1.
Brownsville, Texas
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Brownsville is the county seat of Cameron County, Texas. It is the sixteenth most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population at the 2010 census of 175,023 and an estimated population in 2014 of 183,046. It is located at the southernmost tip of Texas, on the bank of the Rio Grande, directly north and across the border from Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The 2014 U. S. Census Bureau estimate placed the Brownsville-Harlingen metropolitan area population at 420,392, in addition, the international Matamoros–Brownsville Metropolitan Area was estimated to have a population of 1,136,995. Brownsville has one of the highest poverty rates in the nation, the Brownsville urban area is one of the fastest growing in the United States. The citys population increased after it experienced a boom in the steel industry during the first decade of the 1900s. In recent times, the Port of Brownsville has become an economic hub for South Texas, where shipments arrive from other parts of the United States, from Mexico. In April 1846, construction of a fort on the Mexican border by was begun by American forces due to increased instability in the region on the eve of the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Before the completion of the construction, the Mexican Army began the Siege of Fort Texas, during the first active campaign in the Mexican–American War, the first battle of the war occurred on May 8, when General Zachary Taylor received word of the siege of the fort. Taylors forces rushed to help, but Mexican troops intercepted them, resulting in the Battle of Palo Alto, approximately 5 miles north of present-day Brownsville. The next morning the Mexican forces had retreated, and Taylors troops caught up with them, resulting in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which took place within the present city limits. When Taylor finally arrived at the besieged Fort Texas, it was found that two soldiers had died, one of them the commander, Major Jacob Brown. In his honor, General Taylor renamed the fort Fort Brown, an old cannon at the University of Texas at Brownsville and Texas Southmost College marks the spot where Major Brown received his fatal wound. The city of Brownsville was originally established late in 1848 by Charles Stillman, the state originally incorporated the city on January 24,1850. This was repealed on April 1,1852, due to a dispute between Stillman and the former owners. The state reincorporated the city on February 7,1853, which remains in effect, the issue of ownership was not decided until 1879, when the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stillman. On July 13,1859, the First Cortina War started, juan Nepomuceno Cortina became one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. The First Cortina War ended on December 27,1859, in May 1861, the brief Second Cortina War took place
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
4.
Battle of Palo Alto
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The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8,1846, on disputed ground five miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Aristas troops began to cross the Rio Grande, on May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege, Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylors force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left, the American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery. The U. S. light artillery was more mobile. That evening, Arista was forced to further south. The armies would clash again the day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his army, first with General Pedro de Ampudias 1st Brigade. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18-pounders, Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army with the intention of blocking Taylor, Ampudias brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylors scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th, behind this line was Col. Cayetano Monteros light cavalry. Mays dragoon squadron guarded the flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM, the American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejons cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, a fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled the lines. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, may failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Childs artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge, duncans battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Kers dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field
5.
Battle of Monterrey
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The hard-fought urban combat led to heavy casualties on both sides. The battle ended with both sides negotiating an armistice and the Mexican forces being allowed to make an orderly evacuation in return for the surrender of the city. On 8 August, Taylor established the headquarters for his Army of Occupation in Camargo, Tamaulipas, jose Lopez Uragas 4th Infantry guns atop the citadel. Taylor ordered the army to camp at Bosque de San Domingo while engineers under the command of Major Joseph K. Mansfield reconnoitered. West of the city atop Independencia stood Ft. Libertad and the Obispado with the Activo of Mexico commanded by Lt. Col. Franciso de Berra, in reserve at la Plaza was the 3d Ligero under Lt. Col. Juan Castro and Lt. Agustin Espinosa. General Zachary Taylor decided to attack western Monterrey using William J. Worths Division in a giant north and west hook movement while simultaneously attacking with his main body from the east. Worth started at 2 pm on 20 September along with Col. John Coffee Hayss Texas Regiment screening the advance, by 8 am, Capt. Electus Backuss company of the 1st Infantry had taken the tannery and by noon, with Col. William B. Campbells 1st Tennessee and Mississippi Rifles, had taken Fort de La Teneria, no attacks or sorties occurred on 22 September. At 3 am on 23 September, Worth sent the Texas Rangers and the 4th and 8th Infantry, under Lt. Col. Thomas Childs, to take Fort Libertad on Independencia, which they did by daybreak. With the help of James Duncans battery, they took the Obispado and had control of western Monterrey. By then, the Mexicans had abandoned their defenses on the east side of Monterrey, concentrating in the Plaza Mayor. The Texan volunteers taught the U. S. regulars new techniques for fighting in the city, techniques that they did not employ on 21 September, by 2 pm, Taylor and Quitman were within two blocks east of the plaza when Taylor ordered a withdrawal before nightfall. General Ampudia decided to negotiate on 24 September, Taylor negotiated a two-month armistice, along the line Rinconada Pass-Linares_San Fernando de Parras, in return for the surrender of the city. The Mexican Army was allowed to march from the city from 26 to 28 September, with their personal arms, Ampudia had moved beyond the armistice line by 30 September and San Luis Potosi by early November. The resulting armistice signed between Taylor and Ampudia had major effects upon the outcome of the war. Taylor was lambasted by some in the government, where President James K. Polk insisted that the U. S. Army had no authority to negotiate truces. In addition, his terms of armistice, which allowed Ampudias forces to retreat with battle honors and all of their weapons, were seen as foolish, for his part, some have argued that Ampudia had begun the defeat of Mexico. Many Mexican soldiers became disenchanted with the war, the invading army occupied the city and remained until June 18,1848
6.
Battle of the Sacramento River
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The Battle of the Sacramento River was a battle that took place on February 28,1847 during the Mexican–American War. On February 8, Colonel Alexander Doniphans force of 924 soldiers and 300 civilians left El Paso del Norte for Chihuahua despite learning John E. Wool had abandoned his march there, Major Samuel Owens had the civilians formed into a battalion along with the caravan of 312 wagons. On 25 February, they reached the Laguna de Encenillas, where they learned of the Mexican defenses prepared for them. Governor Trias had built up a force under the command of General Jose A. Heredia and they had constructed a redoubt near the Hacienda Sacramento where the El Paso road crosses the river, and at Hacienda el Torreon two miles to the west. At sunrise on February 28, the last day of February, when the Americans arrived within sight of the Mexican defenses, Doniphan made a reconnaissance of the enemy positions. Twenty-three separate works had been dug for twelve 4- to 9-pounders, Doniphan used his cavalry to screen the movement of his force parallel to the Arroyo Seco and to the right and out of range of the Mexican artillery. Doniphan formed the wagons into a fort after crossing the gully onto a plateau, Doniphans men approached the southernmost Mexican earthworks, held by Heredias best troops. Richard H. Weightmans twin howitzers to the front accompanied by Capt. Reids force of mounted cavalry men, Major Owens was killed in the charge, but Missourians took the fort. Trias attempted a counterattack but his lancers were halted by canister shot, by 5 PM the fighting was over. Unable to defend Chihuahua, Trias fled to Parras, Doniphan commented, The fire of our battery was so effective as to completely silence theirs. Doniphans men marched into Chihuahua on 2 March and on 23 April was ordered to bring his men to Saltillo, battles of the Mexican–American War Brooks, N. C. Compete History Of The Mexican War, Grigg, Elliot & Co. Philadelphia 1849, pp. 271-280 Listing of 1846–1848 US Army Casualties Cooke, the Conquest of New Mexico and California, an Historical and Personal Narrative. Col. Doniphans report of the battle Marker to Doniphan in Clay Co, speaking of History Podcast with audio of John Dillingham speech on the life of Alexander Doniphan. - presented at the Truman Presidential Library in May 2007, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
7.
Siege of Veracruz
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The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day siege of the key Mexican beachhead seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War. Lasting from March 9–29,1847, it began with the first large-scale amphibious assault conducted by United States military forces, U. S. forces then marched inland to Mexico City. After the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista, much of Zachary Taylors Army of Occupation was transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott in support of the upcoming campaign. That campaign, determined by Scott and other Washington officials, would be a Veracruz landing, Veracruz was considered to be the strongest fortress in North America at the time. Puebla Libres, Orizaba, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Tehuantepec national guards, Fort San Juan de Ulúa – offshore on the Gallega Reef. Gen. Jose Durán with 1,030 men and 135 guns, artillery, Puebla and Jamiltepec activo battalions, companies of Tuxpan, Tampico, see Orders of Battle Mexican War. The Americans arrived at Anton Lizardo, Veracruz in early March, Scott agreed with Conners suggestion for a landing site at Collado Beach,3 mi south of Veracruz. The 1st Regular Division under Worth was chosen to make the landing first, followed by Pattersons volunteers, Conners Mosquito Fleet moved to within 90 yd of the beach to supply covering fire if necessary. By 12,15 pm on 9 March, this force was off Collado Beach, just before the main force touched the beach, a gig dashed ahead, and General Worth with his staff jumped ashore. Worths whole division landed without firing or receiving a single shot, by 11 pm, Scotts entire army had been brought ashore without a single man lost, and the first large scale amphibious landing conducted by the U. S. military was a success. Once ashore Pattersons division began marching northward to effect a complete envelopment of the city, one of Pattersons brigades under Gideon Pillow drove off a Mexican cavalry at Malibrán, cutting off the Alvarado road and the citys water supply. Quitman and Shields managed to drive off cavalry attempting to prevent the investment, by 13 March, the U. S. had completed a 7 mi siege line from Collado in the south to Playa Vergara in the north. On 17 March, siege lines were dug for Scotts siege artillery, sufficient for taking the city, the besiegers were plagued by sorties from the city, and Col. Juan Aguayo used the cover of a storm to slip his Alvarado garrison into Veracruz. Perry, Conners successor, returned from Norfolk, Virginia after making repairs on the USS Mississippi, perry and Conner met with Scott regarding the Navys role in the siege, and offered six guns that were to be manned by sailors from the ships. The naval battery was constructed under the direction of Captain Robert E. Lee 700 yd from the city walls. On March 22, Morales declined a surrender demand from Scott, the Naval batterys heavy cannonballs easily broke the coral walls. Congreve rockets were fired into the defenses and the fire forced the abandonment of Fort Santiago as Mexican morale began to drop. On March 24, Persifor F. Smiths brigade captured a Mexican soldier with reports that Antonio López de Santa Anna was marching an army from Mexico City to the relief of Veracruz
8.
Battle of Cerro Gordo
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The Battle of Cerro Gordo, or Battle of Sierra Gordo, was an engagement that took place during the Mexican-American War on April 18,1847. The battle saw Winfield Scotts United States troops out-flank and drive Antonio López de Santa Annas larger Mexican army from a defensive position. After United States forces captured the port of Veracruz on 29 March 1847 and these included several batteries under the command of brigadier generals Luis Pinzon, Jose Maria Jararo, and Romulo Diaz de la Vega. Scotts leading division, commanded by David E. Twiggs, reached the Cerro Gordo Pass on 12 April. On 12 April, Lieutenant Pierre G. T. Beauregard, of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, the Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. These reconnaissances were made under the supervision of Captain Robert E. Lee and other officers, all of whom attained rank and these had been opened under cover of night, without attracting the notice of the enemy. The engineers, who had directed the opening, led the way, in like manner the guns were drawn by hand up the opposite slope. Twiggs division took the hill on 17 April, advancing up the slopes to El Telegrafo, Santa Anna reinforced El Telegrafo with Brigadier General Ciriaco Vasquezs 2d Light, 4th, and 11th Infantry. Captain Edward J. Steptoe set up his battery on Atalaya Hill, at 7,00 am on 18 April, Twiggs directed William S. Harneys brigade to move against the front of El Telegrafo while Bennett C. The combination easily took the hill, killing General Vasquez, magruder turned the Mexican guns on the retreating Mexicans. Simultaneously, James Shields brigade attacked the Mexican camp and took possession of the Jalapa road, once they realized they were surrounded, the Mexican commanders on the three hills surrendered and by 10,00 am, the remaining Mexican forces fled. Scott moved on to Jalapa, and William J. Worths division took San Carlos Fortress on 22 April, Scott then occupied Puebla on 15 May, before departing for Mexico City on 7 August. Cerro Gordo County, Iowa, Cerro Gordo, North Carolina and Cerro Gordo, Illinois take their names from the battle, much as Resaca, the 1, 000-strong Artega Brigade, consisting of the Pueblo Activos and National Guard battalions, arrived at the end of the battle. Saint Patricks Battalion The Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, apuntes para la historia de la guerra entre México y los Estados Unidos. The Other Side, Or, Notes for the History of the War between Mexico and the United States, translated and edited in the United States by Albert C, ramsey, New York, John Wiley,1850. Annual Reports,1894 War Department lists trophy guns as, 1–8 pounder bronze, 2–6 pounders, celebrations for Battle of Cerro Gordo, Washington D. C. 1847, Shapell Manuscript Foundation A Continent Divided, The U. S, – Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
9.
Battle of Churubusco
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The Battle of Churubusco took place on August 20,1847, while Santa Annas army was in retreat from the Battle of Contreras, Mexican–American War. After defeating the Mexican army at Churubusco, the U. S. Army was only 5 miles away from Mexico City, following their defeats at Contreras Santa Anna ordered Major General Nicolás Bravo with the Army of the Center to retreat from San Antonio to Churubusco. Scott sent David Twiggs and Gideon Johnson Pillows divisions from San Angel to Coyoacán, during retreat from San Antonio, the Mexican defenders, were struck in flank by Clarkes Brigade. Garland moved forward as the Mexicans withdrew from San Antonio and captured a general, scott ordered an attack on the convent. In addition to the walls of the convent, the defenses included a series of incomplete trenches the Mexicans had begun digging prior to the attack. Some elements of the Tlapa and Lagos Battalions arrived as reinforcements, three cannon were placed on the right, two in the center, and the remaining two on the left. Independencia was assigned to defend the walls, the right flank leading to the bridge, the unfortified south and north sides. The Bravos and the San Patricios were stationed on the left, in support along the Rio Churubusco was the Perez Brigade,2,500 men Worths division took on the tete-de-pont, while Twiggs the convent. Rincons gunners were able to force Taylors battery to withdraw, the attack by Franklin Pierce and James Shields, crossing the river on the Coyoacan-Mixcoac road in an attempt to cut off the Mexican retreat, was also stopped. However, Worth turned the Mexican left and crossed the river, capt. Duncan then set up a battery to attack the convent. Two of the Mexican cannons had melted and a third had fallen from its mount, lieutenant Colonel Francisco Peñúñuri of Independencia led a handful of men in a bayonet charge and was defeated. He and Captain Luis Martínez de Castro, who had accompanied him, were killed in the battle, officers from the Bravos attempted to raise the white flag over the convent walls on three occasions. Captain James Milton Smith finally stopped the fighting by putting up a white handkerchief, the Americans captured 192 prisoners and 3 pieces of artillery at the tete de pont. They captured 1,259 prisoners, including 3 generals and the San Patricios leader Lt. Col. Francisco Rosenda Moreno and they captured another 380 prisoners further up the road. Scott did not continue the pursuit into Mexico City. willing to leave something to this republic. I halted our victorious corps at the gates of the city, a brigade of volunteers from New York was billeted to the convent, remaining there until September 7. Parts of the battle were portrayed in the mini-series North and South, saint Patricks Battalion Balbontin, Manuel Recuerdos de la invasion norte-americana, 1846-1848. Annual Reports 1894, War Department lists trophy guns as, 1-16 pounder bronze, 4-8 pounders, 4-6 pounders, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
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United States
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