1.
Brownsville, Texas
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Brownsville is the county seat of Cameron County, Texas. It is the sixteenth most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population at the 2010 census of 175,023 and an estimated population in 2014 of 183,046. It is located at the southernmost tip of Texas, on the bank of the Rio Grande, directly north and across the border from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The 2014 U. S. Census Bureau estimate placed the Brownsville-Harlingen metropolitan area population at 420,392, in addition, the international Matamoros–Brownsville Metropolitan Area was estimated to have a population of 1,136,995. Brownsville has one of the highest poverty rates in the nation, the Brownsville urban area is one of the fastest growing in the United States. The citys population increased after it experienced a boom in the steel industry during the first decade of the 1900s. In recent times, the Port of Brownsville has become an economic hub for South Texas, where shipments arrive from other parts of the United States, from Mexico. In April 1846, construction of a fort on the Mexican border by was begun by American forces due to increased instability in the region on the eve of the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Before the completion of the construction, the Mexican Army began the Siege of Fort Texas, during the first active campaign in the Mexican–American War, the first battle of the war occurred on May 8, when General Zachary Taylor received word of the siege of the fort. Taylors forces rushed to help, but Mexican troops intercepted them, resulting in the Battle of Palo Alto, approximately 5 miles north of present-day Brownsville. The next morning the Mexican forces had retreated, and Taylors troops caught up with them, resulting in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which took place within the present city limits. When Taylor finally arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, it was found that two soldiers had died, one of them the commander, Major Jacob Brown. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the fort Fort Brown, an old cannon at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College marks the spot where Major Brown received his fatal wound. The city of Brownsville was originally established late in 1848 by Charles Stillman, the state originally incorporated the city on January 24,1850. This was repealed on April 1,1852, due to a dispute between Stillman and the former owners. The state reincorporated the city on February 7,1853, which remains in effect, the issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman. On July 13,1859, the First Cortina War started, juan Nepomuceno Cortina became one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. The First Cortina War ended on December 27,1859, in May 1861, the brief Second Cortina War took place
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
4.
Centralist Republic of Mexico
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The Centralist Republic of Mexico, officially the Mexican Republic was a unitary political regime established in Mexico on October 23,1835, after the repeal of the Constitution of 1824. Like Spanish moderados, the Mexican conservatives were inspired by the ideal of a centralized, the unitary regime was formally established on December 30,1836, with the enactment of the seven constitutional laws. The centralist Republic lasted for almost eleven years, on August 22,1846, acting President José Mariano Salas, issued the decree that restored the Constitution of 1824 and with this, the return to federalism. The Mexican Republic was governed by eleven presidents, none were to finish their term before the Republics dissolution. In 1835, the party established a Congress which was declared constitutional. On December 30,1836, the seven laws, which established the system of governmental. The constitutional laws of the Mexican Republic, better known as the seven laws were a series of laws of a nature which replaced the Constitution of 1824. The 15 articles of the first law granted citizenship to those who could read and had an income of 100 pesos, except for domestic workers. The second law allowed the President to close Congress and suppress the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, military officers were not allowed to assume this office. The 58 articles of the law established a bicameral Congress of Deputies and Senators. Deputies had four-year terms, Senators were elected for six years, the seventh law prohibited reverting to the pre-reform laws for six years. The seven laws were enacted by the interim President of Mexico, José Justo Corro, the revolt in Zacatecas was the first rebellion caused by attempts to centralize the Affairs of States. The rebellion began as a response to the order of the Government disintegrating bodies of militia, the rebellion was led by Governor Francisco García Salinas, who led an army of about four thousand men against the even federal Government. Antonio López de Santa Anna, President at the time, personally fought the revolt, the Governor García Salinas, was defeated in the battle of Zacatecas. As punishment to the rebelliousness of Zacatecas, Aguascalientes party was separated and declared on 23 May 1835 Federation territory, the Texan Revolution began in the battle of Gonzales on October 2,1835. The discontent of the American settlers began almost as soon as they settled in the State of Coahuila, as a result of the rebellion of 1827 Fredonia was decreed on April 6,1830 laws that increased the discontent of the colonists. In 1831, the Mexican authorities gave Gonzalez settlers a small cannon to protect themselves from frequent Comanche raids. Due to the order of the Government disintegrating bodies of militia, Colonel Domingo Ugartechea, Commander of Mexican troops in Texas, on 1 October, settlers voted to start a fight and refused to return the barrel
5.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
6.
Mariano Arista
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José Mariano Martín Buenaventura Ignacio Nepomuceno García de Arista Nuez was a noted veteran of many of Mexicos nineteenth-century wars. He served as president of Mexico from 15 January 1851 to 6 January 1853 and he was born in the state of San Luis Potosí in colonial New Spain. Originally an officer in the Spanish Army, Arista later joined the army of Agustín de Iturbide. Later, he served under Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexicos on-again/off-again dictator during the attempt to put down the 1836 Texas Revolution, in 1846, Arista was given command of the Army of the North and sent to expel American troops from territory claimed by Mexico in Texas. The resulting engagement ignited the bloody Mexican-American War of 1846–1848, Arista was in command of Mexican forces during the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. Personally quite brave, Arista was a dedicated republican – a member of Mexicos liberal faction, at both the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Arista was ill-served by the political division among his staff. After Resaca de la Palma, Mexicos government recalled Arista, later absolved of guilt for the defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Arista spent the rest of the war as a functionary, seeing little combat. In 1851, Arista succeeded José Joaquín de Herrera as president of Mexico and he sought to bring fiscal stability to the nation. Conservative resistance to Aristas rule and a revolt by the conservatives led to his 1853 resignation. He died on board the English steamer Tagus while traveling from Lisbon, Portugal, in 1880, his remains were returned to Mexico, where the Liberal faction named him a national hero. List of heads of state of Mexico Battles of the Mexican-American War History of Mexico Bauer, K. Jack
7.
Thornton Affair
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The much larger Mexican force defeated the Americans in the opening of hostilities, and was the primary justification for U. S. President James K. Polks call to Congress to declare war. Although the United States had annexed Texas, both the US and Mexico claimed the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, Arista promptly ordered General Anastasio Torrejon to cross the Rio Grande fourteen miles upstream at La Palangana. Taylor received two reports on 24 April of Mexicans crossing the Rio Grande, the first crossing below his camp, Taylor ordered Captain Croghan Ker to investigate downriver and Captain Seth B. Thornton with two Dragoon companies to investigate upriver, Ker found nothing but Thornton rode into an ambush and his 80-man force was quickly overwhelmed by Torrejons 1600, resulting in the capture of those not immediately killed. Thorntons guide brought news of the hostilities to Taylor and was followed by a cart from Torrejon containing the six wounded, in the fierce encounter,11 of Thorntons men were killed and 6 wounded, while the rest were taken prisoner. Torrejon continued on to the Matamoros-Point Isabel road, surprising Samuel H. Walkers Texas Rangers on 28 April, before continuing on to Longoreno to cover the crossing of the main Mexican army. Following the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Arista and Taylor agreed to an exchange which resulted in the release of Thornton, Hardee. Thornton was later killed in an engagement outside Mexico City, but now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war. Opposition also existed in the United States, with one senator declaring that the affair had been as much an act of aggression on our part as is a mans pointing a pistol at anothers breast. The ensuing Mexican–American War was waged from 1846 to 1848 with the loss of thousands of lives
8.
Siege of Fort Texas
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The Siege of Fort Texas marked the beginning of active campaigning by the armies of the United States and Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Major Jacob Brown should not to be confused with the War of 1812 General Jacob Brown, the fort was garrisoned by 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18 pounders, and Lt. Braxton Braggs field battery. The largest cannon was a 12 pounder, at daylight on 3 May 1846, Mexican forces started the bombardment of Fort Texas, but were silenced by the American response, although the Mexican artillery down the river was more successful. Lowd attempted to set fire to Matamoros with hot shot, Mexican fire stopped at 7,30 PM, the Americans at 11 PM. On 4 May, Mexican guns and a mortar were placed on the bank of the Rio Grande and on 5 May General Pedro de Ampudia arrived with 1,230 men. Captain Edgar S. Hawkins took command of Fort Texas when Major Brown was mortally wounded on 6 May at ten oclock. As soon as it became clear Taylor was leaving Fort Polk, Arista moved his army from his camp at Tanques del Ramiereno to block Taylors path leading to the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Though the confrontation at Fort Texas lasted six days, with periods of heavy cannon fire, only two U. S. soldiers died in the bombardment. Major Brown was struck in the leg by a cannonball on May 6 and survived for several days only to die on May 9, despite his wound, Major Brown had helped maintain troop morale throughout the siege, thus contributing to the success of the defense of the Fort. Mexican leaders reported two killed and two wounded from American artillery fire during the siege, the effect of artillery fire on the civilian population of Matamoros is unknown. Battles of the Mexican-American War Mexican-American War List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patricks Battalion Brooks, a Complete History of The Mexican War Handbook of Texas Online, Fort Brown, Alcaraz, Ramon. Apuntes para La Historia De La Guerra Estes Mexico y los Estados-Unidos Tipografia De Manuel Payno Mexico 1848 A Continent Divided, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
9.
Battle of Palo Alto
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The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8,1846, on disputed ground five miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Aristas troops began to cross the Rio Grande, on May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege, Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylors force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left, the American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery. The U. S. light artillery was more mobile. That evening, Arista was forced to further south. The armies would clash again the day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his army, first with General Pedro de Ampudias 1st Brigade. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18-pounders, Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army with the intention of blocking Taylor, Ampudias brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylors scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th, behind this line was Col. Cayetano Monteros light cavalry. Mays dragoon squadron guarded the flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM, the American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejons cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, a fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled the lines. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, may failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Childs artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge, duncans battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Kers dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field
10.
Conquest of California
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The California Campaign was marked by a series of small battles over 1846 and early 1847. When war was declared on 13 May 1846 between the United States and Mexico, it took almost three months for word of Congress declaration of war to reach the Pacific coast. U. S. consul Thomas O. United States Army Captain John C, Frémont, on a survey expedition of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers with about 60 well-armed men, crossed the Sierra Nevada range in December 1845. They had crossed into the Oregon Territory in May 1846, when he received word that war between Mexico and the U. S. was imminent and they formed the California Republic, created the Bear Flag, and raised it over Sonoma. Eleven days later, troops led by Frémont, who had acted on his own authority, no government was ever organized, but the Bear Flag Revolt has become part of the states folklore. The present day California state flag is based on this original Bear Flag, prior to the Mexican–American War, preparations for a possible conflict led to the U. S. Pacific Squadron being extensively reinforced until it had half of the ships in the United States Navy. Their orders were, upon determining beyond a doubt that war had been declared, to capture the ports, two days later on 9 July, USS Portsmouth, which had been berthed at Sausalito, in the Battle of Yerba Buena captured Yerba Buena without firing a shot. On 15 July, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, in July, convincing news of a state of war between the U. S. and Mexico had reached Stockton. The 400 to 650 marines and bluejackets of Stocktons Pacific Squadron were the largest U. S. ground force in California, the rest of Stocktons men were needed to man his vessels. To supplement this remaining force, Commodore Stockton ordered Captain John C, Frémont, on the U. S. Armys Corps of Topographical Engineers survey, to secure 100 volunteers, in addition to the California Battalion that he had earlier organized. They were to act primarily as occupation forces to free up Stocktons marines, nearly all were occupied without a shot being fired. Some of the pueblos and ports were also rapidly occupied. Prior to the U. S. occupation, the population of Spanish and Mexican people in Alta California was approximately 1500 men and 6500 women and children, many lived in or near the small Pueblo of Los Angeles. In Southern California, Mexican General José Castro and Alta California Governor Pío Pico fled the Pueblo of Los Angeles before the arrival of American forces, on 13 August 1846, when Stocktons forces entered Los Angeles to no resistance, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. The force of 36 that Stockton left in Los Angeles, however, was too small and, in addition, on 29 September in the Siege of Los Angeles, the independent Californios, under José María Flores leadership, forced the small American garrison to retire to the harbor. Stockton rescued Kearnys surrounded forces and, with their combined force totaling 660 troops, they moved northward from San Diego, on that day they fought the Californios in the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and the next day, in the Battle of La Mesa. The last significant body of Californios surrendered to American forces on 12 January 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed on January 13,1847, and essentially terminated hostilities in Alta California
11.
Battle of Monterey
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The Battle of Monterey, at Monterey, California, occurred on 7 July 1846, during the Mexican-American War. The United States captured the town unopposed, prior to the Mexican-American War the Californio forces had routed the Mexican-appointed Governor Manuel Micheltorena and most of his forces from Alta California. The main forces available to the United States in California were the about 400–500 bluejacket sailors, marines on board the five ships of the Pacific Squadron there. It took about 200 days, on average, for ships to travel the over-12,000 miles trip from the East coast around Cape Horn to get to California, more ships assigned to the Pacific Squadron would continue to arrive from 1846 to 1847. Sloat sailed on the frigate Savannah on 8 June, arriving Monterey on 1 July and they joined the sloop USS Cyane which was already there. There were U. S. fears that the British might try to annex California to satisfy British creditors, the British Pacific Stations ships off California were stronger in ships, guns and men. On 6 July, Sloat decided to seize Monterey and San Francisco, wondering if Captain Freemont will cooperate with us. Capt. William Mervine of the Cyane came ashore with a party from the Savannah at 7,30 AM on 7 July, seeking the surrender of the port from the Mexican commandant. Silva replied that he was not authorized to surrender the place, in fact Silva was in command of a nonexistent garrison. The Californio soldiers had left the towns defenses and gone to Los Angeles. They would have had no gunpowder to use in their few cannons even if they had stayed, at 10 AM225 sailors and marines from Sloats three warships landed. They formed before the Customs House where Purser Rodman M. Price read Sloats proclamation of a state of war between the US and Mexico and the annexation of California by the US. The only shots fired were a 21 gun salute to the new U. S. flag fired by each of the U. S. Navy ships in the harbor, the British ships observed but took no action. Sloat recognized Mexican real estate titles and church lands and he also established justices of the peace when the alcaldes resigned his office. Montgomery of the Portsmouth received Sloats message to seize Yerba Buena and by 8 AM on 9 July and he then replaced the Bear Flag with the American flag. The American flag was run up with a 21-gun salute, montgomery then sent Purser James H. Watmough to notify Fremont at Sonoma and Sutters Fort. Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived Monterey Bay aboard the Congress on 15 July, the British ship of the line Collingwood arrived Monterrey on 23 July, and Juno arrived Yerba Buena on 11 July, but both ships did not interfere in the American activities. The Bear Flag revolutionaries were soon combined with John C, frémonts 60 man exploratory force to form the U. S. sponsored California Battalion under the command of Frémont
12.
Battle of Dominguez Rancho
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The Battle of Dominguez Rancho or The Battle of the Old Womans Gun was a military engagement of the Mexican–American War. The battle took place within Manuel Dominguezs 75, 000-acre Rancho San Pedro. After receiving word of the Siege of Los Angeles, Commodore Robert F. Stockton sent US Navy Captain William Mervine, arriving on October 6, Mervine set out on October 7 with sailors, marines and bear flaggers to recapture the town. Mervines march was planned with little knowledge of the enemy. His troops were armed with an assortment of muskets, cutlasses and pikes, they brought no horses, when the Americans had occupied Los Angeles in August, residents had hidden some weapons by burying them. General José Flores force, equipped with lances, knives and old firearms that had hidden, was nearly as poorly armed. This old brass four-pounder, used ceremonially, had buried in the garden of Inocencia Reyes. It was dug up and mounted on a horse-drawn limber, Mervine and his troops set out on October 7 and reached Dominguez Rancho, where they camped for the night, within view of an advance detachment of Flores troops. There was more or less firing during the night, with no other effect than that of keeping Mervines party on the alert, setting off at daylight, the Americans advanced just to the north of Dominguez Rancho. Señora Reyes four-pounder was placed on the trail that the Americans needed to use. Ropes were lashed to the limber to pull the gun into the brush for reloading, the Californio horsemen deployed at a safe distance from the trail on the enemys flanks. When the Americans came within 400 yards, the cannon was fired and quickly pulled back into the brush, Mervines forces were helpless on foot against an enemy they could neither see nor count. Realizing they could not reach Los Angeles, Mervine had little choice except to retreat, the battle lasted less than an hour, five hours later Mervines forces were back on their ship in San Pedro Bay. Four of the seriously wounded Americans died and were buried on an island in San Pedro Bay called Isla de los Muertos. Mervines troops reboarded the Savannah, and after a few days, Dominguez Rancho Adobe Rancho San Pedro List of conflicts in the United States Battles of the Mexican–American War A History of California, The American Period. 512 pages California History, Bancroft - http, //web. archive. org/web/20120102074700/http, //www. 1st-hand-history. org, 80/Hhb/HHBindex. htm
13.
Battle of Natividad
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San Juan Bautista was the marshaling area for Lieutenant Colonel John C. An American scouting party was attacked by a force of mounted Mexican Californios on Rancho La Natividad in the Salinas Valley, the Californios were attempting to capture some horses being herded by the Americans. A battle ensued in which the Californio force killed four Americans, the American volunteers were buried on the Gomez Rancho. The Californios reported no deaths but 5 wounded, the Americans reported several Californios dead and several wounded. As the Californios retreated the Americans did not give chase, the Walla Walla and Delaware Indian detachment fighting with the Americans fought aggressively and bravely displaying two scalps they had taken during the conflict. The Treaty of Cahuenga signed by Frémont and Andrés Pico in January 1847 ended all hostilities in California, was inserted to protect several members of the Californios fighting in this fight who were in clear violation of their paroles they had given to keep the peace and not undertake hostilities. The site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #651
14.
Battle of San Pasqual
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The series of military skirmishes ended with both sides claiming victory, and the victor of the battle is still debated. On December 6 and December 7,1846, General Stephen W, after U. S. reinforcements arrived, Kearnys troops were able to reach San Diego. Kearnys force, guided by Carson, reached Warners Ranch in California on 2 Dec. in a weakened condition. They had just completed a 2,000 mile march, the longest march in U. S. Army history, emory - Chief Topographical Engineer, Corps of Topographical Engineers Lieutenant William H. Dunne, Private David Streeter, Private James Osbourne, Dr. Erasmus Darwin French Company C, west, Private George Ashmead, Private Joseph T. Campbell, Private John Dunlop, Private William Dalton, Private William C. Lucky, Private Samuel F. Repoll, Private Joseph B, fremonts 300 men moving south from Monterey, and sent another 100 men to watch Stocktons base at San Diego, but Flores kept the bulk of his men at Los Angeles. Captain Archibald Gillespie with 39 men, met Kearny on 5 Dec. with a message from Stockton requesting Kearny confront Flores men outside San Diego, the total American force now amounted to 179 men. Charles Weber disclosed its location to Gillespie, later, Major Andrés Pico, after a failed search for a detachment of U. S. soldiers, joined forces with the captains and took command. These Californios led a force consisting of landowners, sons of landowners, ramon Carillo, Capt. Jose Maria Cota, Capt. Nicolas Hermosillo, Capt. Jose Alipaz, Capt, ramon O. Suna General Andres Pico, Don Leandro Osuna, Capt. Juan Bautista Moreno, Capt. Tomás A. Sanchez, Capt. Pablo Vejar, Capt. Manuel Vejar A dragoon patrol under Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, guided by Rafael Machado, the son of Don José Manuel Machado, reconnoitered Capt. Andres Picos force along the road at San Pasqual. While Machado sneaked into the camp, Lt. Hammond became suspicious he was being set up for an ambush and rode the dragoons into the camp, where they spoke with an Indian they found sleeping in a hut. With Capt. Alipaz, Captain Leonardo Cota and José María Ibarra chased the dragoons to the top of the ridge with the battle cry of. Viva California. Pico was alerted, and the Californio camp prepared for the U. S. Army dragoons, having lost the element of surprise, at midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, early in the morning of December 6,1846, the column proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was dark and with a low-lying fog. Captain Abraham R. Johnstons advance guard, while still three-quarters of a mile from Picos forces, was ordered by Kearny to Trot. which Johnston misunderstood as Gallop, forty of the best mounted pulled far ahead of the main body of the force. The mules pulling the howitzers bolted, taking one of the guns with them, Picos mounted force remained ahead of the pursuing U. S. forces
15.
Battle of Rio San Gabriel
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After the Battle of San Pasqual, the battered Army of the West, commanded by General Stephen W. Kearny, went to the headquarters of Commodore Robert F. Stockton at San Diego, California. Stocktons next objective was to recapture Pueblo de Los Angeles, Stocktons force, which included six cannons this time, left San Diego on 28-29 December. Kearny and Stockton initially disputed the right of command, Stockton had a larger force and was familiar with the area, so Kearny did not initially dispute Stocktons command of the campaign to recapture Los Angeles. U. S. scouts discovered the Mexican position at a key ford along the San Gabriel River on January 7,1847, approaching from the south, Stockton and Kearny planned a crossing for the next day. The U. S. forces were formed into a square with the artillery. Kearny ordered the artillery unlimbered to cover the crossing, but Stockton countered the order, at 2 PM, the Americans formed into a square when two miles from the river with the baggage and cattle in the middle, and sent skirmishers ahead. Flores attacked the square with horses, which failed, plus his makeshift ammunition, the U. S. officers and men manhandled their cannon across while the forward quarter of the square took cover on the river edge. Stockton personally helped unlimber and direct the artillery, which silenced both Californio cannons, Kearny led and commanded the assault force while Stockton stayed with the guns. The left flank of the square took a Californio riverbank position, then the whole square charged forward shouting New Orleans, New Orleans, in honor of Andrew Jacksons victory against Great Britain there that day thirty-one years before. The charge took the heights, and Flores withdrew his smaller force, the battle had lasted an hour and a half, and the battle was decisive in the campaign for control of Los Angeles, and Alta California. General Kearnys official report of the battle, Headquarters Army of the West, Ciudad de Los Angeles, Upper California, SIR, -- I have the honor to report, that at the request of Commodore R. F. Lieutenant Emory, topographical engineers, acted as assistant adjutant-general and our loss in the actions of the 8th and 9th instant was small, being one private killed and two officers and eleven privates wounded. The enemy mounted on horses and being the best riders in the world, carried off their killed and wounded. There they defeated Flores troops at the Battle of La Mesa, on January 10 the U. S. forces reoccupied Los Angeles, and Archibald Gillespie was able to raise the same U. S. Flag over the house which he was forced to bring down a year before during the Siege of Los Angeles, after Los Angeles and the whole of southern California was secured, the command issue between Stockton and Kearny heated up once again. Stockton, who had been the military governor of California, later granted that post to his aide. Kearny, based on his more recent orders from the War Department, Kearny left California on 31 May 1847 for St. Louis, with Fremont, whom he would prefer charges. The site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #385, the memorial, marked by a plaque flanked by two cannons, is located at the corner of Washington Blvd. and Bluff Rd. in Montebello
16.
Battle of La Mesa
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The Battle of La Mesa of the Mexican–American War occurred on 9 January 1847, in present-day Vernon, California, the day after the Battle of Rio San Gabriel during the California Campaign. Not finding any Californians at Pio Picos ranch, the Americans crossed the plain between the San Gabriel River and the Los Angeles River called La Mesa. They encountered Flores 300-strong force of Californio militia, including artillery, near where the city of Vernon now stands, the Californian guns were ineffective, while the American guns responded from their square as the Americans advanced. Flores extended his line and brought up two more guns, stockton halted and formed his guns into a single battery. After fifteen minutes, Stocktons fire drove the Californian artillery from effective range, Flores sent his lancers against the American left flank but were driven back and most deserted, allowing the Americans to advance into Los Angeles. The battle was the last armed resistance to the American advance in California, the conquest and annexation of Alta California was settled with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga by US Army Lieutenant-Colonel John C. Frémont and Californio General Andrés Pico on January 13,1847, the site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #167. The marker is located at 4490 Exchange Avenue at Downey Road in Vernon, list of conflicts in the United States Battles of the Mexican–American War Captain John Strother Griffin, physician during the battle Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, San Francisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co
17.
Capture of Santa Fe
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No shots were fired during the capturing of Santa Fe. United States Army General Stephen W. Kearny had moved southwest from Fort Leavenworth, Kearnys orders were to secure the New Mexico territory and Alta California. Armijo set up a position in Apache Canyon, a narrow pass about 10 miles southeast of the city, however, on August 14, before the American army was even in view, he decided not to fight. When Pino, Chaves, and some of the militiamen insisted on fighting, the New Mexican army retreated to Santa Fe, and Armijo fled to Chihuahua. Kearny and his troops encountered no Mexican forces when they arrived on August 15, Kearny and his force entered Santa Fe and claimed the New Mexico Territory for the United States without a shot being fired. From Santa Fe, Kearny sent Colonel Alexander Doniphan further south into Mexico, Kearny declared himself the military governor of the New Mexico Territory on August 18 and established a civilian government. He then took the remainder of his army west to Alta California, battles of the Mexican-American War List of battles fought in New Mexico Interpreted from- H. Bailey Carroll, The Texan Santa Fé Trail. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of the North Mexican States and Texas, published in 1889 Kearnys orders Library of Congress
18.
Capture of Tucson (1846)
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The Capture of Tucson was an uncontested United States entry into the Mexican city of Tucson, Sonora, now the present day Tucson, Arizona. The would-be combatants were provisional Mexican Army troops and the American Armys Mormon Battalion, Tucson temporarily fell in December 1846 without resistance but was immediately reoccupied two days later by the Mexican forces once the US troops moved on. The Mexican-American War began after Thorntons Defeat in 1846, the mission assigned to the Mormon Battalion was to create a continuous wagon road from Santa Fe to San Diego - the first into southern California. The American force, of around 500 riflemen and officers, were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Philip St. George Cooke, only an effective force of 360 took part in the trek across the Arizona desert. Marching towards Tucson in November 1846, the Mormon Battalion fought their only battle and it was against wild cattle which attacked them near the San Pedro River. The Mexican force consisted of around 200 men, most likely infantry and cavalry plus two small cannons, as well as an unknown force of men from the garrisons of Tubac, Santa Cruz. The Mexican Captain Antonio Comaduron had received three days warning of the approaching Americans. Each side took prisoners, then released them as tokens of good faith. Tensions were running high and getting higher as Cookes force approached, realizing he was outnumbered, Captain Comaduron decided to withdraw without fighting. He also advised many civilians to abandon Tucson with him, the Mexican forces retreated to San Xavier about 8 1/2 miles southwest of Tucson. On December 16,1846, the US Army unit arrived at the end of Tucson. But we will take the course before us and overcome all resistance. No fighting occurred as the army entered Tucson, passed along the west wall of the Mexican military compound. The Americans began to assure the frightened and staring population of their friendly intentions, many of the Mormon men were interested in trading for food and clothing. One man related later that a twenty-eight star American flag temporarily flew over Tucson for the first time though neither Cooke nor any other journalist makes any mention of it. The author remembers, with gratitude, the silver-haired Mexican. Dipped up his water, and. with cheerful countenance, delivered the refreshing and he has doubtless, long since, been gathered to his fathers, if so, peace to his ashes. Surely, I was athirst, and he gave me drink, Lieutenant Colonel Cookes soldiers had been low on food, so the Mexicans bartered meat and bread for cloth, buttons and pins, but only a little food was transferred to the Mormons through trade
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Battle of El Brazito
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The Battle of El Brazito took place on December 25,1846 between the United States Army and the Mexican Army during the Mexican-American War. En route to Chihuahua, Doniphans regiment was attacked by a Mexican army about thirty miles from El Paso del Norte, about 9 miles south of Las Cruces, New Mexico, since it was Christmas, Doniphan had halted his mens march at 1 PM that day. However, they spotted the dust cloud of a Mexican scouting party to the south, the Mexican Commander in parley demanded the Americans surrender. He and his men used the delay to fully form their battle line. The Mexicans then made an assault on the American position. Doniphan ordered his troops to hold their fire until the Mexicans came within easy range, at 50 yards the Americans opened fire with their rifles and muskets. Their fire was accurate and the Mexican regulars broke and fled. Mexican lancers next attacked Doniphans wagon train, but was driven off by the teamsters, the Mexican force retreated under the command of Capt. Rafael Carabaja after Ponce was wounded, abandoning their howitzer, which Lt. Nicholas B, line was formed on foot, when a black flag was received with an insolent demand. Colonel Doniphan restrained his men from shooting the bearer down, the enemy’s line, nearly half cavalry, and including a howitzer, opened fire at four hundred yards, and still advanced, and had fired three rounds, before fire was returned within effective range. Victory seems to have decided by a charge of Captain Reid with twenty cavalry which he had managed to mount. The enemy fled, with loss of forty-three killed and one hundred and fifty wounded, our loss seven wounded, Doniphans men reached El Paso on 27 Dec. where they seized five tons of powder,500 arms,400 lances and four artillery pieces. Major Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. arrived on 5 Feb. with about 100 men, Doniphan led his forces southward on 8 Feb. headed to Chihuahua
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