1.
Cebuano language
–
It is the most widely spoken of the languages within the so-named Visayan language family and is closely related to other Filipino languages. It has the largest native language-speaking population of the Philippines despite not being taught formally in schools and it is the lingua franca of the Central Visayas, eastern Negros Island Region, western parts of Eastern Visayas and most parts of Mindanao. The name Cebuano is derived from the island of Cebu, which is the urheimat or origin of the language, Cebuano is given the ISO 639-2 three-letter code ceb, but has no ISO 639-1 two-letter code. Furthermore, a portion of the urban population of Zamboanga, Davao. Some dialects of Cebuano have different names for the language, ethnic groups of Cebuano speakers from Cebu are mainly called Cebuano, Cebuano speakers from Bohol are Boholano/Bol-anon, while Cebuano speakers in Leyte identify their dialect as Kana. Speakers in Mindanao and Luzon refer to the language simply as Binisaya or Bisaya, in common/everyday parlance, Bisaya is the laymans term used to refer to Cebuano. Bisaya, therefore, is a generic word, similarly, not all Bisaya are Cebuano, not all Bisaya are Ilonggo, not all Bisaya are Waray, but all the Cebuanos, Ilonggos and Warays are Bisaya. Cebuano applies to all speakers of mutually intelligible with the vernaculars of Cebu, regardless of origin or location. For example, generations of Cebuano speakers in northern Mindanao say that their ancestry back to Cebuano speakers native to their place. Furthermore, they refer to themselves as Bisaya and not Cebuano. Many are surprised to learn that the term of what they are speaking is really Cebuano. Cebuano, or its ancestor language, has spoken since the Proto-Austronesian era in the Sugbu heartland. Cebuano was first documented by Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian explorer who was part of Ferdinand Magellans 1521 expedition, Spanish missionaries started to write in the language during the early 18th century, and as a result, Cebuano contains many words of Spanish origin. While there is evidence of a writing system for the language. Spaniards recorded the Visayan script which was called Kudlit-kabadlit by the natives, the colonists erroneously called the ancient Filipino script Tagalog letters, regardless of the language for which it was used. This script died out by the 17th century as it was replaced by the Latin alphabet, the language was heavily influenced by the Spanish language during the period of colonialism from 1521 to 1898. With the arrival of Spanish colonials, for example, a Latin-based writing system was introduced alongside a number of Spanish loanwords, the Spaniards also increased the amount of vowels from three to five. During the precolonial and Spanish period, Cebuano had only three phonemes, /a/, /i/ and /u/
Cebuano language
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Cebuano-speaking area in the Philippines
2.
Tagalog language
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Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is officially the national language, the word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga-log, composed of tagá- and ilog. Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs, the first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana. Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto-Philippine schwa vowel *ə, in Bikol and Visayan, this sound merged with /u/ and. In Tagalog, it has merged with /i/, for example, Proto-Philippine *dəkət is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot. Proto-Philippine *r, *j, and *z merged with /d/ but is /l/ between vowels, Proto-Philippine *ŋajan and *hajək became Tagalog ngalan and halík. Proto-Philippine *R merged with /ɡ/. *tubiR and *zuRuʔ became Tagalog tubig, the first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Tagalog was declared the language by the first constitution in the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ, in 1959, the language was further renamed as Pilipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine. The regional languages are the official languages in the regions. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction and it is the first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language by the majority. Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family, being Malayo-Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay, Tetum, and Yami. It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano. At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog-speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Some example of differences are, Many Tagalog dialects, particularly those in the south, preserve the glottal stop found after consonants
Tagalog language
–
The Tagalog
Baybayin script.
Tagalog language
–
Predominantly Tagalog-speaking regions in the Philippines. The color-schemes represent the 4 dialect zones of the language: Northern, Central, Southern, and
Marinduque The majority of residents in
Camarines Norte and
Camarines Sur speak
Bikol as their first language but these provinces nonetheless have significant Tagalog minorities. In addition, Tagalog is used as a
second language across the country.
Tagalog language
–
Tagalog
3.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
Spanish language
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A page of
Cantar de Mio Cid, the oldest preserved Spanish
epic poem, in medieval Spanish.
Spanish language
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Spanish is sole official language at the national level
Spanish language
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Antonio de Nebrija, author of
Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European languages.
Spanish language
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Miguel de Cervantes author of
Don Quixote, considered the first modern European novel.
4.
Ferdinand Magellan
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Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
Ferdinand Magellan
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Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The Nao Victoria Replica in the
Nao Victoria Museum,
Punta Arenas,
Chile
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The
Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Monument in
Lapu-Lapu City,
Cebu in the
Philippines.
5.
Rajahnate of Cebu
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The Rajahnate of Cebu was an Indianized monarchical polity on the island of Cebu in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. It was founded by Sri Lumay or Rajamuda Lumaya, a prince of the Chola dynasty which occupied Sumatra. He was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces, according to Visayan folklore, Sri Lumay was a half-Tamil & half-Malay from Sumatra, who settled in the Visayas, and had several sons. One of his sons was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as Sialo which included the towns of Carcar. Sri Ukob ruled a polity known as Nahalin in the north and he died in battle, fighting with the Muslim Moro pirates known as magalos from Mindanao. The islands they were in were collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya, Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu. Sri Lumay was succeeded by the youngest of his sons, Sri Bantug, who ruled from a known as Singhapala. Sri Bantug had a brother called Sri Parang who was slated to succeed Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple and could not govern his polity because of his infirmity, Parang handed his throne to Sri Bantugs son and his nephew, Sri Humabon, who became the Rajah of Cebu in his stead. During Rajah Humabons reign, the region had become an important trading center where agricultural products were bartered. From Japan, perfume and glass utensils were usually traded for native goods, ivory products, leather, precious and semi-precious stones and śarkarā mostly came from India traders and Burmese people traders. The harbors of Sugbu became known colloquially as sinibuayng hingpit, shortened to sibu or sibo and it was also during Humabons reign that Lapu-Lapu arrived from Borneo, and was granted by Humabon the region of Mandawili, including the island known as Opong or Opon. First contact with the Spanish also occurred during Humabons reign, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan. If you give them good reception and treat them well, it will be well for you, but if you treat them ill, so much the worse it will be for you, as they have done at Calicut and at Malacca. In reality, this phrase is that of Kota Raya kita, Sri Parang, the limp, also had a young son, Sri Tupas, also known as Rajah Tupas who succeeded Rajah Humabon as king of Cebu. The Rajahnate was dissolved during the reign of Rajah Tupas by the forces of conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi in the battle of Cebu during 1565
Rajahnate of Cebu
Rajahnate of Cebu
–
the word Sugbo (Cebu) written in
Badlit (baybayin).
Rajahnate of Cebu
6.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
7.
Lapu-Lapu
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Lapu-Lapu was a ruler of Mactan in Visayas. Modern Philippine society regards him as the first Filipino hero because he was the first native to resist Spanish colonization and he is best known for the Battle of Mactan that happened at dawn on April 27,1521, where he and his soldiers defeated Ferdinand Magellan. The battle ended Magellans expedition and delayed the Spanish occupation of the islands by over forty years until the expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi in 1564. Monuments to Lapu-Lapu have been built in Manila and Cebu while the Philippine National Police, besides being a rival of Rajah Humabon of Cebu, little is known about the life of Lapu-Lapu. The only existing documents about his life are those written by Antonio Pigafetta and his name, origins, religion, and fate are still a matter of controversy. Lapu-Lapu is also known under the names Çilapulapu, Si Lapulapu, Salip Pulaka, Cali Pulaco, the historical name of Lapu-Lapu is debated. The earliest record of his name comes from Italian diarist Antonio Pigafetta who accompanied Magellans expedition, Pigafetta notes the names of two chiefs of the island of Matan, the chiefs Zula and Çilapulapu. The honorific Çi or Si is a corruption of the Sanskrit title Sri, in an annotation of the 1890 edition of Antonio de Morgas Sucesos de las islas Filipinas, José Rizal spells this name as Si Lapulapu. The Aginid chronicle calls him Lapulapu Dimantag, the title Salip is also frequently used as an honorific for Lapu-lapu and other Visayan datus. Despite common misconception, it is not derived from the Islamic title Khalīfah, like the cognate Si, it was derived from the Sanskrit title Sri Paduka, denoting His Highness. The title is used today in Malaysia as Seri Paduka. The 17th century mestizo de sangley poet Carlos Calao mentions Lapu-Lapu under the name of Cali Pulaco in his poem Que Dios Le Perdone, the name, spelled Kalipulako, was later adopted as one of the pseudonyms of the Philippine hero, Mariano Ponce, during the Philippine Revolution. The 1898 Philippine Declaration of Independence of Cavite II el Viejo, there had been many folk accounts surrounding Lapu-lapu’s origin. One oral tradition is that the Sugbuanons of Opong was once ruled by datu named Mangal, another is from oral chronicles from the reign of the last king of Cebu, Rajah Tupas. This was compiled and written in Baybayin in the book Aginid, the chronicle records the founding of the Rajahnate of Cebu by a certain Sri Lumay, who was a prince from the Hindu Chola dynasty of Sumatra. His sons, Sri Alho and Sri Ukob, ruled the neighboring communities of Sialo and Nahalin, the islands they were in were collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya. Sri Lumay was noted for his policies in defending against Moro raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbo to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbo
Lapu-Lapu
–
The statue of Lapu-Lapu on
Mactan Island
Lapu-Lapu
–
A depiction of the
Battle of Mactan in the
Magellan shrine
Lapu-Lapu
Lapu-Lapu
–
Mactan shrine entrance
8.
Rajah Humabon
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Rajah Humabon, later baptized as Don Carlos, was the Rajah of Cebu at the time of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellans arrival in the Philippines in 1521. There is none official record on the origins of Rajah Humabon prior to the arrival of Magellan, according to tradition, Sri Hamabar was the son of Sri Bantug, and the grandson of Sri Lumay. Specifically, one of the kings was Sri Lumay, a native from Sumatra. Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as Sialo which included the towns of Carcar. Sri Ukob ruled a kingdom known as Nahalin in the north included the present-day towns of Consolación, Liloan, Compostela, Danao, Carmen. He died in battle, fighting with the group known as magalos from Mindanao. Sri Bantug had a brother called Sri Parang the Limp, Sri Parang handed his throne to his nephew Humabon as regent, and he became the Rajah of Cebu. Parang he also had a son, Tupas, who succeeded Humabon as king of Cebu. The phrase Cata Raya Chita was documented by historian Antonio Pigafetta to be a warning in the Malay language, following Pigafettas inscription, the phrase is creole Malay for Kata-katanya adalah raya cita-cita. The phrase may mean What they say is mainly ambitious, kata-kata, –nya, adalah, raya, according to historical accounts, Rajah Humabon was among the first indigenous converts to Roman Catholicism after he, his wives, and his subjects were baptised by the expeditions priest. On 14 April 1521, Humabon was christened Carlos in honour of King Charles I of Spain, while his consort, Hara Humamay was given the name Juana, after Charles mother. Several men were killed including the then-leaders of the expedition, Duarte Barbosa, the account that the cause of the massacre of the Europeans was because some of the local women were raped by the Spaniards, was from an entry in the Aginid. History of the Philippines RAJAH HUMABON King of Cebu Cebu eskrima The official website of Boholchronicle
Rajah Humabon
–
Modern statue of Rajah Humabon in
Cebu City, May 2011.
9.
Antonio Pigafetta
–
Antonio Pigafetta was an Italian scholar and explorer from the Republic of Venice. He traveled with the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and his crew by order of the King Charles I of Spain on their voyage around the world, during the expedition, he served as Magellans assistant and kept an accurate journal which later assisted him in translating the Cebuano language. It is the first recorded document concerning the language, Pigafetta was one of the 18 men who returned to Spain in 1522, out of the approximately 240 who set out three years earlier. The voyage completed the first circumnavigation of the world, Juan Sebastián Elcano served as captain after Magellans death, Pigafettas journal is the source for much of what we know about Magellan and Elcanos voyage. At least one warship of the Italian Navy, a destroyer of the Navigatori class, was named after him in 1931, Pigafetta belonged to a rich family of Vicenza. In his youth he studied astronomy, geography and cartography and he served on board the ships of the Knights of Rhodes at the beginning of the 16th century. Until 1519, he accompanied the papal nuncio, Monsignor Chieregati, in Seville, Antonio Pigafetta heard of Magellans planned expedition and elected to embark, accepting the title of sobresaliente and a modest salary of 1,000 maravedís. During the trip, Pigafetta collected extensive data concerning the geography, climate, flora, fauna, the only other sailor to maintain a journal during the voyage was Francisco Albo, Victorias last pilot, who kept a formal logbook. Pigafetta was wounded on Mactan in the Philippines, where Magellan was killed in the Battle of Mactan in April 1521 by the local ruler Lapu-Lapu, nevertheless, he recovered and was among the 18 who accompanied Juan Sebastián Elcano on board the Victoria on the return voyage to Spain. Upon reaching port in Sanlúcar de Barrameda in the modern Province of Cadiz in September 1522, the original document was not preserved. However, it was not through Pigafettas writings that Europeans first learned of the circumnavigation of the globe, rather, it was through an account written by a Flanders-based writer Maximilianus Transylvanus, which was published in 1523. After Magellan and Elcanos voyage, Pigafetta utilized the connections he had prior to the voyage with the Knights of Rhodes to achieve membership in the order. Lord Stanley of Alderley, The first voyage round the world, by Magellan, London, The Hakluyt Society - includes Pigefettas journal, Works by Antonio Pigafetta at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Antonio Pigafetta at Internet Archive
Antonio Pigafetta
–
Map of
Borneo by Pigafetta.
Antonio Pigafetta
–
This portrait (from the Marasca Collection, Biblioteca Bertoliana of Vicenza) is traditionally believed to represent Antonio Pigafetta. The ancient drawing was based on a statue in the Civic Museum of Vicenza, originally coming from St. Michael church (where the Pigafettas had a family tomb). It really represents another Pigafetta, Gio. Alberto of Gerolamo (died 1562, 29 years old).
Antonio Pigafetta
–
Nao Victoria, Magellan's boat Replica in Punta Arenas
Antonio Pigafetta
–
Casa Pigafetta, his palace in
Vicenza.
10.
Mactan Island
–
Mactan or Maktan is a densely populated island located a few kilometres from Cebu Island in the Philippines. The island is part of Cebu Province and it is divided into Lapu-Lapu City, the island is separated from Cebu by the Mactan Channel which is crossed by two bridges, the Marcelo Fernan Bridge and the Mactan-Mandaue Bridge. The island covers some 65 square kilometres and is home to some 430,000 people, along with Olango Island Group, the isles are administered as 1 city and a municipality covering 75.25 square kilometres. Mactan-Cebu International Airport is located on the island, the island was already a thriving settlement before it was colonized by Spain in the 16th century. By 1730, the Catholic Augustinian friars established the town of Opon, carlos P. Garcia on June 17,1961. Congressman Manuel A. Zosa, the representative of the Sixth District of Cebu, apart from the airport, today the island is known for its industrial factories, which are some of the most successful industrial ventures in the Philippines. Many of them are located at the Mactan Export Processing Zone, also important to the island is its high-class tourism industry and the production of furniture, as well as guitars, ukuleles and other musical instruments. Being one of the major tourist Islands of Cebu, Mactan Island boasts of a collection of tourist spots. Being a coral island, Mactan offers some of the best diving, snorkeling, island hopping, jet ski, sailing, the only aquarium attraction in the Visayas is also located on the island. Geographic data related to Mactan at OpenStreetMap Mactan International Airport Lapu-Lapu City Government
Mactan Island
–
A view from a resort in Mactan where the sun is directly overhead at noon.
Mactan Island
–
A crab in a sea anemone in Mactan
Mactan Island
–
Mactan beach
Mactan Island
–
Shangri-La Mactan Island Resort
11.
Filipino language
–
Filipino /ˌfɪlɪˈpiːnoʊ/, in this usage, refers to the national language of the Philippines. Filipino is also designated, along with English, as a language of the country. It is the register of the Tagalog language, an Austronesian. As of 2007, Tagalog is the first language of 28 million people, or about one-third of the Philippine population, Filipino is among the 185 languages of the Philippines identified in the Ethnologue. Filipino is ideally a pluricentric language, in reality, however, Filipino has been variously described as simply Tagalog in syntax and grammar, with no grammatical element or lexicon coming from. Other major Philippine languages, and as essentially a version of Tagalog. In most contexts, Filipino is understood to be a name for Tagalog. There was no language in the Philippine archipelago when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The four major trade languages were Visayan, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, as the Philippine languages are all closely related and therefore easy for Filipinos to learn, most speakers of smaller languages spoke two or more of such regional languages. The first dictionary of Tagalog was written by the Franciscan Pedro de San Buenaventura, a latter book of the same name was written by Czech Jesuit missionary Paul Klein at the beginning of the 18th century. Klein spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books and he wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. On November 13,1936, Commonwealth act No, on November 12,1937, the First National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved the law for the establishment of the Surián ng Wikang Pambansâ. This institute would be responsible for surveying and researching existing native languages in order to determine among them the basis for a national language of the Philippines. Then-president Manuel L. Quezon later appointed representatives for each major regional language to form NLI, sales Rodriguez, Hadji Butu, and Cecilio Lopez. On December 13,1937, Presisis of the new national language, Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the revolution was led by people who also spoke Tagalog. In 1959, the became known as Pilipino in an effort to dissociate it from the Tagalog ethnic group. However, neither the nor the amended version specified either Tagalog or Pilipino as the basis for Filipino. Instead they tasked the National Assembly to, take steps toward the development and this move has drawn much criticism from the nations other ethnic groups
Filipino language
–
Filipino languages spoken around the country. This only includes languages that have at least 1 million speakers. Note that on regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most number of speakers denotes a minority of the population.
12.
Spanish language in the Philippines
–
Spanish was the official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish rule in the late 16th century, through the conclusion of the Spanish–American War in 1898. It remained, along with English, as co-official language until 1987, Philippine Spanish is a variant of standard Spanish, spoken in the Philippines by a minority today, though it was quite widespread up to the early 20th century. The variant is similar to Mexican Spanish, because the Philippines was ruled from New Spain in present-day Mexico. During that period, there was much Spanish and Mexican emigration to the Spanish East Indies and it was the language of the Philippine Revolution and the countrys first official language, as proclaimed in the Malolos Constitution of the First Philippine Republic in 1899. It was the language of commerce, law, politics and the arts during the colonial period and it was the main language of many classical writers and Ilustrados such as Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacio, Antonio Luna and Marcelo del Pilar, to name but a few. Spanish was the language of government, education and trade throughout the three centuries of Spanish rule and continued to serve as a lingua franca until the first half of the 20th century. Spanish was the language of the Malolos Republic, for the time being, according to the Malolos Constitution of 1899. Spanish was also the language of the Cantonal Republic of Negros of 1898. During the early part of the U. S. administration of the Philippine Islands, Spanish was widely spoken and relatively well maintained throughout the American colonial period. Even so, Spanish was a language that bound leading men in the Philippines like Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de Tavera y Gorricho to President Sergio Osmeña and his successor, President Manuel Roxas. As a senator, Manuel L. Quezon, delivered a speech in the 1920s entitled Message to My People in English, a later constitution ratified in 1987 designated Filipino and English as official languages. Also, under this Constitution, Spanish, together with Arabic, was designated an optional, there are thousands of Spanish loanwords in 170 native Philippine languages, and Spanish orthography has influenced the spelling system used for writing most of these languages. According to the 1990 Philippine census, there were 2,660 native Spanish speakers in the Philippines, in 2013 there were also 3,325 Spanish residents. However, there are 439,000 Spanish speakers with native knowledge, in 1998, there were 1.8 million Spanish speakers including those who spoke Spanish as a secondary language. In addition, an estimated 1,200,000 people speak Chavacano, Spanish was first introduced to the Philippines in 1565, when the conquistador, Miguel López de Legazpi, founded the first Spanish settlement on the island of Cebú. The Philippines, ruled first from Mexico City and later from Madrid, was a Spanish territory for 333 years. The Augustinians opened a school immediately upon arriving in Cebú in 1565, besides religious instruction, these schools taught how to read and write and imparted industrial and agricultural techniques. Initially, the stance of the Roman Catholic Church and its missionaries was to preach to the natives in local languages, the priests learned the native languages and sometimes employed indigenous peoples as translators, creating a bilingual class known as Ladinos
Spanish language in the Philippines
–
Statue of
Miguel López de Legazpi just outside of
Fort San Pedro,
Cebu City
Spanish language in the Philippines
–
Juan Luna featured on the cover of a Spanish periodical
Spanish language in the Philippines
–
Early flag of the
Filipino revolutionaries ("Long live the Philippine Republic!"). The first two constitutions were written in Spanish.
Spanish language in the Philippines
–
Propaganda in Spanish
13.
Philippines
–
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
Philippines
–
King Philip II of Spain.
Philippines
Philippines
–
Tabon Cave and its carvings.
Philippines
–
The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
14.
Colony
–
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies, some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that rules the colony, in Ancient Greece, the city that founded a colony was known as the metropolis. Mother country is a reference to the state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term informal colony is used by historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state. The word colony comes from the Latin word colōnia and this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. Cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology, other, less obvious settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a Roman Colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the head capital, so colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled from a separate entity that serves the capital function. Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples and these were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. A colony could take many forms, as a trade outpost or a base in enemy territory. Its original definition as a settlement created by migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition. Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the great in 330 BC, alaska, a colony of Russia from the middle 18th century until sold to the United States in 1867. It became the 49th American state in 1959, angola, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Australia was formed as an independent country in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829, barbados, was a colony of Great Britain important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966, brazil, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Canada, colonized first by France as New France, then under British rule, congo, Democratic Republic of the, a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960
Colony
–
Puerto Rico, considered by some to be "the world's oldest colony"
Colony
–
Chart of non-self-governing territories (as of June 2012 [update]).
15.
History of the Philippines
–
The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. Negrito tribes first inhabited the isles, groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium and these kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states, the first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar Island on March 16,1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan, Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpis expedition on February 13,1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in Cebu, much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the code of law, the Philippines was ruled under the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain until Mexican independence. After which, the colony was governed by Spain. Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spains defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Philippines then became a territory of the United States. The Philippine–American War ensued, with damage and death. The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines, in 1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was convened as the lower house of a bicameral legislature and in 1916 the U. S. Federal Government formally promised independence in the Jones Act. The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to full independence, before independence, World War II began and Japan occupied the Philippines. After the end of the war, the Treaty of Manila established an independent Philippine Republic, in 1972, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos imposed martial law. There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos, F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally. The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, the Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated. During this neolithic period, a culture is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC. The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is found in many other areas in insular. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies, the Sa Huyun culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network
History of the Philippines
History of the Philippines
–
Before the Western contact, the Philippine archipelago had its own rulers and kingdoms, which were
Malayan,
Sinified,
Indianized or
Islamic.
History of the Philippines
History of the Philippines
–
A golden statuette of the Hindu-Buddhist goddess "Kinari" found in an archeological dig in
Esperanza, Agusan del Sur.
16.
Prehistory of the Philippines
–
The prehistory of the Philippines covers the events prior to the written history of what is now the Philippines. Filipino anthropologist F. Landa Jocano refers to the earliest noticeable stage in the development of societies as the Formative Phase. By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos, who became the ancestors of todays aboriginal Filipinos, no evidence has survived which would indicate details of ancient Filipino life such as their crops, culture, and architecture. Historian William Henry Scott noted any theory which describes such details for the period must be pure hypothesis, the earliest known human remains in the Philippines are the fossilised remains discovered in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The 67, 000-year-old find predates the 47, 000-year-old Tabon Man, the find consisted of a single 61 millimeter metatarsal which, when dated using uranium series ablation, was found to be its current age. If definitively proven to be remains of Homo sapiens, it would also be one of the oldest human remains in the Asia-Pacific, fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals had been discovered on May 28,1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum and these fragments are collectively called Tabon Man after the place where they were found on the west coast of Palawan. Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of a Stone Age factory, charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000,20,000, and 22,000 BC. It is indicated that half of the 3,000 specimens recovered from the cave are discarded cores of a material which had to be transported from some distance. The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from the group of inhabitants who inhabited the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BC. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates from 45 or 50 thousand years ago. Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap have agreed that it belonged to a modern man and this indicates that Tabon Man was Pre-Mongoloid. Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is Australian in physical type, nothing can be concluded about Tabon mans physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. The custom of Jar Burial, which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos, to Japan, secondary burial was practiced across all the islands of the Philippines during this period, with the bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels were recovered from the Manunggul cave, Palawan, There have been many models of early human migration to the Philippines. Since H. Otley Beyer first proposed his wave theory, numerous scholars have approached the question of how. The question of whether the first humans arrived from the south or from the north has been a subject of heated debate for decades, as new discoveries come to light, past hypotheses are reevaluated and new theories constructed. The first, and most widely known theory of the peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines
Prehistory of the Philippines
Prehistory of the Philippines
–
The Baybayin
17.
Paleolithic
–
The Paleolithic is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools and covers roughly 95% of human technological prehistory. It extends from the earliest known use of tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date of the Paleolithic–Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years. During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, the Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers, however, due to their nature, surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths. About 50,000 years ago, there was a increase in the diversity of artifacts. For the first time in Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record, the first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. Humankind gradually evolved from members of the genus Homo—such as Homo habilis. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures, by c. 50,000 – c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61°N latitude in Europe, by c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia, the term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek, παλαιός, palaios, old, and λίθος, lithos, stone, human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of anatomically modern humans as a distinct species. The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time and this epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africas collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean, climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic
Paleolithic
–
This
cranium, of
Homo heidelbergensis, a
Lower Paleolithic predecessor to
Homo neanderthalensis and possibly
Homo sapiens, dates to sometime between 500,000 and 400,000 BP.
Paleolithic
–
The Paleolithic climate consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods.
Paleolithic
–
Many great mammals such as
woolly mammoths,
woolly rhinoceros, and
cave lions inhabited places like Siberia during the Pleistocene.
Paleolithic
–
Paleoindians hunting a
glyptodon. Glyptodons were hunted to extinction within two millennia after humans' arrival to South America.
18.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
19.
Tabon Man
–
Tabon Man refers to remains discovered in the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point in Quezon, Palawan in the Philippines. These were discovered by Dr. Robert B, Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum of the Philippines on May 28,1962. The Tabon fragments are collectively called Tabon Man after Tabon Cave, Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000,20,000, the right mandible of a Homo sapien, which dates 29,000 BC, was discovered together with a skull-cap. The Tabon Skull Cap is considered the earliest skull cap of modern man found in the Philippines, the Tabon Mandible is the earliest evidence of human remains showing archaic characteristics of mandible and teeth. The Tabon Tibia Fragment, a bone from the leg, was found during the re-excavation of the Tabon Cave by the National Museum of the Philippines. The bone was sent to the National Museum of Natural History in France to be studied, accelerated carbon dating technique revealed a dating of 47,000 +/- 11-10,000 years ago, making it the oldest human fossil recovered in the complex. About half of the 3,000 recovered specimens examined were discarded cores of a material which had to be transported some distance. This indicates that the inhabitants were engaged in tool manufacture. The Tabon Man fossils are considered to have come from a group of inhabitants. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago. Anthropologist Robert Fox, who directed the excavations, deduced that the Tabon Cave was a habitation of man for a period of 40,000 years, from 50,000 to 9,000 years ago. Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap are agreed that it belonged to modern man, Homo sapiens and this indicates that Tabon Man was pre-Mongoloid. Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is Australian in physical type, nothing can be concluded about Tabon Mans physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. The Tabon Cave Complex is a series of caves situated in a promontory at Lipuun Point in Southwestern Palawan. It spans 138-hectares and it used to be an island but now, there are roughly 218 caves,38 of which are rich with archaeological and anthropological finds. Lipuun Point is made up of 25 million year old limestone and is composed of large domes, deep cliffs. In this area, cave occupation of a sporadic or temporary nature by humans seems to be indicated into the early Holocene
Tabon Man
20.
Negrito
–
The Negrito are several ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia. The Negrito peoples show strong similarities with the Pygmy peoples of Africa but are genetically closer to surrounding Southeast Asian populations. They may be descended from ancient Australoid-Melanesian settlers of Southeast Asia, the word Negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, used to mean little black person. Many on-line dictionaries give the plural in English as either negritos or negritoes, the plural in Spanish is negritos. The appropriateness of using the label Negrito to bundle together peoples of different ethnicity based on similarities in stature, Haplogroup O-P31 is also common among Austroasiatic-speaking Negrito peoples, such as the Maniq and the Semang. Aeta men are of great interest to genetic, anthropological and historical researchers because at least 83% of them belong to haplogroup K2b, in the form of its rare primary clades K2b1* and P*. Most Aeta males carry K-P397, which is uncommon in the Philippines and is strongly associated with the indigenous peoples of Melanesia and Micronesia. Basal P* is rare outside the Aeta and some groups within Maritime South East Asia. The use of single-nucleotide polymorphism shows the genomes of Andamanese people to be closest to those of South Asians and this suggests a relation between Andaman islanders and South Asians. Bulbeck likewise noted that the Andamaneses nuclear DNA clusters with that of other Andamanese Islanders, as they carry Haplogroup D-M174, however, this is a subclade of the D haplogroup which has not been seen outside of the Andamans, a fact that underscores the insularity of these tribes. Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, all Onge belong to M32 mtDNA, a subgroup of M, which is unique to Onge people. Their parental Y-DNA is exclusively Haplogroup D, which is only found in Asia. These were specific mtDNA mutations that are shared exclusively by Australian aborigines and these Indian tribes, a study of human blood group systems and proteins in the 1950s suggested that the Andamanese peoples were more closely related to Oceanic peoples than African Pygmy peoples. Genetic studies on Philippine Negritos, based on polymorphic blood enzymes and antigens, Negrito peoples may descend from Australoid-Melanesian settlers of Southeast Asia. Despite being isolated, the different peoples do share similarities with their neighboring populations. They also show relevant phenotypic variations which require explanation, in contrast, a recent genetic study found that unlike other early groups in Malesia, Andamanese Negritos lack the Denisovan hominin admixture in their DNA. Denisovan ancestry is found among indigenous Melanesian and Aboriginal Australian populations between 4–6%, indeed this sentiment is echoed in a more recent work from 2013 which concludes that at the current level of genetic resolution. There is no evidence of an ancestral population for the different groups traditionally defined as “negritos. ”A number of features would seem to suggest a common origin for the Negritos and Negrillos
Negrito
–
Negrito
Negrito
–
Negrito group photo (
Malaysia, 1905).
Negrito
–
Negritos in a fishing boat (
Philippines, 1899).
Negrito
–
A young
Onge mother with her baby (
Andaman Islands, 1905).
21.
Models of migration to the Philippines
–
There have been several models of early human migration to the Philippines. Since H. Otley Beyer first proposed his wave theory, numerous scholars have approached the question of how. The question of whether the first humans arrived from the south or from the north has been a subject of heated debate for decades, as new discoveries have come to light, past hypotheses have been reevaluated and new theories constructed. The most widely known theory of the peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines. The aboriginal pygmy group, the Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago via land bridges. The seafaring tool-using Indonesian group who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago and were the first immigrants to reach the Philippines by sea. The seafaring, more civilized Malays who brought the Iron age culture and were the real colonizers, unfortunately, there is no definite evidence, archaeological or historical, to support this migration theory. On the contrary, the passage of time has made it more unlikely. Writing in 1994, Philippine historian William Scott concluded that it is safe to say that no anthropologist accepts the Beyer Wave Migration Theory today. A less rigid version of the earlier wave migration theory is the Core Population Theory first proposed by anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano of the University of the Philippines and this theory holds that there werent clear discrete waves of migration. Jocano contends that what fossil evidence of ancient men show is that not only migrated to the Philippines, but also to New Guinea, Borneo. He says that there is no way of determining if they were Negritos at all, however, what is sure is that there is evidence the Philippines was inhabited tens of thousands of years ago. In 1962, a cap and a portion of a jaw. The nearby charcoal from cooking fires have been dated to c. 22,000 years ago, while Palawan was connected directly to Sundaland during the last ice age, Callao Mans still-older remains were discovered in northern Luzon. Some have argued that this may show settlement of the Philippines earlier than that of the Malay Peninsula, Jocano further believes that the present Filipinos are products of the long process of cultural evolution and movement of people. This not only true for Filipinos, but for the Indonesians. No group among the three is culturally or genetically dominant, hence, Jocano says that it is not correct to attribute the Filipino culture as being Malayan in orientation.9 million years ago. The claimed evidence for this is fossil material found in different parts of the region and he states that these ancient men cannot be categorized under any of the historically identified ethnic groups of today
Models of migration to the Philippines
22.
Angono Petroglyphs
–
The Angono Petroglyphs is the oldest known work of art in the Philippines located in the province of Rizal. There are 127 human and animal figures engraved on the rockwall probably carved during the late Neolithic, the engravings are mostly symbolic representations and are associated with healing and sympathetic magic. The site has been declared by the National Museum of the Philippines as a National Cultural Treasure in 1973, the existence of a rock shelter was reported to the National Museum by the late National Artist of the Philippines Carlos V. Francisco in March 1965 during a trip with several boy scouts along the boundaries of Angono, Binangonan. Since then, some rock carvings have been damaged due to neglect, in 1973, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 260, it was declared as a cultural treasure by the Philippine government. It was included in the list of National Cultural Treasures in 1973, the site is also on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines. The Angono Petroglyphs of Binangonan is located in a rock shelter. It measures 63 meters wide,8 meters deep and a height of 5 meters. It has been created due to faulting and formed in soil during the Quaternary period. Only 51 of the total 127 drawings are distinct, due to the complexity and plurality of the drawings, it is suggested that the drawings on the rock were not only created by a single individual. From October to November 1965, archaeological excavations, headed by Alfredo Evangelista, was done on the area of the rock shelter, the artifacts suggest that the site was used during the Neolithic age. The site of the Angono Petroglyphs is developed as the Angono Branch of the National Museum in 1998 showcasing the cultural and its collections include remains of giant turtle, tusks, fossils, molar of Elephas sp. tradeware ceramics and paintings
Angono Petroglyphs
–
Petroglyphs on a rock wall,
Rizal,
Philippines
Angono Petroglyphs
23.
Iron age
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The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
Iron age
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Archaeological artifact from the work developed in the area of
Citânia de Briteiros
Iron age
Iron age
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Cross or cruzado in Citânia de Breteiros
Iron age
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A pedra formosa
24.
Igorot society
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The Igorot Society is the term for the collection of several ethnic groups in the Philippines that come from the Cordillera Administrative Region of Luzon. They inhabit the six provinces of Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Kalinga, Ifugao and they are a pre-Hispanic highland society that has survived through Spanish colonization. This Prehispanic state is the oldest in the Philippines and this society predates the other prehispanic states in the Philippines which are maritime civilizations, in contrast to this society which is a mountainous high-land society. This society is composed of tribes, mainly the Bontoc, Ibaloi, Isnag, Kalinga
Igorot society
Igorot society
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Man of the Ifugao tribe in traditional costume.
25.
Balangay
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The Balangay is a plank boat adjoined by a carved-out plank edged through pins and dowels. It was first mentioned in the 16th Century in the Chronicles of Pigafetta, the balangay was the first wooden watercraft excavated in Southeast Asia and is evidence of early Filipino craftsmanship and their seamanship skills during pre-colonial times. The Balanghai Festival is also a celebration in Butuan, Agusan del Norte to commemorate the coming of the early migrants settled the Philippines. When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, they found the Filipinos living in well-organized independent villages called barangays, the name barangay originated from balangay, the Austronesian word for sailboat. Barangay, or Balangay, was one of the first native words the Spaniards learned in the Philippines, when Antonio Pigafetta went ashore to parley with the ruler of Limasawa, they sat together in a boat drawn up on shore which Pigafetta called a balangai. On the other hand, when the Spaniards reached Luzon, they found this word for boat also being used for the smallest political unit of Tagalog society and this article is restricted on the terms Balangay or Barangay referring to the boat only and not the ‘barangay’ as community. As in Northern Luzon particularly in the province of Cagayan, balangay is used as a medium in getting food for the Ibanags. The Cagayan river system and the Babuyan Channel provided the Ibanags with fish as well as avenues of trade as far as Ilocos coast, the common word for boat was barangay, a term sometimes extended to the crew. Large vessels were called Biray or Biwong, the Visayans had a different way of using balangay compared to that of the people of Northern Luzon. Large ones were used for carrying cargo and were called bidok, biroko, biray, with the balangay’s size, it was used for cargo and raiding purposes giving proof that Butuan played a central role in trade throughout the region of the Philippine islands and with neighboring area. Today, Balanghai Festival is a celebration in Butuan, Agusan del Norte, it is to commemorate the coming of the early migrants settled in the Philippines. It is also held that the balangay also helped spread the settlement of the Austronesian people around the Philippines and neighboring regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Tao people of Taiwan have traditionally been adept at crafting balangays, which are held as a symbol of their people. The balangay was the first wooden watercraft excavated in Southeast Asia, the well known barangay was an edge-pegged, plank-built boat constructed on a keel. The balangay was basically a plank boat put together by joining the carved out planks edge to edge, rib like structures made of lengths of wood were then lashed against these lugs to provide a flexible bulkhead, to reinforce and literally sew the boat together. Cordage known as cabo negro was used for the purpose, the hull, measuring about 15 meters long and 4 meters wide, was ordinarily semicircular in cross section and with no marked keel. Provided with huge outriggers, the boat was propelled either by a sail or by paddling, since the 10th century, Butuan appeared to have been in good relations with the Srivijaya. Various goods, extending to the statue of Avalokiteśvara and the Golden Tara of Butuan, were traded across Maritime Southeast Asia, the balangay boats were discovered in the late 1970s in Butuan City, Agusan del Norte. A total of nine boats were accidentally found by locals searching for alluvial gold on land near the Masao River
Balangay
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The balangay replica docked at CCP Harbor Manila after its South East Asian expedition.
Balangay
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The Balangay is thought to have travelled much of
Maritime Southeast Asia.
26.
Manunggul Jar
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The Manunggul Jar is a secondary burial jar excavated from a Neolithic burial site in Manunggul cave of Tabon Caves at Lipuun Point at Palawan dating from 890–710 B. C. The two prominent figures at the top handle of its cover represent the journey of the soul to the afterlife, the Manunggul Jar is widely acknowledged to be one of the finest Philippine pre-colonial artworks ever produced and is a considered a masterpiece. It is denoted a national treasure and it is designated as item 64-MO-74 by the National Museum of the Philippines and it is now housed at the National Museum of Anthropology and is one of the most popular exhibits there. It is made from clay with some sand soil, the Manunggul Jar was found by Dr. Robert B. Fox and Miguel Antonio in 1962 and it was found alongside the discovery of the remains of Tabon Man. It was recovered by Dr. Fox in Chamber A of Manunggul Cave in Southwestern Palawan, Manunggul Cave is one of the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point. In the expansion, the Tabon Caves is known to be a site of jar burials with artefacts dating a range from 4250-2000 BP, Chamber A dates as a Late Neolithic burial site. Seventy-eight jars and earthenwares, including the Manunggul Jar, was discovered on the subsurface and surface of Chamber A, each artifact varied in design and form but was evidently types of funerary pottery. As mentioned earlier, the first ever excavation that gave way to the discovery of this burial jar is on the year 1964 by Dr. Robert Fox, during that time, he and his team were excavating the Tabon Cave Complex, specifically in the Lipuun Point. In Fox’s excavation, it is yet the most unusual in all angles, the inside of the jar contains human bones which are covered in red paint. Like the Egyptian burial practice, the jar was found to be equipped with numerous bracelets. “. is perhaps unrivaled in Southeast Asia, the work of an artist, the Manunggul Jar shows that the Filipinos maritime culture is paramount that it reflected its ancestors religious beliefs. Many epics around the Philippines would tell how souls go to the life, aboard boats, pass through the rivers. This belief is connected with the Austronesian belief of the anito, the fine lines and intricate designs of the Manunggul Jar reflect the artistry of early Filipinos. These designs are proof of the Filipinos common heritage from the Austronesian-speaking ancestors despite the diversity of the cultures of the Filipinos, the upper part of the Manunggul jar, as well as the cover, is carved with curvilinear scroll designs which are painted with hematite. The depiction of sea-waves on the lid places this Manunggul jar in the Sa Huỳnh culture pottery tradition and these are people that migrated in an East to West migration from the Borneo-Palawan area to Southern Vietnam. Early Filipinos believed that a man is composed of a body, a force called ginhawa. This explains why the design of the cover of the Manunggul Jar features three faces - the soul, the boatman, and the boat itself
Manunggul Jar
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This elaborate burial jar is topped with two figures. The front figure is the deceased man. The rear figure is holding a steering paddle directing the boat and soul of the man to the afterlife.
27.
Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery
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In 1991, the National Museum archaeological team discovered anthropomorphic secondary burial jars in Ayub Cave, Barangay Pinol, Maitum, Sarangani Province, Mindanao, Philippines. The jars are commonly known today as Maitum jars and they are made of earthenware, and are characterized by their design that suggests human figures with complete or partial facial features of the first inhabitants in Mindanao. Furthermore, they give emphasis to the Filipinos’ popular belief of life after death, according to Dr. Eusebio Dizon, head of the archaeological team, this type of burial jars are “remarkably unique and intriguing” because they have not been found elsewhere in Southeast Asia. These jars have characteristics that belong to the Developed Metal Age Period in the Philippines, according to the laboratory results determined through radiocarbon dating, these secondary burial jars date back to the Metal Age. Two conventional dates were 1830 +/-60 B. P. and 1920 +/-50 B. P, experts used soot samples taken from the walls of a small earthenware vessel found inside one of the larger burial jars. Three days after, the archaeologist received photographs of artifacts collected by local residents. The artifacts have high probability of not only to the history of Maguindanao. That’s why when they found a sponsor for Dr. Dizon’s trip to Mindanao, he still went despite the unpredictable climate. The Maitum Archaeological Project of the National Museum team formally started on November 6,1991, Ayub Cave, now referred to as Pinol Cave, is a Miocene limestone formation located approximately 1,000 meters due south of the Mindanao shoreline with an elevation of 6 meters. The site is on the area of Pinol, Maitum. The first phase of the ended on December 1991, the second was from April 8 to May 3,1992. Unfortunately, the conflict between the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front during the 70’s resulted in casualties in this historical site. It threatened future discoveries and prevented preservation, no complete Maitum jar in the form of a female has survived, but there are still evidence of its existence such as the many pottery shards of female breasts. This is an indication of equality in terms of the practice of jar burials, altogether, a total of 29 burial jars and approximately 33 baskets or about 4 cubic meters of archaeological material have been collected. Most of them are now in the possession and care of the National Museum while some are on display at the level of Maitum Municipal Hall in an exhibit called as The Treasures of Maitum. And because of its significance the Pinol Cave was declared by the National Museum of the Philippines as an “Important Cultural Property” on May 5,2009, while there are three types of heads, Plain, Perforated, and Painted red and black from hematite and organic material. The black paint may indicate where the hair of the dead has once been, some jars are decorated with glass beads and shell scoops, spoons and pendants. All of these features represent and reflect the Maitum potters’ creativity, the heads of the anthropomorphic covers portray different facial expressions and emotions, ranging from happiness and contentment to sadness and grief
Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery
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Sketch of anthropomorphic jar colored image
Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery
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Potsherd among the artifacts
28.
Suvarnabhumi
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Suvarṇabhūmi is the name of a land mentioned in many ancient sources such as the Mahavamsa, some stories of the Jataka tales, and Milinda Panha. Suvaṇṇabhumī means Golden Land or Land of Gold and might be a region named Aurea Regio in India beyond the Ganges of Ptolemy, there lies a very great inland city called Thina”. Dionysius Periegetes mentioned, “The island of Chryse, situated at the rising of the Sun”. Avienus referred to the Insula Aurea located where the Scythian seas give rise to the Dawn, josephus speaks of the Aurea Chersonesus, which he equates with the Biblical Ophir, whence the ships of Tyre and Israel brought back gold for the Temple of Jerusalem. The city of Thina was described by Ptolemys Geography as the city of the country on the eastern shores of the Magnus Sinus. Some have speculated that this refers to the Kingdom of Funan. The main port of Funan was Cattigara Sinarum statio, there is a common misunderstanding that the Edicts of Ashoka mention this name. The truth is the edicts relate only the names and never reference Suvarnabhumi in the text. Moreover, all of the kings referenced in the text reigned their cities in the region that located beyond the Sindhu to the west, the misunderstanding might come from a mixing of the story of Ashoka sending his Buddhist missionaries to Suvarnabhumi in Mahavamsa and his edicts. The location of Suvarnabhumi has been the subject of much debate and it remains one of the most mythified and contentious toponyms in the history of Asia. Scholars have identified two regions as possible locations for the ancient Suvarnabhumi, Insular Southeast Asia or Southern India, the term Suvarnabhumi, is commonly thought to refer to the Southeast Asian Peninsula, including lower Burma and the Malay Peninsula. However there is another gold-referring term Suvarnadvipa, which may correspond to the Indonesian Archipelago, both terms might refer to a powerful coastal or island kingdom in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia, possibly centered on Sumatra or Java. This is corresponds to the production areas traditionally known in Minangkabau highlands in Barisan Mountains, Sumatra. These pointing out to the direction of western part of insular Southeast Asia, especially Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, the kingdom referred as the center of maritime trade between China and India was Srivijaya. Hendrik Kern concluded that Sumatra was the Suvarnadvipa mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, the interpretation of early travel records is not always easy. The Javanese embassies to China in 860 and 873 CE refer to Java as rich in gold, Javanese would have had to import its gold possibly from neighbouring Malaya, Sumatra or Borneo, where gold was still being mined into the 19th century and where ancient mining sites located. Many claim that Suvarnabhumi was actually situated in central Bengal, Bengal has also been described in ancient Indian and Southeast Asian chronicles as a seafaring country, enjoying trade relations with Dravidian kingdoms, Sri Lanka, Java and Sumatra. Sinhalese tradition holds that the first king of Sri Lanka, Vijaya Singha, moreover the region is commonly associated with gold- the soil of Bengal is known for its golden color, golden harvest, golden fruits, golden minerals and yellow skinned people
Suvarnabhumi
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Crisa and Aureia, the Isles of Gold, near the Aurea Chersonese, the Golden Peninsula, near Java in the Indian Ocean, on the map of Andreas Walsperger, around 1448
Magellan expedition
