1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Williamite War in Ireland
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It is also called the Jacobite War in Ireland or the Williamite–Jacobite War in Ireland. The cause of the war was the deposition of James as King of the Three Kingdoms in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, James was supported by the mostly Catholic Jacobites in Ireland and hoped to use the country as a base to regain his Three Kingdoms. He was given support by France to this end. For this reason, the war part of a wider European conflict known as the Nine Years War. Some Protestants of the established Church in Ireland also fought on the side of King James, James was opposed in Ireland by the mostly Protestant Williamites, who were concentrated in the north of the country. William landed a force in Ireland, composed of English, Scottish, Dutch, Danish and other troops. James left Ireland after a reverse at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, William defeated Jacobitism in Ireland and subsequent Jacobite risings were confined to Scotland and England. However, the War was to have an effect on Ireland, confirming British. The iconic Williamite victories of the Siege of Derry and the Battle of the Boyne are still celebrated by unionists in Ireland today, the war in Ireland began as a direct consequence of the Glorious Revolution in England. James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, who was a Roman Catholic, attempted to introduce freedom of religion for Catholics and bypass the English Parliament to introduce unpopular laws. For many in England, this was an unpleasant reminder of the rule of Charles I, whose conflict with the Parliament led to the outbreak of the English Civil War. The breaking point in James relationship with the English political class came in June 1688 when his wife gave birth to a son. This fear led some political figures to conspire to invite William III, stadtholder of the provinces of the Dutch Republic. William had indicated that such an invitation would be a condition for a military intervention, the Dutch Republic was at the brink of war with the France of Louis XIV, then the greatest military power in Europe. William invaded England in November 1688, Williams invasion fleet was aided by favourable weather that gave him weather gage over the British fleet, allowing him to outmaneuver them and land unopposed. William landed at Brixham on 5 November 1688 with 18,000 troops, James fled to France after putting up only a token resistance. In 1689, Prince William and his wife Princess Mary Stuart became co-regents as King William III, however, while James II was unpopular in England, he had widespread popular support in Ireland. They had been defeated by 1652 and were punished by the English Commonwealth regime with land confiscations and they were largely disappointed with the failure of King Charles II to completely reverse this situation in the Act of Settlement 1662
3.
Jan Wyck
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Jan Wyck was a Dutch baroque painter, best known for his works on military subjects. There are still over 150 of his works known to be in existence, Jan Wyck was born on 29 October 1652, in Haarlem, then part of the Dutch Republic. The son of Thomas Wyck, also a Dutch painter, it is assumed that his father taught him to paint and his father had spent much of the 1630s in Rome, refining an Italianate style, which can be seen in the works of both father and son. It appears likely that at a young age he and his father moved to England during the reign of Charles II of England. At this hearing he also promised to deliver his proofe piece. However his father had returned to Haarlem within a year, the reference to him being a widower at the age of 24 indicates he was first married at a young age. His second wife was a 19-year-old English woman called Anne Skinner of St Martin-in-the-fields, following the death of Anne in 1687, he remarried for the third time to a Dutch woman by the name of Elizabeth Holomberg in 1688. They moved into a new home in Mortlake, and between 1689 and 1693 they had two sons and a daughter together and his wife Elizabeth died giving birth to their daughter. As the son of a successful artist, it is likely Wyck was painting and drawing from a young age. Enjoying the patronage of the Duke of Ormond Wyck was known as the best landscape painter in London by 1686, by the time William III of England ascended to the throne, Wyck was also enjoying the patronage of the Duke of Monmouth. He painted a portrait of Monmouth on horseback in the 1670s, as well as depictions of him in battle, such as at the Siege of Maastricht in 1673. Wyck was placed upon the committee of Acting Painters of the Painter-Stainers Company on 24 November 1680 and he first made a public name for himself when he accompanied fellow Dutch painter Dirk Maas to Ireland to paint the campaigns of William III. Maas had received a commission from King William to paint the Battle of the Boyne, throughout the 1690s, he is known to have created at least half a dozen oils of the battle, as well as countless battle pieces, encampments and equestrian portraits of soldiers before battle. William was impressed with his work, and commissioned him to paint himself, William had soon also called upon Wyck to depict countless scenes of his campaigns throughout the low countries during the Nine Years War, including the Siege of Namur, and the Siege of Naarden. Other scenes he painted include the Siege of Derry, and the horse and battle portion of Godfrey Knellers famous portrait of the Duke of Schomberg, wycks works are notable for their flair and colour, as well as the excellent attention to detail. He highlights features such as flourishing sabres, firing muskets, flaring horses nostrils, but most importantly he brought the viewer into the battle at a time when the prevailing trend was to present birds-eye views over a battle, showing disposition and locations of troop formations. He personalised the soldiers, and created an atmospheric presentation of the scenes depicted and he also celebrated notable commanders and recognisable figures within his works, a feature that made him popular with those commissioning works. One of his students that went on to produce great works of national importance was John Wootton
4.
County Meath
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County Meath is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the Mid-East Region and it is named after the historic Kingdom of Meath. Meath County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 194,942 according to the 2016 census, the county is drained by the River Boyne. Meath is the 14th largest of Ireland’s 32 counties in area and it is the second largest of Leinster’s 12 counties in size and third largest in terms of population. The county town is Navan, where the county hall and government are located, although Trim, County Meath also has the only two Gaeltacht areas in the province of Leinster, at Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib. There are eighteen historic baronies in the county and they include the baronies of Morgallion and Ratoath. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, There are 40 elected members in Meath County Council. Fine Gael hold 13 seats, Fianna Fáil hold 10, Sinn Féin hold 8, There are 2 Dáil constituencies, Meath West and Meath East. Before, there was only one constituency, the two current constituencies are within the borders of the county. The constituencies also include part of the county of Westmeath. Together they return 6 deputies to Dáil Éireann, part of the county along the Irish Sea coast, known as East Meath which includes Julianstown and Laytown-Bettystown-Mornington are part of the Louth constituency for general elections. Fianna Fáil currently hold no seats, Fine Gael have 2 in each constituency, Labour has 1 in the East constituency, the county is colloquially known by the nickname The Royal County due to its history as the seat of the High King of Ireland. It formed from the part of the former Kingdom of Mide. The seat of the High King of Ireland was at Tara, the archaeological complex of Brú na Bóinne is 5,000 years old and includes the burial sites of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, in the north-east of the county. It is a UNESCO designated World Heritage Site, the Hill of Tara, an ancient historical site. Castles at Trim, Slane, Dunsany, Killeen, religious ruins at Trim, Bective, Slane, Dunsany, Skryne
5.
Williamite
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Not to be confused with the mineral willemite. A Williamite is a follower of King William III of England who deposed King James II in the Glorious Revolution, William, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, replaced James with the support of English Whigs. One of Williams aims was to ensure Englands entry into his League of Augsburg against France in the Nine Years War, for Williamites in England, Scotland and Ireland, William was seen as the guarantor of civil and religious liberty and the Protestant monarchy against Catholic absolutism. The term Williamite is also used to refer to Williams multi-national army in Ireland during the Williamite War in Ireland. In Ireland itself, William was supported by Protestant settlers and opposed by the native, after early setbacks, Williamite forces won a series of victories during the war defending Derry and capturing Carrickfergus in 1689. Subsequent battles at the Battle of the Boyne and Battle of Aughrim led to a victory at Limerick by 1691. William himself led his forces at the Boyne in 1690, which was commemorated in paintings such as Benjamin Wests The Battle of the Boyne. He is still depicted in the iconography of the Orange Order, whose name comes from Williams dynasty, such compact houses do not fit easily within the conventions of English baroque architecture. The Williamite Purple Star is up to the present part of the flag of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland
6.
Jacobitism
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The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May
7.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
8.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
9.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
10.
Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell
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Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell PC was an Irish royalist and Jacobite soldier. He served as James IIs Lord Lieutenant during the Williamite War in Ireland and his administration saw a major purge of Protestant officers from the Irish Army which had previously largely barred Catholics. Like most Old English families in Ireland, the Talbots had adopted the customs of the Irish and had, like the Irish and his eldest brother was Sir Robert Talbot, 2nd Baronet. He married Katherine Baynton in 1669 and they had two daughters, Katherine and Charlotte. Talbot later married Frances Jennings, sister of Sarah Jennings and he was also known by the nickname Lying Dick Talbot. During the Irish Confederate Wars that followed the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and he was taken prisoner by the Parliamentarians after the battle of Dungans Hill in 1647, but was ransomed back to his own side. In 1649, he survived the Cromwellian Sack of Drogheda. Shortly after this, he fled Ireland, to join his fellow defeated Royalists in France, Talbot had been introduced to Charles II and James, Duke of York, when they were exiles in Flanders, as a result of the English Civil War. Talbot then lived like many other royalist refugees, partly by casual military service and he was arrested in London in November 1655 and was examined by Cromwell. Once more he escaped, but it was said by his enemies that he was bribed by Cromwell, after the Restoration he continued to have a place in the household of the Duke of York. He was arrested for supposed complicity in the Popish Plot agitation in 1678, after the accession of James II in 1685, he was created Baron of Talbotstown, Viscount Baltinglass and Earl of Tyrconnell, and sent as commander in chief of the forces in Ireland. In this capacity and as Lord Deputy of Ireland he placed Catholics in positions of control in the state and the militia, consequently, the entire Roman Catholic population sided with James II in the Glorious Revolution. Thus, in 1689, when James landed at Dublin with his French officers and his role in the Revolution was satirised in the contemporary folk song, Lillibullero. After James came to Ireland, he created him Duke of Tyrconnell and Marquess of Tyrconnell, by early 1689 there was growing dissent amongst Protestants across Ireland. In County Cork, the town of Bandon rose up but were defeated by Justin MacCarthy. A second comfortable victory at the Battle of Cladyford followed and this initial success was checked when the Catholic forces besieged Derry and attacked Enniskillen. After they were relieved by Percy Kirkes forces, the Jacobites were forced to withdraw, the situation worsened after Marshal Schombergs large Williamite expedition reached Belfast Lough and captured Carrickfergus. Schomberg then marched south to a Dundalk where he threatened to advance on Dublin, after a lengthy stalemate the two armies withdrew into winter quarters
11.
Antoine Nompar de Caumont
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Antoine Nompar de Caumont, duc de Lauzun was a French courtier and soldier. He was the love interest of the greatest heiress in Europe, Anne Marie Louise dOrléans, Duchess of Montpensier. He was the son of Gabriel, comte de Lauzun, and his wife Charlotte, daughter of Henri-Nompar de Caumont and he was brought up with the children of his relative, the maréchal de Gramont. One daughter, Catherine Charlotte, afterwards princess of Monaco by marriage to Louis I Grimaldi, was the object of the one passion of Lauzuns life. He entered the army, and served under Turenne, also his kinsman, then known as the comte de Puyguilhem, he rose rapidly in Louis XIVs favour, became colonel of the royal regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted maréchal de camp. He and Madame de Monaco belonged to the côterie of the young Duchess of Orléans and his rough wit and skill in practical jokes pleased Louis XIV, but his jealousy and violence were the causes of his undoing. The result was a short sojourn in the Bastille, but he returned to his function as court buffoon. Meanwhile, Anne, Duchess of Montpensier had fallen in love with the little man and he naturally encouraged one of the greatest heiresses in Europe, and the wedding was fixed for December 21,1670. Then, on the 18th, Louis sent for his cousin, Madame de Montespan had never forgiven Lauzuns fury when she failed to procure the grand-mastership of the artillery, and now, with Louvois, secured his arrest. He was removed in November 1671 from the Bastille to Pignerol, another fellow-prisoner, from communication with whom he was supposed to be rigorously excluded, was Eustache Dauger, who occasionally served as valet to Fouquet. An attempted escape was foiled when, on emerging from his tunnel and she gave way, but Lauzun, even after ten years of imprisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was brought to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment at Chalon-sur-Saône made him change his mind, but when he was set free Louis XIV was still set against the marriage, married or not, Lauzun was openly courting Nicolas Fouquets daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mademoiselle Fouquet, in 1685 Lauzun went to England to seek his fortune under James II, whom he had served as Duke of York in Flanders. He rapidly gained influence at the English court. In the late autumn of 1689 he was put in command of the expedition fitted out at Brest for service in Ireland, and he sailed in the following year. Lauzun was honest, a quality not too common in James IIs officials in Ireland, but had no experience of the field, after the battle of the Boyne they fled to Limerick, and thence to the west, leaving Patrick Sarsfield to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France, and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure had destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIVs favour. Mademoiselle died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married Genevieve de Durfort, a child of fourteen, daughter of the maréchal de Lorges, after his death, the dukedom of Lauzun fell to his nieces husband, Charles Armand de Gontaut
12.
William III of England
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It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
13.
Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg
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He was killed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. Descended from an old family of the Electorate of the Palatinate, he was born at Heidelberg, an orphan within a few months of his birth, he was educated by various friends, among whom was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, in whose service his father had been. He began his career under Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. His family, and the house of the Saxon Schönbergs had already attained eminence in France. After the peace of the Pyrenees, the independence of Portugal was threatened by Spain, louis XIV of France, in order not to infringe the treaty just made with Spain, deprived Schomberg of his French officers. Schomberg thus took command of the English brigade which consisted of three regiments in total 3,000 men, many of these were ex Royalist and New Model Army troops from the Civil War. He had been rewarded by the king of Portugal, in 1663, with the rank of Grandee, the title of count of Mértola, however the army did not go into action before the Treaty of Westminster established peace, and was disbanded by the King following Parliamentary pressure. He therefore again entered the service of France and his first operations in Catalonia were unsuccessful owing to the disobedience of subordinates and the rawness of his troops. On 19 June,1674, he was dealt a defeat at the Battle of Maureillas by Francisco de Tutavilla y del Rufo, for this he was made a marshal, being included in the promotion that followed the death of Turenne. The tide had now turned against the Huguenots, and Schombergs merits had been long ignored on account of his adherence to the Protestant religion, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes forced him to leave his adopted country. Ultimately he became general-in-chief of the forces of the elector of Brandenburg, soon afterwards, with the electors consent, he joined the prince of Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, the Glorious Revolution, as second in command to the prince. In August he was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition to Ireland against the Jacobite supporters of James II, shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were more shattered than if they had sustained a severe defeat. Ln the spring he began the campaign with the capture of Charlemont, at the Battle of the Boyne, Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. After riding through the river to rally his men, he was wounded twice in the head by sabre cuts and his eldest son Charles Schomberg, the second duke in the English peerage, died in the year 1693 of wounds received at the Battle of Marsaglia. His other son was Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg and he was buried in St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin, where there is a monument to him, erected in 1731, with a Latin inscription by Jonathan Swift. Latin text of the inscription, Hic infra situm est corpus Frederici Ducis de Schonberg, ad Bubindam occisi, decanus et Capitulum maximopere etiam atque etiam petierunt, ut haeredes Ducis monumentum in memoriam parentis erigendum curarent. Sed postquam per epistolas, per amicos, diu ac saepe orando nil profecere, hunc demum lapidem statuerunt, saltem ut scias, hospes, plus potuit fama virtutis apud alienos quam sanguinis proximitas apud suos. A. D.1731 The English translation, Here below is placed the body of Frederick, Duke of Schomberg, killed at the Boyne, A. D.1690
14.
Siege of Derry
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The Siege of Derry, was the first major event in the Williamite War in Ireland. While the gates of the old walled city were closed in December 1688. The siege lasted three and a half months, ending on 30 July 1689 when relief ships bringing an English army sailed down Lough Foyle. The siege is commemorated yearly in August by the Apprentice Boys of Derry, in Scotland, the privy council asked William to assume responsibility for the government in January 1689, and he and Mary were formally offered the Scottish throne in March. The situation was different in Ireland where most of the population were Catholics, Irish Catholics were hoping that James would re-grant them lands, which had been seized from them after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. James thus looked to Ireland to muster support in re-gaining his kingdoms just as his father, Richard Talbot, who was acting as Jamess viceroy in Ireland, was eager to ensure that all strongholds in the country were held by garrisons loyal to James. He focused on the province of Ulster, which had been the most heavily planted by British Protestant colonists. By November 1688, Enniskillen and Derry were the two garrisons in Ulster that were not wholly loyal to James and these became the point of the first stage in the Williamite war in Ireland. The elderly Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim, a Jacobite, was ordered to replace these two garrisons with forces loyal to King James and he agreed, but wasted several weeks searching for men who were at least six feet tall. A force of about 1,200 Scottish Highland Redshanks then set out for Derry, on 7 December, with the army a short distance away, thirteen apprentice boys seized the city keys and locked the gates. On 10 December, King James fled London and he was caught, but fled a second time on 23 December and made his way to France. Jamess first cousin, King Louis XIV of France, said he would help James regain power, in London on 13 February 1689, William and Mary were crowned. On 12 March, James landed in Kinsale with 6000 French soldiers and he took Dublin and marched north with an army of Irish and French Catholics. In April 1689 reinforcements from England arrived under the command of Colonel Cunningham and he was under instructions to take his orders from the Derry City Governor, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Lundy. Lundy advised Colonel Cunningham to leave as arrangements had been made for the city to be surrendered and he wrote on 15 April that without an immediate supply of money and provisions this place must fall very soon into the enemys hands. Lundy called a meeting with several of his most loyal supporters to discuss surrender, news of the meeting spread, angering many of the citizens. That night, Lundy and many left the city and took ship to Scotland. The citys defence was overseen by Major Henry Baker, Colonel Adam Murray, as the Jacobite army neared, all the buildings outside the city walls were set alight by the defenders to prevent them being used as cover by the besiegers
15.
Battle of Bantry Bay
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The Battle of Bantry Bay was a naval engagement fought on 11 May 1689 during the Nine Years War. The English fleet was commanded by Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington, apart from the inshore operations at La Rochelle in 1627–28, the Battle of Bantry Bay was the first time English and French navies had met in fleet action since 1545. But although the French failed to follow up their success with strategic gain. Following the Glorious Revolution in 1688, James II of England lost his throne to William, the new William III reigned jointly with his wife Mary. James fled to France and was given succour by his co-religionist, Louis XIV, while in France, James built up an army to support his Lord Deputy in Ireland, the Earl of Tyrconnell. James had already sent financial help, but it was not until March 1689 that he was ready to sail in person to lead the campaign. After landing in Kinsale with 100 French officers and about 2,500 mixed troops, James, James hoped to quickly establish control over Ireland before pressing on to Scotland or England, but this was impossible while Protestant strongholds in northern Ireland remained outside his control. The newly appointed commander-in-chief of the English main fleet, Arthur Herbert, did not go to sea until the beginning of April, Herberts fleet of 19 ships sailed on 4 April, it was off Cork by 12 April, seeking to intercept enemy vessels. As the French approached southern Ireland Herberts squadron had made offloading supplies at Kinsale impossible, the following morning on 11 May, as the French were landing 1,500 men with money, arms and ammunition, Admiral Herbert’s fleet came into view. The French weighed anchor, and a battle ensued in the confined waters of the bay. Initially the two opposed each other in parallel lines but Château-Renault, enjoying the weather gage, drove Herbert from the bay into the open sea. The ensuing battle – which in total lasted four hours – was somewhat inconclusive, when the French broke off the action late in the afternoon in order to return to the anchorage, Herberts ships were too damaged to follow, and he had suffered many casualties. The fleets withdrew, Château-Renault returned to Brest on 18 May, Herbert sailed for the Scilly Isles, before reaching Spithead, via Plymouth, on 22 May. For both the French and English however, the battle was equally unsatisfactory, William was also unsatisfied with the outcome, nevertheless, the King created Herbert Earl of Torrington, mainly in recognition of his work the previous year during the Glorious Revolution. Moreover, the King knighted two of Herbert’s captains, John Ashby who had led the van, and Cloudesley Shovell, and ordered a gratuity of ten shillings a head for the seaman. In response, the Scottish parliament commissioned two small cruisers, the Pelican and the Janet to oppose the French squadron, but, on 20 July, they were both taken by Duquesne in the North Channel. The Allies now began to build up their strength in the Channel. After rendezvousing with victuallers, the Anglo-Dutch squadrons patrolled south of Kinsale to prevent further French supplies reaching Ireland, with Schombergs reinforcements, the Williamite army opposing James in Ireland now amounted to some 40,000 troops
16.
Siege of Carrickfergus (1689)
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The Siege of Carrickfergus took place in August 1689 when a force of Williamite troops under Marshal Schomberg landed and laid siege to the Jacobite garrison of Carrickfergus in Ireland. After a week the Jacobites surrendered, and were allowed to march out with the honours of war, Carrickfergus was a traditional stronghold of the Crown in Ulster, commanded by the Norman-era Carrickfergus Castle. During 1689 with its Irish Army garrison, it became a refuge for Catholic inhabitants of the region to flee to as the rebellion against James IIs rule grew. In February 1689 local Protestant forces made an attempt to storm the town. After the Break of Dromore on 14 March, Richard Hamiltons royal forces had swept through Eastern Ulster bringing all of County Down and Antrim under their control. Carrickfergus and its area were securely under Jacobite rule as Hamilton advanced to lay siege to Derry. What had initially seemed as though it would be a quick victory began to drag out through the summer, meanwhile, a series of relief forces were being prepared in England. Percy Kirke led an expedition to Derry, where the siege was broken on 28 July. In the face of this defeat, Jacobite forces began to withdraw from Derry. A second major wave of reinforcements was assembled at Chester under the veteran Huguenot commander Frederick Schomberg, while it was originally suggested that they might head for Cork, it was decided that they should be landed in Ulster. By the time the expedition sailed from Hoylake on 12 August 1689 and it meant that Schomberg could now act offensively. By 13 August the expedition was in sight of the Mountains of Mourne and they were accompanied into Bangor Bay by George Rooke who had led a Royal Navy force to clear Belfast Lough of French shipping. The same afternoon Schomberg began disembarking his men and he kept them at the alert in case the Jacobite garrisons of nearby Belfast, Bangor and Carrickfergus should attack, but there was no opposition as the troops were brought ashore. The artillery and supply ships arrived separately a few days later, by the end of August, a total of six cavalry and nine infantry regiments had been landed safely at Carrickfergus. The landing added to a series of setbacks for the Jacobites including their failures at Derry and Enniskillen, faced with strong Williamite forces in both the north-west and north-east, the Jacobite commander in the north Thomas Maxwell ordered a withdrawal towards Newry. At Carrickfergus he left a garrison consisted of Charles MacCarthy Mores infantry regiment. The garrison were charged with delaying Schombergs army for as long as possible, the Jacobites abandoned Belfast which was swiftly occupied by Henry Whartons English regiment. As Schomberg wanted to march on Dublin before the set in
17.
Siege of Limerick (1690)
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Limerick, a city in western Ireland, was besieged twice in the Williamite War in Ireland, 1689-1691. On the first of these occasions, in August to September 1691, the Williamites, under William III, tried to take Limerick by storm, but were driven off and had to retire into their winter quarters. Following the successful defence of Derry and the Siege of Carrickfergus and their defeat at the Battle of the Boyne on July 1,1690 saw their forces make a disorderly retreat from the eastern part of the country, abandoning the capital Dublin in the process. James II himself had fled Ireland for France, judging his military prospects there to be hopeless, the main Jacobite army had retreated to Limerick after their defeat at the Boyne. The principal reason why many Jacobite officers were reluctant to surrender was the surrender terms published by William in Dublin after his victory at the Boyne. These terms offered a pardon only to the Jacobite rank and file, the Jacobite’s French commander, Lauzun, also wanted to surrender, expressing his dismay at the state of Limerick’s fortifications, saying that they could be knocked down by roasted apples. There were however sufficient Jacobite troops to defend Limerick, a total of 14,500 Jacobite infantry were billeted in Limerick itself and another 2,500 cavalry in Clare under Sarsfield. Moreover, the morale of the soldiers was high, despite the defeat at the Boyne. This was due to the circulation of an ancient Irish prophecy that the Irish would win a victory over the English outside Limerick. This may seem bizarre, but such prophecies were an important part of Irish popular culture at the time, Williamites mocked such superstition in songs such as Lillibullero. Lauzuns deputy Marquis de Boisseleau backed the hardliners in their attempts to defend the city, William of Orange and his army reached Limerick on August 7,1690, with 25,000 men and occupied Ireton’s fort and Cromwell’s fort outside the city. However he had with him only his artillery, as his siege cannon were still making their way from Dublin with a light escort. This siege train was intercepted by Sarsfield’s cavalry, at Ballyneety in county Limerick and this meant that William had to wait another ten days before he could start bombarding Limerick in earnest, while another siege train was brought up from Waterford. By this time it was late August, winter was approaching and William wanted to finish the war in Ireland so he could return to the Netherlands and get on with the main business of the War of the Grand Alliance against the French. For this reason, he decided on an all out assault on Limerick and his siege guns blasted a breach in the walls of the Irish town section of the city and William launched his assault on 27 August. The Danish grenadiers, and the eight regiments who followed them into the breach, suffered terribly from musketry, Jacobite soldiers without arms and the civilian population lined the walls and threw stones and bottles at the attackers. A regiment of Jacobite dragoons also made a sortie and attacked the Williamites in the breach from the outside, after three and a half hours of fighting, William finally called off the assault. Williams men had suffered about 3,000 casualties, including many of their best Dutch, Danish, German, the Jacobites lost only 400 men in the battle
18.
Siege of Athlone
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Athlone was besieged twice during the Williamite War in Ireland. The town is situated in the centre of Ireland on the River Shannon, for this reason, it was of key strategic importance. The Williamites first besieged Athlone in 1690, not long after their victory in the Battle of the Boyne, during this siege, they were commanded by William of Orange. An assault was made on the part of Athlone on 20 June, which caused the Jacobites to retreat across the Shannon to the west bank of the river. The Jacobites garrison at the half of Athlone led by Clifford, initially held off the Williamite assault by fierce fighting. The Williamites tried to lay planks over the partially wrecked structure, several attempts by the Williamites to storm the bridge were repulsed with heavy losses. The Williamite bombardment of the western, Connacht, side of the town was intense, one survivor described the scene, with the balls and bombs flying so thick, that spot was hell on earth. However, Ginkel identified another crossing upriver and sent an elite force,2,000 strong, to cross there. The grenadiers manned the towns west-facing ramparts and held off Jacobite counter-attacks until the main Williamite force could be brought up, after this, the Jacobite garrison, who had been awaiting reinforcement from the main Jacobite force advancing from Limerick, hastily abandoned their positions in Athlone. Ginkel and the Williamites went on to march on Limerick, on the march they were confronted by the main Jacobite army at the Battle of Aughrim and the Williamites inflicted a crushing defeat on them — effectively ending Jacobite resistance in Ireland
19.
Battle of Aughrim
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The Battle of Aughrim was the decisive battle of the Williamite War in Ireland. It was fought between the Jacobites and the forces of William III on 12 July 1691, near the village of Aughrim, the battle was one of the more bloody recorded fought on Irish soil – over 7,000 people were killed. It meant the end of Jacobitism in Ireland, although the city of Limerick held out until the autumn of 1691. The Jacobite position in the summer of 1691 was a defensive one, from this position, the Jacobites hoped to receive military aid from Louis XIV of France via the port towns and eventually be in a position to re-take the rest of Ireland. Godert de Ginkell, the Williamites Dutch general, had breached this line of defence by crossing the Shannon at Athlone - taking the town after a bloody siege. Ginkel marched through Ballinasloe, on the road towards Limerick and Galway. Both armies were about 20,000 men strong, the soldiers of St Ruth’s army were mostly Irish Catholic, while Ginkels were English, Scottish, Danish, Dutch and French Huguenot and Irish Protestants. The Jacobite position at Aughrim was quite strong, St Ruth had drawn up his infantry along the crest of a ridge known as Kilcommadan Hill. The left of the position was bounded by a bog, through there was only one causeway, overlooked by Aughrim village. On the other, open, flank, St Ruth placed his best infantry under his second-in-command, the chevalier de Tessé, the battle started with Ginkel trying to assault the open flank of the Jacobite position with cavalry and infantry. This attack ground to a halt after determined Jacobite counter-attacks and the Williamites halted, the French Huguenot forces committed here found themselves in low ground exposed to Jacobite fire and took a great number of casualties. Contemporaneous accounts speak of the grass being slippery with blood, to this day, this area on the south flank of the battle is known locally as the Bloody Hollow. In the centre, the Williamite infantry under Hugh Mackay tried a frontal assault on the Jacobite infantry on Kilcommadan Hill. The Williamite troops, mainly English and Scots, had to each line of trenches. The Williamite infantry attempted three assaults, the first of which penetrated furthest, eventually, the final Williamite assault was driven back with heavy losses by cavalry and pursued into the bog, where more of them were killed or drowned. In the rout, the pursuing Jacobites manage to spike a battery of Williamite guns and this left Ginkel with only one option, to try to force a way through the causeway on the Jacobite left. This should have been a position, with the attackers concentrated into a narrow lane. However, the Irish troops there were short on ammunition, Mackay directed this fourth assault, consisting mainly of cavalry, in two groups - one along the causeway and one parallel to the south
20.
Siege of Limerick (1691)
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Limerick in western Ireland was besieged twice during the Williamite War in Ireland. The city, held by Jacobite forces was able to beat off a Williamite assault in 1690, however, after a second siege in August-October 1691, it surrendered on favourable terms. By the time of the siege, the military situation had turned against the Jacobites. The main Jacobite army was smashed at the Battle of Aughrim in July 1691, losing 4,000 men killed, including their commander, the Marquis de St Ruth and thousands more taken prisoner and deserted. The Jacobite army retreated from Galway with all the honours of war to Limerick, on the other hand, the defences of Limerick had been considerably strengthened since 1690. The Williamite general Godert de Ginkell surrounded the city and bombarded it, a surprise Williamite attack drove the Irish defenders from the earthworks defending Thomond bridge, sending its Irish defenders reeling back towards Limerick. The French defenders of the gate of the city refused to open it for the fleeing Irish. After this point, Patrick Sarsfield ousted the Chevalier de Tessé and the Marquis dUsson, the French commanders in Limerick, Limerick capitulated under these favourable terms in October 1691. Sarsfield left Ireland with 10,000 soldiers and 4,000 women and children to enter the French service and this journey has become known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. S. McGarry, Irish Brigades Abroad, Dublin 2013, piers Waudchope, Patrick Sarsfield and the Williamite War, Dublin 1992. Webpage on the Williamite sieges - including good maps and photos
21.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
22.
Glorious Revolution
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The crisis facing the king came to a head in 1688, with the birth of the kings son, James Francis Edward Stuart, on 10 June. This changed the line of succession by displacing the heiress presumptive with young James Francis Edward as heir apparent. The establishment of a Roman Catholic dynasty in the kingdoms now seemed likely, stadtholder William, the de facto head of state of the Dutch United Provinces, feared a Catholic Anglo–French alliance and had already been planning a military intervention in England. After consolidating political and financial support, William crossed the North Sea and English Channel with an invasion fleet in November 1688. After only two minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns, Jamess regime collapsed, however, this was followed by the protracted Williamite War in Ireland and Dundees rising in Scotland. In Englands distant American colonies, the led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England. By threatening to withdraw his troops, William in February 1689 convinced a newly chosen Convention Parliament to make him, the Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England. The Revolution led to limited tolerance for Nonconformist Protestants, although it would be some time before they had political rights. Internationally, the Revolution was related to the War of the Grand Alliance on mainland Europe and it has been seen as the last successful invasion of England. It ended all attempts by England in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century to subdue the Dutch Republic by military force, the expression Glorious Revolution was first used by John Hampden in late 1689, and is an expression that is still used by the British Parliament. The Glorious Revolution is also termed the Bloodless Revolution, albeit inaccurately. Jamess greatest political problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in England. The low church Whigs had failed in their attempt to pass the Exclusion Bill to exclude James from the throne between 1679 and 1681, and Jamess supporters were the high church Anglican Tories. In Scotland, his supporters in the Parliament of Scotland stepped up attempts to force the Covenanters to renounce their faith, when James inherited the English throne in 1685, he had much support in the Loyal Parliament, which was composed mostly of Tories. His Catholicism was of concern to many, but the fact that he had no son, Jamess attempt to relax the Penal Laws alienated his natural supporters, however, because the Tories viewed this as tantamount to disestablishment of the Church of England. The majority of Irish people backed James II for this reason, by allying himself with the Catholics, Dissenters, and Nonconformists, James hoped to build a coalition that would advance Catholic emancipation. In May 1686, James decided to obtain from the English courts of the law a ruling that affirmed his power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter as well as the Solicitor General Heneage Finch, eleven out of the twelve judges ruled in favour of dispensing power
23.
House of Orange-Nassau
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Several members of the house served during this war and after as governor or stadtholder during the Dutch Republic. However, in 1815, after a period as a republic. The dynasty was established as a result of the marriage of Henry III of Nassau-Breda from Germany and their son René inherited in 1530 the independent and sovereign Principality of Orange from his mothers brother, Philibert of Châlon. As the first Nassau to be the Prince of Orange, René could have used Orange-Nassau as his new family name, however, his uncle, in his will, had stipulated that René should continue the use of the name Châlon-Orange. History knows him therefore as René of Châlon, after the death of René in 1544 his cousin William of Nassau-Dillenburg inherited all his lands. This William I of Orange, in English better known as William the Silent, the Castle of Nassau was founded around 1100 by Count Dudo-Henry of Laurenburg, the founder of the House of Nassau. In 1120, Dudo-Henrys sons and successors, Counts Robert I and Arnold I of Laurenburg and they renovated and extended the castle complex in 1124. The first man to be called the count of Nassau was Robert I of Nassau, the Nassau family married into the family of the neighboring Counts of Arnstein. His sons Walram and Otto split the Nassau possessions, the descendants of Walram became known as the Walram Line, which became Dukes of Nassau, and in 1890, the Grand Dukes of Luxembourg. This line also included Adolph of Nassau, who was elected King of the Romans in 1292, the descendants of Otto became known as the Ottonian Line, which inherited parts of Nassau County, and properties in France and the Netherlands. The House of Orange-Nassau stems from the younger Ottonian Line, the first of this line to establish himself in the Netherlands was John I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, who married Margareta of the Marck. The real founder of the Nassau fortunes in the Netherlands was Johns son and he became counsellor to the Burgundian Dukes of Brabant, first to Anton of Burgundy, and later to his son Jan IV of Brabant. He also would later serve Philip the Good, in 1403 he married the Dutch noblewoman Johanna van Polanen, and so inherited lands in the Netherlands, with the Barony of Breda as the core of the Dutch possessions and the family fortune. A nobles power was based on his ownership of vast tracts of land. It also helped that much of the lands that the House of Orange and Nassau controlled sat under one of the commercial and mercantile centers of the world (see below under Lands and Titles. The importance of the Nassaus grew throughout the 15th and 16th centuries as they became councilors, generals, Engelbert II of Nassau served Charles the Bold and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, who had married Charless daughter Mary of Burgundy. In 1496 he was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and by 1498 he had been named President of the Grand Conseil, in 1501, Maximilian named him Lieutenant-General of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. From that point forward, Engelbert was the representative of the Habsburg Empire to the region
24.
Mary II of England
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Mary II was joint monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland with her husband and first cousin, William of Orange, from 1689 until her death. William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694, popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of William and Mary. Mary wielded less power than William when he was in England, ceding most of her authority to him and she did, however, act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. Mary, born at St Jamess Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York, and his first wife, Anne Hyde. She was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess and her godparents included her fathers cousin, Prince Rupert of the Rhine. Although her mother bore eight children, all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young, consequently, for most of her childhood, Mary was second in line to the throne after her father. The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669, Marys education, from private tutors, was largely restricted to music, dance, drawing, French, and religious instruction. Her mother died in 1671, and her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife Mary of Modena, from about the age of nine until her marriage, Mary wrote passionate letters to an older girl, Frances Apsley, the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley. In time, Frances became uncomfortable with the correspondence, and replied more formally, at the age of fifteen, Mary became betrothed to her cousin, the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland, William of Orange. William was the son of the Kings late sister, Mary, Princess Royal, and thus fourth in the line of succession after James, Mary, and Anne. The Duke of York agreed to the marriage, after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King, when James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin, she wept all that afternoon and all the following day. William and a tearful Mary were married in St Jamess Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677, Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing back to the Netherlands later that month, after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather. On 14 December, they made an entry to The Hague in a grand procession. Marys animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people and she was devoted to her husband, but he was often away on campaigns, which led to Marys family supposing him to be cold and neglectful. She suffered further bouts of illness that may have been miscarriages in mid-1678, early 1679 and her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life. From May 1684, the Kings illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, lived in the Netherlands, Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York, and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant James in the line of succession. William, however, did not consider him a viable alternative, upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685, the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her fathers accession, to Williams relief, Monmouth was defeated, captured and executed, but both he and Mary were dismayed by Jamess subsequent actions
25.
River Boyne
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The River Boyne is a river in Leinster, Ireland, the course of which is about 112 kilometres long. Salmon and trout can be caught in the river, which is surrounded by the Boyne Valley and it is crossed just west of Drogheda by the Boyne River Bridge that carries the M1 motorway and by the Boyne Viaduct that carries the Dublin-Belfast railway line to the east. The catchment area of the River Boyne is 2,695 km2, the long term average flow rate of the River Boyne is 38.8 Cubic Metres per second Despite its short course, the Boyne has historical, archaeological and mythical connotations. The Battle of the Boyne, a battle in Irish history. It passes near the ancient city of Trim, Trim Castle, the Hill of Tara, Navan, the Hill of Slane, Brú na Bóinne, Mellifont Abbey, and the medieval city of Drogheda. In the Boyne Valley can also be found other historical and archaeological monuments, like Loughcrew, Kells, Celtic crosses, castles and this river has been known since ancient times. The Greek geographer Ptolemy drew a map of Ireland in the 2nd century which included the Boyne, which he called Βουουινδα, and somewhat later Giraldus Cambrensis called it Boandus. In Irish mythology it is said that the river was created by the goddess Boann, according to F. Dinneen, lexicographer of the Irish Gaelic language, in other legends, it was in this river where Fionn mac Cumhail captured Fiontán, the Salmon of Knowledge. The Meath section of the Boyne was also known as Smior Fionn Feidhlimthe, the Boyne Navigation is a series of canals running roughly parallel to the main river from Oldbridge near Drogheda to Navan. Owned by An Taisce and mostly derelict, the Inland Waterways Association of Ireland are restoring the navigation to navigable status, the canal at Oldbridge which runs through the battle of the Boyne Site was the first to be restored. A rock with indications of being Prehistoric art was found in August 2013, cliadh O’Gibne reported through the Archaeological Survey of Ireland that a boulder with geometric carvings had been found in Donore, County Meath. Initial examination by an underwater archaeologist, suggests it could be very rare because, unlike other log-boats found here, the vessel is to be excavated as it poses a hazard to navigation. See Annals of Inisfallen AI770.2 The battle of Bolg Bóinne against the Uí Néill, HMS Boyne Salmon fishing on the River Boyne, from Salmon Ireland A canoeing and kayaking guide to the River Boyne, from Irish Whitewater
26.
Drogheda
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Drogheda is one of the oldest towns in Ireland, known for its tourism and as a centre of industry, and medical care. It is located in County Louth on the Dublin-Belfast corridor on the east coast of Ireland,49 km or 30 miles north of Dublin. It is the last bridging point on the River Boyne before it enters the Irish Sea. The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Newgrange is located 8 km to west of the town. As the River Boyne divides the dioceses of Armagh and Meath, in 1412 these two towns were united and Drogheda became a County Corporate, styled as the County of the Town of Drogheda. With the passing of the County of Louth and Borough of Drogheda Provisional Order,1976, the boundary was further altered in 1994 by the Local Government Regulations 1994. The 2007–2013 Meath County Development Plan recognises the Meath environs of Drogheda as a growth centre on a par with Navan. In recent years Droghedas economy has diversified from its traditional industries, with an number of people employed in the retail, services. The town also has a community of independent artists and musicians who have been looking to the economy rather than Dublin for employment. Drogheda was also selected to host Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann 2018, Drogheda has a hinterland of 70, 000+ within a 15 kilometres radius covering County Louth and County Meath. According to the 2011 Irish Census, there are 30,393 in Drogheda town, the results of the numerous and often large-scale excavations carried out within the area of the medieval town in the past ten years appear to have confirmed this statement. The wall on the east side of Rosemary’s Lane is the oldest stone structure in Drogheda and it was completed in 1234 as the west wall of the first castle guarding access to the northern crossing point of the Boyne. The earliest known charter is that granted to Drogheda-in-Meath by Walter de lacy in 1194. In the 1600s the name of the town was also spelled Tredagh in keeping with the common pronunciation, Drogheda was an important walled town in the English Pale in the medieval period. It frequently hosted meetings of the Irish Parliament at that time and it later came to light, that the Queen herself was implicated in the orders given. The parliament was moved to the town in 1494 and passed Poynings Law, the most significant legislation in Irish history and this effectively subordinated the Irish Parliaments legislative powers to the King and his English Council. The town was besieged twice during the Irish Confederate Wars, in his own words after the siege of Drogheda, When they submitted, their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed and the rest shipped to Barbados. The Earldom of Drogheda was created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1661, the Battle of the Boyne,1690, occurred some 6 km west of the town, on the banks of the River Boyne, at Oldbridge. In 1790 Drogheda Harbour Commissioners established, later Drogheda Port Company In 1825 the Drogheda Steam Packet Company was formed in the town, in 1837 the population of Drogheda area was 17,365 of whom 15,138 lived in the town
27.
Protestant Ascendancy
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Until the Reform Acts even the majority of Irish Protestants were effectively excluded from the Ascendancy, being too poor to vote. In general, the privileges of the Ascendancy were resented by Irish Catholics, english soldiers and traders became the new ruling class, as its richer members were elevated to the Irish House of Lords and eventually controlled the Irish House of Commons. This class became known as the Anglo-Irish. The phrase was first used in passing by Sir Boyle Roche in a speech to the Irish House of Commons on 20 February 1782. George Ogle MP used it on 6 February 1786 in a debate on falling land values, When the landed property of the Kingdom, the Corporations resolution was a part of the debate over Catholic emancipation. In the event, Catholics were allowed to vote again in 1793, the phrase therefore was seen to apply across classes to rural landowners as well as city merchants. However, those protected by the Treaty were still excluded from political life. The situation was confused by the policy of the Tory party in England and Ireland after 1688 and they were Protestants who generally supported the Catholic Jacobite claim, and came to power briefly in London in 1710–14. This provided the main political excuse for the new laws, thousands did so, as recorded on the Convert Rolls, and this allowed for the successful careers of Irishmen such as that of William Conolly, but the majority declined to convert. It did, however, push for reforms allowing equality within the system, some 9% of this land belonged to formerly-Catholic landlords who had converted to the state religion. Reform, though not complete, came in three stages and was effected over 50 years, Reform of religious disabilities in 1778–82, allowing bishops, schools. Reform of restrictions on property ownership and voting in 1778–93, restoration of political, professional and office-holding rights in 1793–1829. The parliament repealed most of the Penal Laws in 1771–93 but did not abolish them entirely, Grattan sought Catholic emancipation for the catholic middle classes from the 1780s, but could not persuade a majority of the Irish MPs to support him. From 1840 corporations running towns and cities in Ireland became more democratically elected, Ireland remained a net exporter of food throughout most of the famine. About 20% of the population emigrated, the Encumbered Estates Act of 1849 was passed to allow landlords to sell mortgaged land, where a sale would be restricted because the land was entailed. Many landlords went bankrupt as their tenants could not pay any rent due to the famine, the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was led by members of the Anglo-Irish class, some of whom feared the political implications of the impending union with Great Britain. Reformist and nationalist politicians such as Henry Grattan, Wolfe Tone, Robert Emmet, and Sir John Gray were also Protestant nationalists, local government was democratised by the Act of 1898, passing many local powers to councillors who were usually supportive of nationalism. Formerly landlords had controlled the grand jury system, where membership was based on being a large ratepayer, nearly 300 stately homes of the old landed class were burned down between 1919 and 1923
28.
Treaty of Limerick
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The Treaty of Limerick ended the Williamite War in Ireland between the Jacobites and the supporters of William of Orange and concluded the Siege of Limerick. The treaty really consisted of two treaties, both of which were signed on 3 October 1691, reputedly they were signed on the Treaty Stone, an irregular block of limestone which once served as a mounting block for horses. This stone is now displayed on a pedestal in Limerick, put there to prevent souvenir hunters from taking pieces of it, because of the treaty, Limerick is sometimes known as the Treaty City. This encouraged the Jacobite leaders to continue fighting and they won a victory during the 1691 Siege of Limerick. However, defeats the following year at the Battle of Aughrim, nonetheless the terms they offered to Jacobite leaders at Limerick were considerably more generous than those a year earlier at Finglas. These articles dealt with the treatment of the disbanded Jacobite army, under the treaty, Jacobite soldiers in formed regiments had the option to leave with their arms and flags for France to continue serving under James II in the Irish Brigade. Some 14,000 Jacobites chose this option and were marched south to Cork where they embarked on ships for France, many of them accompanied by their wives and children. Individual soldiers wanting to join the French, Spanish or Austrian armies also emigrated in what known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. The Jacobite soldiers also had the option of joining the Williamite army, the Jacobite soldiers thirdly had the option of returning home which some 2,000 soldiers chose. The articles were signed by DUsson, Le Chevalier de Tesse, Latour Montfort, Patrick Sarsfield, Colonel Nicholas Purcell of Loughmoe, Mark Talbot and these articles protected the rights of the defeated Jacobite landed gentry who chose to remain in Ireland, most of whom were Catholics. Their property was not to be confiscated so long as they swore allegiance to William and Mary, William required peace in Ireland and was allied to the Papacy in 1691 within the League of Augsburg. The treaty was signed by Charles Porter, Thomas Coningsby, and Baron de Ginkel, and witnessed by Scavenmoer, H. Mackay, and T. Talmash. It has been said that the ink was not dry on the Treaty before the English broke it—the civil articles were not honoured by the victorious Williamite government, the few Catholic landowners who took the oath in 1691-93 remained protected, including their descendants. Those who did not were known as non-jurors, and their loyalty to the new regime was automatically suspect, some managed to have an outlawry specifically reversed, such as the 8th Viscount Dillon in 1694, or the Earl of Clanricarde in 1701. The Papacy again recognized James II as the king of Ireland from 1693. The laws were extended for political reasons by the Dublin administration during the War of the Spanish Succession and it is often thought that Limerick was the only treaty between Jacobites and Williamites. A similar treaty had been signed on the surrender of Galway on 22 July 1691, the Galway garrison had been organised by the mostly-Catholic landed gentry of counties Galway and Mayo, who benefited from their property guarantees in the following century. The Limerick treaty marked the end of the war, ultimately the total amount received by the Commissioners was,752,953 acres paying rents of £135,793 p. a. worth £1,699,343
29.
History of the British Isles
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Today, the British Isles contain two sovereign states, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. There are also three Crown dependencies, Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man, the United Kingdom comprises England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, each country having its own history, with all but Northern Ireland having been independent states at one point. The history of the formation of the United Kingdom is very complex, additionally, since the independence of most of Ireland, historians of the region often avoid the term British Isles due to the complexity of relations between the peoples of the archipelago. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic, also known as the Old and Middle Stone Ages, were characterised by a hunter-gatherer economy, the Lower Palaeolithic period in the British Isles saw the regions first known habitation by early hominids, specifically the extinct Homo heidelbergensis. One of the most prominent archaeological sites dating to this period is that of Boxgrove Quarry in West Sussex, by the Mesolithic, Homo sapiens, or modern humans, were the only hominid species to still survive in the British Isles. British Isles were linked to continental Europe by a territory named Doggerland, in the British Isles, the Neolithic and Bronze Ages saw the transformation of British and Irish society and landscape. It saw the adoption of agriculture, as communities gave up their hunter-gatherer modes of existence to begin farming. As its name suggests, the British Iron Age is also characterised by the adoption of iron, in the course of the first millennium BC, immigration from continental Europe resulted in the establishment of Celtic languages in the islands, eventually giving rise to the Insular Celtic group. What languages were spoken in the islands before is unknown, though they are assumed to have been Pre-Indo-European, in and around the same time period, Ireland was being invaded and settled by Gaels. The Early medieval period saw a series of invasions of Britain by the Germanic-speaking Saxons, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were formed and, through wars with British states, gradually came to cover the territory of present-day England. Around 600, seven kingdoms had emerged, beginning the so-called period of the Heptarchy. During that period, the Anglo-Saxon states were Christianised, in the 9th century, Vikings from Denmark and Norway conquered most of England. Danish rule was overthrown and the local House of Wessex was restored to power under Edward the Confessor for about two decades until his death in 1066. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy said he was the heir to the English throne, invaded England. The Late Medieval period was characterised by many battles between England and France, coming to a head in the Hundred Years War from which France emerged victorious, the monarchs throughout the Late Medieval period belonged to the houses of Plantaganet, Lancaster and York. The Kingdom of Ireland was a state, the monarch was the incumbent monarch of England. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland headed the government on behalf of the monarch and he was assisted by the Chief Secretary of Ireland. Both were responsible to the government in London rather than to the Parliament of Ireland, before the Constitution of 1782, the Irish parliament was also severely fettered, and decisions in Irish courts could be overturned on appeal to the British House of Lords in London
30.
Orange Order
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The Loyal Orange Institution, more commonly known as the Orange Order, is a Protestant fraternal organisation based primarily in Northern Ireland. It also has a significant presence in the Scottish Lowlands and lodges throughout the Commonwealth, the Orange Order was founded in County Armagh in 1795, during a period of Protestant–Catholic sectarian conflict, as a Masonic-style brotherhood sworn to maintain the Protestant Ascendancy. It is headed by the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland, which was established in 1798 and its name is a tribute to the Dutch-born Protestant king William of Orange, who defeated the army of Catholic king James VII & II in the Williamite War in Ireland. Its members wear orange sashes and are referred to as Orangemen, the Order is best known for its yearly marches, the biggest of which are held on or around 12 July. Politically, the Orange Order is a conservative British unionist organisation with links to Ulster loyalism and it campaigned against Scottish independence in 2014. The Order sees itself as defending Protestant civil and religious liberties, whilst critics accuse the Order of being sectarian and it has also been criticised for associating with loyalist paramilitary groups. As a Protestant society, it does not accept non-Protestants as members unless they convert and adhere to the principles of Orangeism, Orange marches through mainly Catholic and nationalist neighbourhoods in Northern Ireland are controversial and have often led to violence. In particular, the Institution remembers the victories of William III and his forces in Ireland in the early 1690s and these followed a tradition started in Elizabethan England of celebrating key events in the Protestant calendar. By the 1740s there were organisations holding parades in Dublin such as the Boyne Club, throughout the 1780s, sectarian tension had been building in County Armagh, largely due to the relaxation of the Penal Laws. Here the number of Protestants and Catholics were of equal number. Drunken brawls between rival gangs had by 1786 become openly sectarian, in September 1795, at a crossroads known as The Diamond near Loughgall, Defenders and Protestant Peep o Day Boys gathered to fight each other. When a contingent of Defenders from County Tyrone arrived on 21 September, however, the Peep o Day Boys quickly regrouped and opened fire on the Defenders. According to William Blacker, the battle was short and the Defenders suffered not less than thirty deaths. After the battle had ended, the Peep o Days marched into Loughgall, and in the house of James Sloan they founded the Orange Order, the principal pledge of these lodges was to defend the King and his heirs so long as he or they support the Protestant Ascendancy. At the start the Orange Order was an organisation to the Defenders in that it was a secret oath-bound society that used passwords. One of the few landed gentry that joined the Orange Order at the outset. He says that a determination was expressed to driving from this quarter of the county the entire of its Roman Catholic population, with notices posted warning them to Hell or Connaught. Other people were warned by notices not to inform on local Orangemen or I will Blow your Soul to the Low hils of Hell And Burn the House you are in, within two months,7,000 Catholics had been driven out of County Armagh
31.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
32.
Sectarianism
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This article concentrates on sectarianism as conflict between groups. For sectarianism as a characteristic of sects, see sect, sectarianism is a form of bigotry, discrimination, or hatred arising from attaching relations of inferiority and superiority to differences between subdivisions within a group. Common examples are denominations of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for citizens of a state, the ideological underpinnings of attitudes and behaviours labelled as sectarian are extraordinarily varied. Sometimes a group that is under economic or political pressure will kill or attack members of group which it regards as responsible for its own decline. At other times, sectarianism may be the expression of a nationalistic or cultural ambitions. The phrase sectarian conflict usually refers to violent conflict along religious or political lines such as the conflicts between Nationalists and Unionists in Northern Ireland and it may also refer to general philosophical, political disparity between different schools of thought such as that between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Non-sectarians espouse that free association and tolerance of different beliefs are the cornerstone to successful peaceful human interaction and they espouse political and religious pluralism. Wherever people of different religions live in proximity to each other, religious sectarianism can often be found in varying forms. In some areas, religious sectarians now exist peacefully side-by-side for the most part, although these differences have resulted in violence, death, probably the best-known example in recent times were The Troubles. Catholic-Protestant sectarianism has also been a factor in U. S. presidential campaigns, prior to John F. Kennedy, only one Catholic had ever been a major party presidential nominee, and he had been solidly defeated largely because of claims based on his Catholicism. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics and/or apostates, since the 12th century there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity in Ireland. This religious sectarianism is connected to a degree with nationalism and this has been particularly intense in Northern Ireland since the early 17th century plantation of Ulster under James I. Sectarian tensions can be found in regions of the British Isles to this day, including Scotland, Liverpool, Birmingham. Historically, some Catholic countries once persecuted Protestants as heretics, for example, the substantial Protestant population of France was expelled from the kingdom in the 1680s following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In Spain, the Inquisition sought to root out crypto-Jews but also crypto-Muslims, in most places where Protestantism is the majority or official religion, there have been examples of Catholics being persecuted. In countries where the Reformation was successful, this often lay in the perception that Catholics retained allegiance to a foreign power, sometimes this mistrust manifested itself in Catholics being subjected to restrictions and discrimination, which itself led to further conflict. For example, before Catholic Emancipation was introduced with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, the invasion of Ireland by English parliamentarian forces under Oliver Cromwell in 1659 was notoriously brutal and witnessed the widespread ethnic cleansing of the native Irish. The failure of the Rebellion of 1798, which sought to unite Protestants and Catholics for an independent Ireland, the conflict was primarily fought over the existence of the Northern Irish state rather than religion, though sectarian relations within Northern Ireland fueled the conflict
33.
Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
34.
Irish Confederate Wars
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The Irish Confederate Wars, also called the Eleven Years War, took place in Ireland between 1641 and 1653. It was the Irish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms – a series of wars in the kingdoms of Ireland, England and Scotland. It was the most destructive conflict in Irish history, the war in Ireland began with the Rebellion of 1641 in Ulster in October, during which many Scots and English Protestant settlers were killed. The rebellion spread throughout the country and at Kilkenny in 1642 the Association of The Confederate Catholics of Ireland was formed to organise the Catholic war effort. The Confederation was essentially an independent state and was a coalition of all shades of Irish Catholic society, the Irish Confederates professed to side with the English Cavaliers during the ensuing civil wars, but mostly fought their own war in defence of the Catholic landed class interests. The Confederates ruled much of Ireland as a de facto sovereign state until 1649, from 1641 to 1649, the Confederates fought against Scottish Covenanter and English Parliamentarian armies in Ireland. The Confederates, in the context of the English Civil War, were allied with the English Royalists. Ultimately, they never sent troops to England, but did send an expedition to help the Scottish Royalists, the wars produced an extremely fractured array of forces in Ireland. The Protestant forces were split into three factions as a result of the civil wars in England and Scotland. The Catholic Confederates themselves split on more than one occasion over the issue of whether their first loyalty was to the Catholic religion or to King Charles I, the wars ended in the defeat of the Confederates. They and their English Royalist allies were defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell in 1649–53. The wars following the 1641 revolt caused massive loss of life in Ireland, the ultimate winner, the English parliament, arranged for the mass confiscation of land owned by Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion and to pay for the war. Although some of this land was returned after 1660 on the Restoration of the monarchy in England, the rebellion was intended to be a swift and mainly bloodless seizure of power in Ireland by a small group of conspirators led by Phelim O’Neill. Small bands of the kin and dependents were mobilised in Dublin, Wicklow and Ulster. Since there were only a number of English soldiers stationed in Ireland. However, the plot was betrayed at the last minute and as a result, following the outbreak of hostilities, the resentment of the native Irish Catholic population against the British Protestant settlers exploded into violence. Shortly after the outbreak of the rebellion, ONeill issued the Proclamation of Dungannon which offered justification for the rising and he claimed that he was acting on the orders of Charles I. From 1641 to early 1642, the fighting in Ireland was characterised by bands, raised by local lords or among local people, attacking civilians of opposing ethnic
35.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
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Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of Englands Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation, in early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwells Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland, however, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics and confiscated large amounts of their land, the Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe, the war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign range from 15 to 83 percent, the Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers. The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, an alliance was signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler and their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore, even if the Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to reconquer Ireland. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and they viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In addition many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against English Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising, some Irish towns had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping during the 1640s. Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, to repay these creditors, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling, Cromwell and many of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49. By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Michael Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city, Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight
36.
Parliament of Ireland
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The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops, while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise. The main purpose of parliament was to approve taxes that were levied by. Those who would pay the bulk of taxation, the clergy, merchants and landowners, in 1541 the parliament voted to create the Kingdom of Ireland. However, this Irish Parliament was a meeting of Irish nobles and bishops, later, in the 15th century, Irish parliaments began to invite representatives of the people. Among its most famous meeting places were Dublin Castle, the Bluecoat School, Chichester House and, its permanent home. The Irish Parliament was formally founded in 1297 by the Justiciar, John Wogan, to represent the Irish, in 1292 a less formal assembly of unelected nobles and merchants had raised £10,000, known as the lay subsidy. This tax was a fifteenth of the net worth of the chattels of wealthier citizens, the poor, the Parliament arose from and for citizens of the Lordship of Ireland, based on Norman laws and English practices. Magna Carta was extended in 1217 in the Great Charter of Ireland, alongside this reduced control grew a Gaelic resurgence that was political as well as cultural. In turn this resulted in numbers of the Anglo-Irish Old English nobility joining the independent Gaelic nobles in asserting their feudal independence. Eventually the crowns power shrank to a fortified enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. The Parliament thereafter became essentially the forum for the Pale community until the 16th century, the role of the Parliament changed after 1541, when Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor conquest of Ireland. Initially in 1537, the Irish Parliament approved both the Act of Supremacy, acknowledging Henry VIII as head of the Church and the dissolution of the monasteries, the Plantation of Ulster allowed English and Scottish Protestant candidates in as representatives of the newly formed boroughs in planted areas. Initially this gave Protestants a majority of 132-100 in the House of Commons, in the House of Lords the Catholic majority continued until the 1689 Patriot Parliament, with the exception of the Commonwealth period. Following the death of Cromwell and the end of the Protectorate, then, during the reign of James II of England, who had converted to Roman Catholicism, Irish Catholics briefly recovered their pre-eminent position as the crown now favoured their community. When James was overthrown in England, he turned to his Catholic supporters in the Irish Parliament for support, nonetheless, the franchise was still available to wealthier Catholics. Until 1728, Catholics voted in House of Commons elections and held seats in the Lords, for no particular reason, beyond a general pressure for Catholics to conform, they were barred from voting in the election for the first parliament in the reign of George II. Privileges were also limited to supporters of the Church of Ireland
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Ulster
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Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
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