under his command and noted that the baie de Douarnenez and above all Camaret would allow landings by large numbers of troops. Aiming to prevent any landings, and with no warships at his disposal, he equipped scores of chaloupes to defend the goulet and armed militias with weapons requisitioned by the navy. The cavalry regiments and dragoons were positioned at Landerneau and Quimper and, to enable the fast transmission of information, Vauban organised a communications code in the form of signals. In a letter to Louis XIV on 17 June 1694, he reported, The Anglo-Dutch fleet under Berkeley finally set out and it anchored halfway between Bertheaume and le Toulinguet near Camaret Bay, close to the mouth of Brest harbour. Rear admiral the Marquess of Carmarthen approached the coasts to check on the French positions and this aided the French for a cavalry corps commanded by Monsieur de Cervon and part of the militia only arrived at Châteaulin at 9 oclock. The Tour de Camaret, supported by the batteries at Le Gouin and Tremet, despite this surprise, the English retaliated, with several shots reaching the tower. In this encounter a cannonball shot off the top of the spire of the Chapelle Notre-Dame de Rocamadour, meanwhile, Tollemache landed on the beach at Trez-Rouz at the head of 1,300 men, including French Huguenots, and was met with heavy fire. Wavering for a moment, they were charged by 100 men of independent companies and 1,200 coastguard militiamen
Battle of Camaret
–
English plan of the battle of Camaret
Battle of Camaret
–
Vauban, commander of Brest
Battle of Camaret
–
Fort de Bertheaume with the
Roscanvel peninsula in the background
Battle of Camaret
–
General
Talsmash, commander of the landing forces
25.
Battle of Texel (1694)
–
De Vries was captured by the French, but shortly after died of wounds. In 1692 and 1693 there were massive harvest failures in France, leading to acute famine, from 1693 to 1694 over 2 million people died. Therefore, France needed to import large quantities of grain from neutral countries like Poland, Sweden, on May 29,1694, Jean Bart was instructed to sail to Norway, to escort a huge fleet of 120 ships full of grain to France. The convoy didnt wait for the arrival of Barts squadron and left under the protection of 3 neutral warships, the convoy was immediately captured by the Dutch without a shot being fired. Jean Bart searched for the convoy and found it on June 29 at 3,00 a. m. before the Dutch island of Texel, despite having fewer guns than the Dutch, at 5,00 a. m. Jean Bart attacked the Dutch flagship of Hidde de Vries, after a fierce battle which lasted only half an hour, the Prins Friso was captured, with Hidde Sjoerds de Vries severely wounded and taken prisoner. Two other Dutch ships were taken, with the remaining five fleeing to their harbor. The Dutch losses amounted to 100 killed,129 wounded and 455 prisoners, Jean Bart repaired the damage to his ships and took the convoy to Dunkirk, where it arrived on July 3, received by an enormous crowd celebrating their hero. On July 5, Jean Bart, his son François Cornil and his brother-in-law were invited to Versailles, Jean Bart was raised into the nobility on August 4,1694. Hidde Sjoerds de Vries died of his wounds on July 1,1694,40120 or more merchant ships - captured that day or soon after Haws, Duncan, Hurst, Alexander Anthony. The Maritime History of the World, A Chronological Survey of Maritime Events from 5,000 B. C, until the Present Day, Supplemented by Commentaries. An account of the battle by Jean Bart La Bataille du Texel
Battle of Texel (1694)
–
Painting of the battle by
Eugène Isabey, 19th century,
Musée de la Marine.
26.
Flemish Brabant
–
Flemish Brabant is a province of Flanders, one of the three regions of Belgium. It borders on the Belgian provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, Liège, Walloon Brabant, Hainaut, Flemish Brabant also surrounds the Brussels-Capital Region. It has an area of 2,106 km² which is divided into two administrative districts containing 65 municipalities, the split was made to accommodate the eventual division of Belgium in three regions. It is a province with a cultural history and a great diversity of typical products. The province is made up of two arrondissements, the Halle-Vilvoorde Arrondissement has Brussels in its middle and is therefore mainly a residential area, even though it also has large industrial zones and contains Belgiums main airport. The other arrondissement is the Leuven Arrondissement, centered on Leuven, other such special municipalities can be found along the border between Flanders and Wallonia, and between Wallonia and the German-speaking area of Belgium. Halle-Vilvoorde mostly surrounds Brussels, which is officially bilingual but whose inhabitants mostly speak French, the history of Brabant can be found at the Duchy of Brabant article, see also Duke of Brabant. The Governor is the representative or commissioner of the Federal and the Flemish Government in Flemish Brabant and he is appointed by the Flemish Government, on the unanimous advice of the Federal Council of Ministers. The current Governor is Lodewijk De Witte, he has been the Governor of Flemish Brabant since it was created in 1995 as a result of the splitting up of the Province of Brabant. He also presides over the Deputation, however, he doesnt have the right to vote in the Deputation except in cases where the Deputation exercises a judicial function. Flemish Brabant is that only province that has a Deputy Governor as well and he is responsible for ensuring that the language legislation is observed in the peripheral municipalities of Flemish Brabant. The Provincial Council of Flemish Brabant consists of 72 members elected for a term of office of 6 years, the last election was held on Sunday 14 October 2012. She is assisted by a Bureau which consists of two Vice-Presidents, four Secretaries, three Quaestors and the leaders of the fractions in the Provincial Council. The governing majority in the Provincial Council for 2013–2018 is formed by CD&V, Open VLD, sp. a and these parties together have a majority of 43 out of 72 seats. The Deputation is the organ responsible for the daily administration of the province. It consists of the Governor and six Deputies elected by the Provincial Council from among its midst. For the 2013–2018 legislative term, the Deputies are divided among the majority parties as follows, Flemish Brabant has 65 municipalities,35 in the Arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and 30 in Leuven. Official web site of the Flemish Brabant province
Flemish Brabant
27.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
28.
Maison du Roi
–
The Maison du Roi was the name of the royal household of the King of France. It comprised the military, domestic and religious entourage of the French royal family during the Ancien Régime, the exact composition and duties of its various divisions changed constantly over the Early Modern period. Officers of the Maison du Roi were directly responsible to the Grand maître de France, the structure of the Maison du Roi was officially reorganized under Henry III in 1578 and 1585, and in the 17th century by Jean-Baptiste Colbert. The military branch of the Maison du Roi was the French Army Lifeguard brigade, made up of cavalry and infantry units, officer rank was only open to gentlemen, though some of its units were drawn from elite troops among commoners in the rest of the army. It was not ceremonial and participated in all of Frances 16th-, the Ecclesiastical Household of the king was headed by the Grand Almoner of France, most often a bishop. It was headed by the Grand Almoner, who was assisted by the First Almoner, other officers of the Maison ecclésiastique included several aumôniers ordinaires, the prédicateur du roi, who preached in the presence of the king, and the kings confessor. In the reign of Louis XV, the musicians of the two chapels were united, oversight was eventually transferred from the Ecclesiastical household to the Kings Chamber, and the position of master of the chapel was eliminated. The Maison du Roi civile, or domestic entourage of the king, was divided into a number of departments, under Louis XIV it consisted of 22 departments. Each department was directed by the grands officiers de la maison du roi de France, from the 16th to the 17th centuries, the Maison du Roi civile consisted of around 1000–2000 individuals. The most important departments were the following, The largest of the departments and it was run by the Premier Maître dhôtel. Directed by the Grand Chambrier of France or Grand Chambellan of France, after the Bouche du roi, it was the second largest. It consisted of four First Gentlemen of the chambre, the gentlemen of the chambre, the valets de chambre, the pages, the huissiers and their proximity to the king made these charges particularly esteemed. The complete name of department was argenterie, menus plaisirs et affaires de la chambre du roi. The Menus-Plaisirs du Roi was in charge of decor, costumes and props for plays, ballets. It was run by an intendant and it was run by the Grand maître des cérémonies, assisted by the maître and the aide of cérémonies. This was the kings hunting service, run by the Grand Veneur, consisted of the vénerie, louveterie, falcon hunting, in practice, the military branch of the Maison du Roi was run by the Minister of War. Conseil du Roi Great Officers of the Crown of France Maison du Roi General, Early Modern France French nobility La Maison du Roi on www. heraldica
Maison du Roi
–
Coat of arms of the King of France
29.
Landen
–
Landen is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Flemish Brabant. On January 1,2006, Landen had a population of 14,682. The total area is 54.05 km² which gives a density of 272 inhabitants per km². Landen is the birthplace of Pippin of Landen, on the territory of the municipality two great battles were fought. The first was fought in 1693 during the Nine Years War between the Anglo-Allied army under William III of England and the French under the Duke of Luxemburg, ending in a French victory. The second battle took place in 1793 during the French Revolutionary Wars between the Austrians under Prince Josias of Coburg and the French under General Dumouriez and ended in an Austrian victory, the town is served by Landen railway station. Media related to Landen at Wikimedia Commons Official website
Landen
–
Walshoutem
30.
Gete River
–
The Gete is a river in Belgium which flows south to north. It is a tributary of the Demer. The Gete is formed by the confluence of the rivers Grote Gete, from Budingen the river continues for 12 kilometres to the city of Halen, where it flows into the Demer. In history, the river has always been the border between the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and the Duchy of Brabant, the source of the Grote Gete is situated in the village of Perwez. The length of the river to Budingen is 51 kilometres, the river flows through Jodoigne, Hoegaarden and Tienen. The source of the Kleine Gete is in the village of Ramillies and it flows through Orp-Jauche, Hélécine and Zoutleeuw
Gete River
–
The Gete in
Halen
31.
Infantry
–
Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
Infantry
–
Early 20th-century infantry: The
Royal Irish Rifles at the
Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) during the
First World War (1914–18).
Infantry
–
Janissaries are a very important example in the evolution of the modern infantry.
Infantry
–
20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in 1941, during the Second World War (1939–45).
Infantry
–
19th-century infantry: Brigadier General
Winfield Scott leads American line infantry into the
Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814) in Canada, during the Anglo–American
War of 1812 (1812–15).
32.
Dragoon
–
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, in most armies, dragoons came to signify ordinary medium cavalry. Dragoon regiments were established in most European armies during the late 17th, the name is derived from a type of firearm, called a dragon, which was a handgun version of a blunderbuss, carried by dragoons of the French Army. The title has been retained in modern times by a number of armoured or ceremonial mounted regiments, the establishment of dragoons evolved from the practice of sometimes transporting infantry by horse when speed of movement was needed. In 1552 Prince Alexander of Parma mounted several companies of infantry on horses to achieve surprise. Another early instance was ordered by Louis of Nassau in 1572 during operations near Mons in Hainaut and it is also suggested the first dragoons were raised by the Marshal de Brissac in 1600. According to old German literature, dragoons were invented by Count Ernst von Mansfeld, one of the greatest German military commanders, there are other instances of mounted infantry predating this. However Mansfeld, who had learned his profession in Hungary and the Netherlands, often used horses to make his troops more mobile. The name possibly derives from a weapon, a short wheellock called a dragon because the first dragoons raised in France had their carbines muzzle decorated with a dragons head. The practice comes from a time when all gunpowder weapons had distinctive names, including the culverin, serpentine, falcon, falconet and it is also sometimes claimed a galloping infantryman with his loose coat and the burning match resembled a dragon. It has also suggested that the name derives from the German tragen or the Dutch dragen. Howard Reid claims that the name and role descend from the Latin Draconarius, Dragoon is occasionally used to mean to subjugate or persecute by the imposition of troops, and by extension to compel by any violent measures or threats. Early dragoons were not organized in squadrons or troops as were cavalry, Dragoon regiments used drummers, not buglers, to communicate orders on the battlefield. Supplied with inferior horses and more equipment, the dragoon regiments were cheaper to recruit. When in the 17th century Gustav II Adolf introduced dragoons into the Swedish Army, he provided them with a sabre, an axe, many of the European armies henceforth imitated this all-purpose set of weaponry. In the Spanish Army, Pedro de la Puente organized a body of dragoons in Innsbruck in 1635, in 1640, a tercio of a thousand dragoons armed with the arquebus was created in Spain. By the end of the 17th century, the Spanish Army had three tercios of dragoons in Spain, plus three in the Netherlands and three more in Milan, in 1704, the Spanish dragoons were reorganised into regiments by Philip V, as were the rest of the tercios. Towards the end of 1776, George Washington realized the need for a branch of the American military
Dragoon
–
French dragoons with captured Prussian flag at the
Battle of Jena.
Dragoon
–
Cartoon of a French dragoon intimidating a
Huguenot in the
dragonnades.
Dragoon
–
Austro-Hungarian dragoons 1915, by Leonard Wintorowski
Dragoon
–
Dragoon illustration Light Dragoon. A trooper of William Washington cavalry, 2nd Continental Light Dragoons.
33.
Coldstream Guards
–
The Coldstream Guards is a part of the Guards Division, Foot Guards regiments of the British Army. It is the oldest regiment in the Regular Army in continuous service, originating in Coldstream. It is one of two regiments of the Household Division that can trace its lineage to the New Model Army, the other being the Blues and Royals. The origin of The Coldstream Guards lies in the English Civil War when Oliver Cromwell gave Colonel George Monck permission to form his own regiment as part of the New Model Army. Monck took men from the regiments of George Fenwick and Sir Arthur Haselrig, five companies each, less than two weeks later, this force took part in the Battle of Dunbar, at which the Roundheads defeated the forces of Charles Stuart. He arrived in London on 2 February and helped in the Restoration of the monarchy, for his help, Monck was given the Order of the Garter and his regiment was assigned to keep order in London. However, the new parliament soon ordered his regiment to be disbanded with the regiments of the New Model Army. Before that could happen, Parliament was forced to rely on the help of the regiment against the rebellion by the Fifth Monarchists led by Thomas Venner on 6 January 1661. The regiment always stands on the left of the line when on parade with the rest of the Foot Guards, when Monck died in 1670, the Earl of Craven took command of the regiment and it adopted a new name, the Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards. The regiment saw service in Flanders and in the Monmouth Rebellion. It fought in the Battle of Walcourt in 1689, the Battle of Landen, in 1760, the 2nd Battalion was sent to Germany to campaign under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick and fought in the Battle of Wilhelmstal and at the Castle of Amöneburg. Three Guards companies of 307 men under Coldstream commander Colonel Edward Mathew fought in the American Revolutionary War, the Coldstream Regiment saw extensive service in the wars against the French Revolution and in the Napoleonic Wars. Under the command of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, it defeated French troops in Egypt, in 1807, it took part in the investment of Copenhagen. In January 1809, it sailed to Portugal to join the forces under Sir Arthur Wellesley, in 1814, it took part in the Battle of Bayonne, in France, where a cemetery keeps their memory. The 2nd Battalion joined the Walcheren Expedition, later, it served as part of the 2nd Guards Brigade in the chateau of Hougoumont on the outskirts of the Battle of Waterloo. The Duke of Wellington himself declared after the battle that the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont, the regiment was later part of the British occupation forces of Paris until 1816. During the Crimean War, the Coldstream Regiment fought in the battles of Alma, Inkerman, on its return, four men of the regiment were awarded the newly instituted Victoria Cross. The regiment received its current name, The Coldstream Guards, in 1855, in 1882, it was sent to Egypt against the rebels of Ahmed Urabi and in 1885 in the Suakin Campaign
Coldstream Guards
–
Regimental badge of the Coldstream Guards
Coldstream Guards
–
Crimean War – soldiers of the Coldstream Guards
Coldstream Guards
–
WWII – 5th Coldstream enter
Arras, 1 September 1944
Coldstream Guards
–
Waterloo - Hougoumont plaque
34.
General
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
General
–
Shang Jiang (
Republic of China Army)
General
–
General de Exército (
Brazilian Army)
General
–
Kenraali (collar and sleeve) (
Finnish Army)
General
–
Heneral (
Philippine Army)
35.
Patrick Sarsfield
–
Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan was an Irish Jacobite and soldier, belonging to an Anglo-Norman family long settled in Ireland. Sarsfield gained his first military experience serving with an Anglo-Irish contingent of the French Army during the 1670s, when James II came to the throne he was commissioned in the English Army, and served during the suppression of Monmouths Rebellion in 1685. During the Glorious Revolution of 1688 he remained loyal to James and led an English cavalry detachment at the Battle of Wincanton, in 1689 Sarsfield accompanied James to Ireland and served in the Jacobite Irish Army. After an early setback at Sligo, he one of the celebrated Jacobite leaders of the war. James rewarded him by making him an Earl in the Peerage of Ireland, after the wars end following a second siege of Limerick in 1691, he led the Flight of the Wild Geese which took thousands of Irish soldiers into exile in France where they continued to serve James. After a planned invasion of England had to be abandoned following a French naval defeat in 1692, Sarsfield was born in Lucan c. His mother was Anne OMore, daughter of Rory OMoore, who organised the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the extended family of the powerful family of OMores, an estimated 120 people, had been virtually wiped out by the English during the Massacre of Mullaghmast. His paternal family were Roman Catholics of Norman origin and possessed an estate with an income of £2,000 a year, following the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland Patrick Sarsfield senior had his Leinster estates confiscated and was transplanted to Connacht where he was given a smaller estate. Some sources suggest that his son Patrick was born while the family was in the west of Ireland. Following the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the Sarsfields made attempts to recover their lost estates, following the death of his nephew Charles Sarsfield, Patrick advanced his own claim to Lucan Manor with the legal assistance of his cousin Francis Sarsfield. Patrick, who was a son, entered Dongans Regiment of Foot on 6 February 1678. He was a tall, good-looking man, popular and beloved with his people, in 1682–83 while in London, Sarsfield took part in two abductions of heiresses. In May 1682 he helped his friend Captain Robert Clifford to abduct Ann Siderlin, a wealthy widow, then he abducted Elizabeth Herbert, the widowed daughter of Lord Chandos, on his own account. Elizabeth refused to him, but agreed not to prosecute him in exchange for her freedom. During the last years of the reign of Charles II he saw service in the English regiments that were attached to the army of Louis XIV of France, the accession of James II led to his return home. He took part in the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685, in the following year, he was promoted to a colonelcy. King James had remodelled the Irish army from a Protestant-led force to a Catholic-led one and he went to Ireland with Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, who was appointed commander-in-chief by the King. In 1688 the death of his brother, who had no son, made Sarsfield the heir to the family estate
Patrick Sarsfield
–
Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan
Patrick Sarsfield
–
The
Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
Patrick Sarsfield
–
The
Treaty Stone of
Limerick.
36.
Jacobitism
–
The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May
Jacobitism
–
David Morier 's depiction of the
Battle of Culloden in 1746
Jacobitism
–
Representation of The Jacobite 1745 flag.
Jacobitism
–
Detail of the monument in the Vatican
Jacobitism
–
"Jacobites" by
John Pettie: romantic view of Jacobitism
37.
Earl of Lucan
–
Earl of Lucan is a title which has been created twice in the Peerage of Ireland for related families. Sarsfields son James Sarsfield died without an heir in 1719 and the title became extinct, patrick Sarsfields great-nephew, Charles Bingham, had the title re-created in 1795. Since this was a title, despite the family connection. The subsidiary titles associated with the Earldom are, Baron Lucan, of Castlebar in the County of Mayo, the Earl of Lucan also has a Baronetcy created in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia. The title became notorious when the George, 3rd Earl, as commander in the Crimean War, was one of the men involved in the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. Its notoriety was renewed after the disappearance in 1974 of the 7th Earl, in June 1975, in his absence, a coroners jury found that he had murdered his childrens nanny, Sandra Rivett. There have been no confirmed sightings of the 7th Earl since his disappearance and this was, nonetheless, insufficient to enable his son George, Lord Bingham to succeed to the titles. The family seats were Castlebar House, near Gorteendrunagh, County Mayo, the heir presumptive is the present holders uncle, the Hon
Earl of Lucan
–
Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan
38.
Flight of the Wild Geese
–
More broadly, the term Wild Geese is used in Irish history to refer to Irish soldiers who left to serve in continental European armies in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The first Irish troops to serve as a unit for a continental power formed an Irish regiment in the Spanish Army of Flanders in the Eighty Years War in the 1580s. The regiment had raised by an English Catholic, William Stanley, in Ireland from native Irish soldiers and mercenaries. Stanley was given a commission by Elizabeth I and was intended to lead his regiment on the English side, however, in 1585, motivated by religious factors and bribes offered by the Spaniards, Stanley defected to the Spanish side with the regiment. The unit fought in the Netherlands until 1600 when it was disbanded due to heavy wastage through combat, following the defeat of the Gaelic armies of the Nine Years War, the Flight of the Earls took place in 1607. They hoped to get Spanish help in order to restart their rebellion in Ireland, nevertheless, their arrival led to the formation of a new Irish regiment in Flanders, officered by Gaelic Irish nobles and recruited from their followers and dependents in Ireland. This regiment was more political than its predecessor in Spanish service and was militantly hostile to English Protestant rule of Ireland. The regiment was led by Hugh ONeills son John, prominent officers included Owen Roe ONeill and Hugh Dubh ONeill. A fresh source of recruits came in the early 17th century, as a result, the Irish units in the Spanish service began attracting Catholic Old English officers such as Thomas Preston and Garret Barry. These men had more views than their Gaelic counterparts and animosity was created over plans to use the Irish regiment to invade Ireland in 1627. Many of the Irish troops in Spanish service returned to Ireland after the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Confederates were defeated and Ireland occupied after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, around 34,000 Irish Confederate troops fled the country to seek service in Spain. Some of them later deserted or defected to French service, where the conditions were deemed better, during the 18th century, Spains Irish regiments saw service not only in Europe but also in the Americas. As examples, the Irlanda Regiment was stationed in Havana from 1770 to 1771, the Ultonia Regiment in Mexico from 1768 to 1771, at the time of the Napoleonic Wars all three of these Irish infantry regiments still formed part of the Spanish army. Heavy losses and recruiting difficulties diluted the Irish element in these units, the Hibernia Regiment had to be reconstituted with Galician recruits in 1811 and ended the war as an entirely Spanish corps. All three regiments were disbanded in 1818 on the grounds that insufficient recruits, whether Irish or other foreigners, were forthcoming. Main article, Irish Regiments in French Service, from the mid-17th century or so, France overtook Spain as the destination for Catholic Irishmen seeking a military career. The principal reason for this was that France was an ascendant power, rapidly expanding its armed forces, France recruited many foreign soldiers, Germans, Italians, Walloons and Swiss. André Corvisier, the authority on French military archives, estimates that foreigners accounted for around 12% of all French troops in peacetime, in common with the other foreign troops the Irish regiments were paid more than their French counterparts
Flight of the Wild Geese
–
Uniform and colonel’s flag of the
Regiment of Hibernia in Spanish service, mid-eighteenth century
Flight of the Wild Geese
–
Portumna castle. Wild Geese heritage museum.
Flight of the Wild Geese
–
Picture displaying the uniform of the Regimiento de Infantería Irlanda
Flight of the Wild Geese
–
Flags of the Irish regiments in French service
39.
Treaty of Limerick
–
The Treaty of Limerick ended the Williamite War in Ireland between the Jacobites and the supporters of William of Orange and concluded the Siege of Limerick. The treaty really consisted of two treaties, both of which were signed on 3 October 1691, reputedly they were signed on the Treaty Stone, an irregular block of limestone which once served as a mounting block for horses. This stone is now displayed on a pedestal in Limerick, put there to prevent souvenir hunters from taking pieces of it, because of the treaty, Limerick is sometimes known as the Treaty City. This encouraged the Jacobite leaders to continue fighting and they won a victory during the 1691 Siege of Limerick. However, defeats the following year at the Battle of Aughrim, nonetheless the terms they offered to Jacobite leaders at Limerick were considerably more generous than those a year earlier at Finglas. These articles dealt with the treatment of the disbanded Jacobite army, under the treaty, Jacobite soldiers in formed regiments had the option to leave with their arms and flags for France to continue serving under James II in the Irish Brigade. Some 14,000 Jacobites chose this option and were marched south to Cork where they embarked on ships for France, many of them accompanied by their wives and children. Individual soldiers wanting to join the French, Spanish or Austrian armies also emigrated in what known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. The Jacobite soldiers also had the option of joining the Williamite army, the Jacobite soldiers thirdly had the option of returning home which some 2,000 soldiers chose. The articles were signed by DUsson, Le Chevalier de Tesse, Latour Montfort, Patrick Sarsfield, Colonel Nicholas Purcell of Loughmoe, Mark Talbot and these articles protected the rights of the defeated Jacobite landed gentry who chose to remain in Ireland, most of whom were Catholics. Their property was not to be confiscated so long as they swore allegiance to William and Mary, William required peace in Ireland and was allied to the Papacy in 1691 within the League of Augsburg. The treaty was signed by Charles Porter, Thomas Coningsby, and Baron de Ginkel, and witnessed by Scavenmoer, H. Mackay, and T. Talmash. It has been said that the ink was not dry on the Treaty before the English broke it—the civil articles were not honoured by the victorious Williamite government, the few Catholic landowners who took the oath in 1691-93 remained protected, including their descendants. Those who did not were known as non-jurors, and their loyalty to the new regime was automatically suspect, some managed to have an outlawry specifically reversed, such as the 8th Viscount Dillon in 1694, or the Earl of Clanricarde in 1701. The Papacy again recognized James II as the king of Ireland from 1693. The laws were extended for political reasons by the Dublin administration during the War of the Spanish Succession and it is often thought that Limerick was the only treaty between Jacobites and Williamites. A similar treaty had been signed on the surrender of Galway on 22 July 1691, the Galway garrison had been organised by the mostly-Catholic landed gentry of counties Galway and Mayo, who benefited from their property guarantees in the following century. The Limerick treaty marked the end of the war, ultimately the total amount received by the Commissioners was,752,953 acres paying rents of £135,793 p. a. worth £1,699,343
Treaty of Limerick
–
The Treaty Stone on which the Treaty of Limerick may have been signed.
40.
Ireland
–
Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
Ireland
–
Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010
Ireland
–
The
Gowran Ogham Stone,
Christianised c.6th Century. On display in
St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.
Ireland
–
The Uragh Stone Circle a
Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park,
County Kerry
41.
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
–
Berwick was a successful general in the pay of Louis XIV of France. FitzJames was born at Moulins in France before his fathers accession to the throne and he was the son of James and his mistress Arabella Churchill, who was the sister to the English captain general and statesman John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. He was educated at the Stuarts expense in the College of Juilly, the Collège du Plessis, and he went into the service of Charles, Duke of Lorraine and was present at the siege of Buda. FitzJames was created Duke of Berwick, Earl of Tinmouth and Baron Bosworth by his father in 1687 and he then returned to Hungary and participated at the Battle of Mohács. Berwick returned to England and was made Governor of Portsmouth, King James made him a Knight of the Garter, and appointed him Colonel of The Blues to replace the Protestant Earl of Oxford. The post had been coveted by his uncle the Earl of Marlborough, officers were required to answer three questions designed by the king to test their loyalty. Berwick was with his father at Salisbury, when key units deserted to the Prince of Orange, but due to the invasion of the Prince of Orange and the subsequent Glorious Revolution, the installation never took place. Berwick in all conscience could not remain with the Colonel of The Blues Troop he had served since 1682, he refused to betray his old patronne. On 22 June 1691, Berwick was with the French generals command, St Ruth, at Aughrim, the defenders were surrounded on one side by peat bog, and on the other Kilcommodon Hill. General St Ruth was decapitated by a cannonball, but Sarsfield was too late to rescue the situation. He retired with Berwick to the safety of Limerick, which Ginckel besieged on 25 August. Under the terms of Treaty of Limerick, signed on 3 October and these soldiers became known as the Wild Geese, mercenaries forbidden from setting foot in Britain. James II created Berwick Colonel of the 1st Troop, Wild Geese, Berwick arrived too late at the siege of Cork with 4,000 French troops, but unable to effect a result, he withdrew, Marlborough marched west to Kinsale to deal with 18,000 Frenchmen. It was at time that he undertook a number of secret visits to England on behalf of the Jacobite cause. After his fathers exile, Berwick served in the French army under Marshal Luxemburg. He fought at the battles of Steenkerque, Luxemburg fell into King Williams trap set against superior numbers. But reinforcements failed the English, and the French rallied to send the Maison Militaire du Roi infantry downhill, Berwick was in the charge of the division that broke the English lines. They were driven from the field with heavy losses, Berwick was one of Luxemburgs principal officers, and in 1694 commanded the centre of a large French army
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
–
Louis XIV of France creates James, Duke of Fitz-James in the
Peerage of France, after the
Battle of Almanza.
James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick
–
James FitzJames
42.
James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde
–
James FitzJames Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, 13th Earl of Ormond, 7th Earl of Ossory, 2nd Baron Butler, KG was an Irish statesman and soldier. He was the third of the Kilcash branch of the family to inherit the earldom of Ormond, like his grandfather the 1st Duke, he was raised as a Protestant, unlike his extended family who held to Roman Catholicism. On the death of his father on 30 July 1680 he became Baron Butler in the English peerage, having succeeded his grandfather as Duke of Ormonde on 21 July 1688, he was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Garter on 28 September 1688. In 1688 he also became Chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin, in January and February 1689 he voted against the motion to put William of Orange and Mary on the throne and against the motion to declare that James II had abdicated it. In February 1691 he became Lord Lieutenant of Somerset and he was promoted to lieutenant-general in 1694. Having been made a Privy Councillor, Ormonde succeeded Lord Rochester as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1703, in the Irish Parliament Ormonde and the majority of peers supported the Tory interest. Harley was wounded, but not seriously, due largely to the fact that he was wearing a brocade waistcoat. Guiscard implored Ormonde to finish the deed, but Ormonde replied that it was not for him to play the hangman. In any case he had the sense to see that Guiscard must be alive at least long enough to be questioned, although as it turned out Guiscards wounds were fatal. In April 1712 he left Harwich for Rotterdam to lead the British troops taking part in the war, Ormonde took possession of Ghent and Bruges as well as Dunkirk in order to ensure his troops were adequately provided for. On 15 April 1713 he became Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk, king George I on his accession to the throne in August 1714 instituted extensive changes and excluded the Tories from royal favour. On 19 November 1714 Ormonde was instead made a member of the reconstituted Privy Council of Ireland, accused of supporting the Jacobite rising of 1715, during which the rebels had shouted High church and Ormonde, he was impeached for high treason by Lord Stanhope on 21 June 1715. On 20 August 1715 he was attainted, his estate forfeited, but the same parliament passed an act 24 June 1721, to enable his brother Charles Butler, 1st Earl of Arran, to purchase his estate, which he accordingly did. Ormonde subsequently moved to Spain where he held discussions with Cardinal Alberoni and he later took part in a Spanish plan to invade England and put James Francis Edward Stuart on the British throne in 1719, but his fleet was disbanded by a storm near Galicia. In 1732 he moved to Avignon, where he was seen in 1733 by the writer, Ormonde died in exile on 16 November 1745, and was buried in Westminster Abbey on 22 May 1746. In 1682 he married Lady Anne Hyde, daughter of Viscount Hyde of Kenilworth, they had one daughter. Following the death of his first wife in 1685, he married Lady Mary Somerset, Lady of the Bedchamber and daughter of the Duke of Beaufort and Mary Capel in 1685, they had a son, list of deserters from James II to William of Orange Hamilton, Elizabeth. The Backstairs Dragon - a life of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford, the Peerage of Ireland or, A Genealogical History Of The Present Nobility Of That Kingdom, Vol. IV
James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde
–
His Grace The Duke of Ormonde
KG KT
James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde
–
James Butler circa 1725-1730
43.
Henri de Massue, 1st Earl of Galway
–
He was the son of the 1st Marquis de Rouvigny, a distinguished French diplomat, and a nephew of Rachel, the wife of William Russell, Lord Russell. He was a soldier and served in the French army under Turenne and he succeeded his father as general of the Huguenots, and refused Louiss offer, at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, to retain him in that office. In 1690, having gone into exile with his fellow Huguenots, he entered the service of William III of England as a major-general, in July 1691 he distinguished himself at the Battle of Aughrim, and in 1692 he was for a time commander-in-chief in Ireland. In November of that year he was created Viscount Galway and Baron Portarlington, the title had previously belonged to Ulick Burke, 1st Viscount Galway, a Jacobite officer who had been killed at Aughrim. In 1693 he fought at Neerwinden and was wounded, in 1695 Savoy changed sides, the Italian peninsula was neutralised, and Galways force was withdrawn to the Netherlands. From 1697 to 1701, a period of Irish history. His aide de camp was Hector Francois Chataigner de Cramahé, son in law of Jacques de Belrieu, Galway scraped together a fresh army, and, although infirm, was reappointed to his command by the home government. He took part in one campaign, and distinguished himself by his personal bravery in action. Marquis de Bay defeated him at the Battle of La Gudina, after this, he retired from active life. His last service was rendered in 1715, when he was sent as one of the justices to Ireland during the Jacobite insurrection. As most of his property in Ireland had been restored to its former owners, the Irish peerage died with him, but not the French marquisate. The French Hospital was incorporated under the Great Seal in 1718 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Henri de Massue, 1st Earl of Galway
–
Henri de Massue, Marquis de Rouvigny, 1st Earl of Galway
44.
Falcon
–
Falcons are birds of prey in the genus Falco, which includes about 40 species. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, adult falcons have thin, tapered wings, which enable them to fly at high speed and change direction rapidly. Fledgling falcons, in their first year of flying, have flight feathers. This makes flying easier while learning the skills required to be effective hunters as adults. The falcons are the largest genus in the Falconinae subfamily of Falconidae, which also includes another subfamily comprising caracaras. All these birds kill with their beaks, using a tooth on the side of their beaks—unlike the hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey in the Accipitridae, the largest falcon is the gyrfalcon at up to 65 cm in length. The smallest falcons are the kestrels, of which the Seychelles kestrel measures just 25 cm, as with hawks and owls, falcons exhibit sexual dimorphism, with the females typically larger than the males, thus allowing a wider range of prey species. Some small falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, as is the case with many birds of prey, falcons have exceptional powers of vision, the visual acuity of one species has been measured at 2.6 times that of a normal human. Peregrine falcons have been recorded diving at speeds of 200 miles per hour, the Late Latin falco is believed to derive from falx as meaning a sickle, referencing the claws of the bird. In Middle English and Old French, the term faucon refers generically to several captive raptor species, the traditional term for a male falcon is tercel or tiercel, from the Latin tertius because of the belief that only one in three eggs hatched a male bird. Some sources give the etymology as deriving from the fact that a falcon is about one-third smaller than a female. A falcon chick, especially one reared for falconry, still in its stage, is known as an eyas. The word arose by mistaken division of Old French un niais, the technique of hunting with trained captive birds of prey is known as falconry. Compared to other birds of prey, the record of the falcons is not well distributed in time. The oldest fossils tentatively assigned to this genus are from the Late Miocene and this coincides with a period in which many modern genera of birds became recognizable in the fossil record. Falcons are roughly divisible into three or four groups, kestrels feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrates and invertebrates of appropriate size, such as rodents, reptiles, or insects. The second group contains slightly larger species, the hobbies and relatives and these birds are characterized by considerable amounts of dark slate-grey in their plumage, their malar areas are nearly always black. They feed mainly on smaller birds, third are the peregrine falcon and its relatives, variably sized powerful birds that also have a black malar area, and often a black cap, as well
Falcon
–
Falcon Temporal range:
Late Miocene to present
Falcon
–
Common kestrel
Falcon
–
New Zealand falcon
Falcon
–
Saker falcon, a typical hierofalcon
45.
Stork
–
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long, stout bills. They belong to the family called, Ciconiidae and they are the only family in the order Ciconiiformes, which was once much larger and held a number of families including herons and ibises. Storks dwell in many regions and tend to live in drier habitats than the closely related herons, spoonbills and ibises, bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Most storks eat frogs, fish, insects, earthworms, small birds, there are nineteen living species of storks in six genera. Various terms are used to refer to groups of storks, two frequently used ones being a muster of storks and a phalanx of storks, Storks tend to use soaring, gliding flight, which conserves energy. Ottomar Anschütz’s famous 1884 album of photographs of storks inspired the design of Otto Lilienthals experimental gliders of the nineteenth century. Storks are heavy, with wide wingspans, the stork, with a wingspan of 3.2 m and weight up to 8 kg. Their nests are very large and may be used for many years. Some nests have been known to grow to two metres in diameter and about three metres in depth. Storks were once thought to be monogamous, but this is partially true. They may change mates after migrations, and may migrate without a mate, storks’ size, serial monogamy, and faithfulness to an established nesting site contribute to their prominence in mythology and culture. Storks are large to very large waterbirds and they range in size from the marabou, which stands 152 cm tall and can weigh 8.9 kg the Abdims stork, which is only 75 cm high and only weighs 1.3 kg. Their shape is similar to the herons, with long legs and necks. There is some sexual dimorphism in size, with males being up to 15% bigger than females in some species, the only difference is in the colour of the iris of the two species in the genus Ephippiorhynchus. The bills of the storks are large to large. The shape of the bills is linked to the diet of the different species, the large bills of the Ciconia storks are the least specialised. Larger are the massive and slightly upturned bills of the Ephippiorhynchus and these have evolved to hunt for fish in shallow water. Larger still are the daggers of the two adjutants and marabou, which are used to feed on carrion and in defence against other scavengers
Stork
–
Storks Temporal range:
Early Oligocene to present
Stork
–
European white storks in
Alsace,
France
Stork
–
Egg of a Stork
Stork
–
Bociany (Storks), a painting by
Józef Chełmoński (1849–1914)
46.
Royal Horse Guards
–
The Royal Regiment of Horse Guards was a cavalry regiment of the British Army, part of the Household Cavalry. As the regiments uniform was blue in colour at the time, it was nicknamed the Oxford Blues, in 1750 the regiment became the Royal Horse Guards Blue and eventually, in 1877, the Royal Horse Guards. The regiment served in the French Revolutionary Wars and in the Peninsular War, two squadrons fought, with distinction, in the Household Brigade at the Battle of Waterloo. In 1918, the regiment served as the 3rd Battalion, Guards Machine Gun Regiment, during the Second World War the regiment was part of the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment. The Royal Horse Guards was amalgamated with the Royal Dragoons to form the Blues and it was re-raised in the wake of the Venner Riots by King Charles II on creation of what would become the British Army on 26 January 1661. King Charles II offered the colonelcy of the new regiment to the Earl of Oxford, there were three Troops, Kings Troop was at Canterbury, but one was usually at Southwark. Henry Comptons Troop, posted at Bagshot, was responsible for protecting the Navy Office at Portsmouth and they were used to round up prisoners. Early policing included the arresting of contraband tobacco smuggled from the colonies, Sir Henry Jones was a puritan dismissed from the service, but returned to London in 1673, raised a regiment to go to the Siege of Maastricht, where he was killed. The Royal Horse Guards were wealthy gentlemen, sons of the well-to-do, by 1685, Charles II was paying the guards £283,000. But the Blues deployed almost entirely outside London, in 1666, in disciplinary disputes officers appealed to the Privy Council, the highest executive body in the kingdom. The Earl of Oxford was still Colonel of the Blues when the Army Board met for the first time on 5 August 1670. In 1670, a broke, Captain Gerard, who had assaulted Sir John Coventry MP for sneering at the Courts mistresses, was found to have misappropriated large sums of pay for false musters. The Life Guards were more catholic and under Yorks influence, whereas the Protestant illegitimate Duke of Monmouth by 1674 was Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, the champion of Protestantism had more support in the country and amongst the Blues. However fears of absolutism and dismissals of catholic officers undermined morale they being incapable of employment, the successful police work of the Blues may have saved the Treasury money and urged upon the King abandonment of a Pro-French foreign policy. Monmouths popularity and support of the Blues, led to his dismissal in 1679, a chief conspirator was Sir Thomas Armstrong of the Blues, who had served in Holland with Earl of Oxford, Colonel of the regiment. Armstrong fled abroad, as did Lord Grey, the plotters and former Guards officers William, Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney were escorted to the scaffold by sentries of the Life Guards. When the King opened the Oxford Parliament of 1681, the Blues were deputed to guard the road to London, on 14 March Charles entered the town with a large bodyguard of Life Guards, occupying several places in the town. Five troops of 250 horse men were posted along the road at intervals in Brentford, Uxbridge, Colnbrook, Henley, Dorchester, but some like Henry Cornwall adhered to principle during the reactionary era, resigning in 1689 because his loyalty to the Crown was not a religious conviction
Royal Horse Guards
–
Member of the Royal Horse Guards, 1826
47.
Grenadier Guards
–
The Grenadier Guards is an infantry regiment of the British Army. It is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division and and it is not, however, the most senior regiment of the Army, this position being attributed to The Life Guards. The grouping of buttons on the tunic is a way to distinguish among the regiments of Foot Guards. Grenadier Guards buttons are equally spaced and embossed with the Royal Cypher reversed and interlaced surrounded by the Royal Garter bearing the royal motto Honi soit qui mal y pense and their Buff Belt brass clasps also carry the Royal Cypher. Modern Grenadier Guardsmen wear a cap badge of a grenade fired proper with seventeen flames and this cap badge has to be cleaned twice a day – once in the morning, and once in the afternoon. A tarnished grenade is severely frowned upon and can be punished by disciplinary action within the Regiment, a few years later, a similar regiment known as John Russells Regiment of Guards was formed. In 1665, these two regiments were combined to form the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards, consisting of 24 companies of men, since then the Grenadier Guards have served ten Kings and four Queens, including the current Queen Elizabeth II. Throughout the 18th century, the regiment took part in a number of campaigns including the War of Spanish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the regiment gained the name Grenadier in July 1815 following a Royal Proclamation. During the Victorian era, the regiment took part in the Crimean War, participating in the fighting at the Alma river, Inkerman, for their involvement in the Crimean War, four members of the 3rd Battalion received the Victoria Cross. In 1900,75 men from the regiment were used to raise a fourth Guards regiment, at the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the regiment consisted of three battalions. The 2nd Battalion of the regiment was sent to France in August, and they took part in the early stages of the fighting during the period known as Race to the Sea, during which time they were involved significantly at the First Battle of Ypres. In February 1915, a fifth Guards regiment was raised, known as The Welsh Guards, in recognition of the significant contribution Welshmen had made to The Grenadier Guards, the regiment transferred five officers and 634 other ranks to the newly formed unit. Following this the four battalions of the regiment fought in a number of significant battles including Loos, the Somme, Cambrai, Arras. Seven members of the regiment received the Victoria Cross during the war, during the Second World War, the regiment was expanded to six service battalions, with the re-raising of the 4th Battalion, and the establishment of the 5th and 6th Battalions. The 3rd Battalion was in the 1st Guards Brigade attached to the 1st Infantry Division, after this, they returned to the United Kingdom, where they undertook defensive duties in anticipation of a possible German invasion. Between October 1940 and October 1941, the regiment raised the 4th, 5th, the 1st and 2nd Battalions were part of the 5th Guards Armoured Brigade, attached to the Guards Armoured Division, and the 4th Battalion was part of the 6th Guards Tank Brigade Group. The battalions took part in the Italian Campaign at Salerno, Monte Camino, Anzio, Monte Cassino, the 5th Battalion was part of 24th Guards Brigade and served with the 1st Division during the Battle of Anzio. After suffering devastating casualties, the brigade was relieved in March 1944, the 6th Battalion served with the 22nd Guards Brigade, later redesignated 201st Guards Motor Brigade, until late 1944 when the battalion was disbanded due to an acute shortage of Guards replacements
Grenadier Guards
–
Cap Badge of The Grenadier Guards
Grenadier Guards
–
Guards Division
Grenadier Guards
–
Illustration of a Grenadier Guard, 1889
Grenadier Guards
–
Sentry of The Grenadier Guards outside
St James' Palace
48.
Scots Guards
–
The Scots Guards, part of the Guards Division, is one of the Foot Guards regiments of the British Army. Their origins lie in the bodyguard of King Charles I of England and Scotland. Its lineage can be traced as far back as 1642, although it was placed on the English Establishment in 1686. In April 1809 the 1st Battalion made their way to the Iberian Peninsula where they were to part in the Peninsular War in Portugal. In late July 1809 the regiment took part in the Battle of Talavera, the 2nd Battalions flank companies took part in the disastrous Walcheren Campaign in the Low Countries. The 1st Battalion, part of the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division, was part of the British Expeditionary Force which arrived in France in 1914. The Battalion took part in the Battle of Mons in August 1914, the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914 and the Battle of the Aisne also in September 1914. The 1st and 2nd Battalions then took part in the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914, the Battle of Aubers Ridge in May 1915 and the Battle of Loos in September 1915. In July 1916 the Scots Guards took part in the first Battle of the Somme and in July 1917, in March 1918 they fought at the second Battle of the Somme and in Autumn the regiment took part in the final battles of the war on the Western Front. In April 1940, the 1st Battalion, as part of the 24th Guards Brigade, took part in its first campaign of the war, during the expedition to Norway. In North Africa, as part of the 22nd Guards Brigade, in North Africa, in March 1943, the 2nd Battalion took part in the defensive Battle of Medenine, after the Germans had counter-attacked the Allies. In September 1943, the 2nd Battalion, as part of the 201st Guards Brigade of the 56th Division, in December 1943, the 1st Battalion, as part of 24th Guards Brigade, arrived in the Italian Theatre. At the Battle of Monte Cassino in early 1944, the 2nd Battalion suffered heavy casualties in tough fighting, the 1st Battalion, as part of its brigade, joined the 6th South African Armoured Division in May 1944. The regiment took part in many engagements throughout 1944, including those against the Gothic Line. The 2nd Battalion was once involved in war when it deployed to Malaya during the Malayan Emergency. Then in late 1951, the 1st Battalion was deployed to Cyprus and in February 1952, both the 1st and 2nd Battalion deployed to Northern Ireland during the Troubles in the early 1970s. During the Falklands War in 1982 the main force of the Scots Guards began its advance on the side of Mount Tumbledown. In 2004 the 1st Battalion deployed to Iraq on a 6-month posting as part of 4th Armoured Brigade, the 4th Brigade relieved 1st Mechanised Brigade, and joined the Multi-National Division, which was under UK command
Scots Guards
–
Regimental badge of the Scots Guards
Scots Guards
–
Recruits practicing drill on
Catterick parade square
Scots Guards
–
Scots Guards drummer, piper, bugler and bandsman, circa 1891
Scots Guards
–
Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicles of the Scots Guards patrolling in
Helmand Province,
Afghanistan, in 2008
.jpg)
France
England
Scotland
Dutch Republic
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Flag". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 454–463.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). 
