1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
U.S. Route 6 in New York
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U. S. Route 6 is a part of the U. S. Highway System that runs from Bishop, California, to Provincetown, Massachusetts. In New York, US6 extends 77.85 miles from the Pennsylvania state line at Port Jervis to the Connecticut state line east of Brewster. Near both ends, it runs in proximity to Interstate 84, which otherwise takes a more northerly route through Downstate New York. US6, meanwhile, skirts the northern fringe of the New York Metropolitan Area. Except for a section concurrent with the portion of New York State Route 17 and another brief, similar stretch in Peekskill. Two stretches are shared with US202 and it goes through three of New Yorks traffic circles, more than any other highway in the state, and is part of the only concurrency of three U. S. routes in the state. US6 is not as important a transportation artery in New York as it in other states. The route does, however, pass through some of the more memorable scenery, particularly the Hudson Highlands in the form of Harriman. It crosses the Hudson River at the historic Bear Mountain Bridge, other highlights include the Shawangunk Ridge in the west and New York Citys reservoirs in the east. The Hudson River roughly bisects New Yorks section of US6, despite its many curves and turns, the road stays in a generally east–west direction. US6 crosses the Delaware River into New York concurrent with US209, Matamoras via the Mid-Delaware Bridge, becoming Port Jervis almost seamlessly, becoming Pike Street. A few blocks north, at the Park Avenue traffic light, NY42 and NY97 begin to the left while US6 and US209 turn right. Two blocks later, the highways having not even come a mile from the state line, US6 continues to follow West Main past Port Jervis Middle School and Bon Secours Hospital, veering south to cross under the railroad tracks and then over the Neversink River. At a three-way junction with short County Route 15, US6 reaches the Port Jervis city limit, signs point to New Jersey Route 23, which begins a few hundred feet to the south, just past the I-84 overpass. From here traffic on US6 grows lighter as it parallels I-84 for the next 17 miles, trucks going through this stretch are limited to 10 tons. It slowly traverses up the Shawangunk Ridge alongside the Interstate Highway, just before exit 3, it crosses under I-84 again. At the hamlet of Slate Hill, NY284, another route down to New Jersey, US6 continues through very rural countryside through here. Shortly before Middletown, it crosses over I-84 and turns left onto NY 17M and this is US 6s last crossing of I-84 west of the Hudson River
3.
U.S. Route 202 in New York
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U. S. Route 202 is a part of the U. S. Highway System that runs from New Castle, Delaware, to Bangor, Maine. In the U. S. state of New York, US202 extends 55.57 miles from the New Jersey state line near Suffern to the Connecticut state line east of Brewster. While most of US202 is signed north–south, the portion within New York is signed east–west and it drifts north slowly as it crosses southern New York. US202 is the road to cross New York between New Jersey and Connecticut and not pass through New York City on the way. Its course along the Hudson River takes it first north up the west side, over the historic Bear Mountain Bridge and it takes in many scenic areas, such as the Ramapo Mountains and Hudson Highlands, and two New York City reservoirs. Its circuitous path across the state puts it on many concurrencies—only 14.5 miles, or 26%, among the roads it joins are three U. S. highways and two state routes. It forms four three-route conurrencies, including the only grouping of three U. S. routes in the state, again in Peekskill. US 202s New York stretch is roughly bisected by the Hudson River and it is mostly a two-lane road, expanding to four in some busier sections, with a brief limited-access stretch in Peekskill. In the shadow of the New York State Thruway, it meets its first New York state highway, NY59, and has a brief wrong-way concurrency with it. It remains a two-lane route at the edge of development past Pomona and Montebello, at the foot of the Ramapo Mountains, the headwaters of the Mahwah River parallel closely. At Ladentown, the terminus of NY306, the road begins to curve to the east. Route 202 widens as it cuts across the county, still a little less developed here, towards Mount Ivy, the Long Path hiking trail also crosses here. Here the Appalachian Trail crosses under the road to its lowest elevation in the nearby Trailside Zoo, after ten miles, the US 9W concurrency comes to an end at Bear Mountain Circle, also the Palisades Parkways north end. This puts US202 very briefly in Orange County, and US6 replaces US 9W as the two join the AT in going through the tollbooths and crossing the Bear Mountain Bridge, after a brief re-entry into Rockland County, the roads cross into Westchester County. In most of northern Westchester, US202, primarily as part of concurrencies, serves as a road between the towns it passes through. It skirts the one Putnam County village along its path, and is mostly a rural road in that county, at the end of the bridge the AT leaves with NY 9D, which begins to follow the river north to Beacon and Wappingers Falls here. Routes 6 and 202 turn right to follow Bear Mountain Bridge Road, three and a half miles US6 and US202 descend to river level again and, after passing the entrance to the New York National Guard base at Camp Smith, reach Annsville Circle. At the second exit in Peekskill, the two routes leave US9, NY35 begins here and replaces it in the overlap, following Main Street across the city
4.
Appalachian Trail
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The trail is about 2,200 miles long, though the exact length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted. More than 2 million people are said to do at least one day-hike on the each year. The idea of the Appalachian Trail came about in 1921, the trail itself was completed in 1937 after more than a decade of work, although improvements and changes continue. It is maintained by 31 trail clubs and multiple partnerships, and managed by the National Park Service, United States Forest Service, the majority of the trail is in forest or wild lands, although some portions traverse towns, roads and farms. The trail conservancy claims that the Appalachian Trail is the longest hiking-only trail in the world. It passes through 14 states, Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Many books, memoirs, websites, and fan organizations are dedicated to these pursuits, other separate extensions continue the southern end of the Appalachian range in Alabama and continue south into Florida, creating what is known as the Eastern Continental Trail. The Appalachian Trail, the Continental Divide Trail, and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of Hiking in the United States. The trail was conceived by Benton MacKaye, a forester who wrote his original plan—called An Appalachian Trail, macKayes idea detailed a grand trail that would connect a series of farms and wilderness work/study camps for city-dwellers. The idea was adopted by the new Palisades Interstate Park Trail Conference as their main project. On October 7,1923, the first section of the trail, from Bear Mountain west through Harriman State Park to Arden, MacKaye then called for a two-day Appalachian Trail conference to be held in March 1925 in Washington, D. C. This meeting inspired the formation of the Appalachian Trail Conference, a retired judge named Arthur Perkins and his younger associate Myron Avery took up the cause. Andersons efforts helped spark renewed interest in the trail, and Avery was able to bring other states on board, upon taking over the ATC, Avery adopted the more practical goal of building a simple hiking trail. He and MacKaye clashed over the ATCs response to a commercial development along the trails path, MacKaye left the organization. Avery reigned as Chairman of the ATC from 1932 to 1952, Avery became the first to walk the trail end-to-end, though not as a thru-hike, in 1936. In August 1937, the trail was completed to Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine, the ATCs trail crews and volunteer trail-maintaining clubs have relocated or rehabilitated miles of trail since that time. The completed thru-hike was much later recorded and accepted by the Appalachian Long Distance Hikers Association, in 1948, Earl Shaffer of York, Pennsylvania, brought a great deal of attention to the project by publicizing the first claimed thru-hike. The claim was criticized for the hikes omission of significant portions due to short-cuts
5.
New York State Bicycle Route 9
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The following is a List of New York State Bicycle Routes. These routes are designated by the New York State Department of Transportation, New York State Bicycle Route 5 runs from Niagara Falls east to the Massachusetts border in New Lebanon. It overlaps State Bicycle Route 9 over the Dunn Memorial Bridge over the Hudson River, New York State Bicycle Route 9 runs from New York City north to the border with Canada in Rouses Point. The route crosses the George Washington Bridge and follows U. S. Route 9W through a portion of New Jersey before entering New York again in Palisades, New York State Bicycle Route 11 runs north / south in two segments. The southern segment runs from Pennsylvania border in Conklin where it connects to BicyclePA Route L, north to the border of Broome and Cortland counties in Lisle, passing through Binghamton. The northern segment runs from the border of Oswego and Jefferson counties in Ellisburg north to the border with Canada in Rouses Point, passing through Watertown, Canton, Potsdam, at the north end it connects to Vélo Québec Quebec Route Verte No.2. New York State Bicycle Route 14 runs from the border of Yates and Ontario counties in Geneva north to Sodus Point, New York State Bicycle Route 17 runs from Westfield east to State Bicycle Route 9 in Wappingers Falls. The route passes through Mayville, where it splits into two branches alongside Chautauqua Lake that join again in Jamestown. From here, the passes through Salamanca, Allegany State Park, Olean, Wellsville, Bath, Corning, Elmira, Waverly, Binghamton, Hancock, Port Jervis, Middletown, Newburgh. New York State Bicycle Route 19 runs from the border of Allegany and Wyoming counties in Pike north to Hamlin Beach State Park, passing through Warsaw, Le Roy, Bergen, Brockport, and Hamlin. New York State Bicycle Route 22 runs from Brewster north to New Lebanon, passing through Pawling, Wassaic, New York State Bicycle Route 23 runs from the Rip Van Winkle Bridge east to the Massachusetts border in Copake, passing through Greenport, Claverack, and Hillsdale. New York State Bicycle Route 24 runs along New York State Route 24, from CR104 at the Riverhead Traffic Circle, New York State Bicycle Route 25 runs from Smithtown east to Orient Point, passing through Port Jefferson Station, Shoreham, and Riverhead. The route also diverts from Route 25A from Stony Brook to Setauket along Suffolk County Road 68, along NY25, the route diverges in Riverhead and Aquebogue at Manor Road, Middle Road, Ostrand Avenue, Elton Street, then to Hubbard Avenue and Edgar Avenue. Within Greenport, the route diverges along the second New York Truck Route 25. New York State Bicycle Route 25A runs from the border of Nassau and Suffolk counties in Cold Spring Harbor east to Smithtown, the route doesnt actually share NY 25A until it reaches Kings Park. Terminating at Maplewood Road, it turns left there, which terminates at Suffolk County Route 35. Bike Route 25A turns northwest momentarily and then back east onto Little Plains Road. At Scholar Lane, Bike Route 25A heads east again and after crossing over the Sunken Meadow State Parkway turns north again over Old Commack Road, Old Commack Road terminates at CR11 in Kings Park, and reunites with the County Road again
6.
Hudson River
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The Hudson River is a 315-mile river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States. The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York, flows through the Hudson Valley, the river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York, and further north between New York counties. The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord, tidal waters influence the Hudsons flow from as far north as Troy. The river is named after Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company, who explored it in 1609, and after whom Canadas Hudson Bay is also named. The Dutch called the river the North River – with the Delaware River called the South River –, during the eighteenth century, the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving, the first internationally acclaimed American author. In the nineteenth century, the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting, the Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal, which, when completed in 1825, became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States. The source of the Hudson River is Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Park at an altitude of 4,322 feet, the river is not cartographically called the Hudson River until miles downstream. From that point on, the stream is known as the Hudson River. Popular culture and convention, however, more often cite the photogenic Lake Tear of the Clouds as the source, South of the confluence of Indian Pass Brook and Calamity Brook, the Hudson River flows south into Sanford Lake. South of the outlet of the lake, the Opalescent River flows into the Hudson, the Hudson then flows south, taking in Beaver Brook and the outlet of Lake Harris. After its confluence with the Indian River, the Hudson forms the boundary between Essex and Hamilton counties, in the hamlet of North River, the Hudson flows entirely in Warren County and takes in the Schroon River. Further south, the forms the boundary between Warren and Saratoga Counties. The river then takes in the Sacandaga River from the Great Sacandaga Lake, shortly thereafter, the river leaves the Adirondack Park, flows under Interstate 87, and through Glens Falls, just south of Lake George although receiving no streamflow from the lake. It next goes through Hudson Falls, at this point the river forms the boundary between Washington and Saratoga Counties. At this point the river has an altitude of 200 feet, further south the Hudson takes in water from the Batten Kill River and Fish Creek near Schuylerville. The river then forms the boundary between Saratoga and Rensselaer counties, the river then enters the heart of the Capital District. It takes in water from the Hoosic River, which extends into Massachusetts, shortly thereafter the river has its confluence with the Mohawk River, the largest tributary of the Hudson River, in Waterford. Shortly thereafter, the river reaches the Federal Dam in Troy, at an elevation of 2 feet, the bottom of the dam marks the beginning of the tidal influence in the Hudson as well as the beginning of the lower Hudson River
7.
Cortlandt, New York
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Cortlandt is a town in Westchester County, New York, United States. The population was 41,592 at the 2010 census, Cortlandt is located at the northwest edge of the county, at the eastern terminus of the Bear Mountain Bridge. The town includes the villages of Buchanan and Croton-on-Hudson, commuter service to New York City is available via the Cortlandt train station and the Croton-Harmon train station, served by Metro-North Railroad. U. S. Route 9 passes through the town along the Hudson River side, the Bear Mountain Bridge Road and Toll House and Site of Old Croton Dam are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The town is bordered on the west by the Hudson River and it is bordered to the north by the towns of Philipstown and Putnam Valley in Putnam County, to the east by Yorktown and on the south by the towns of New Castle and Ossining. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 50.0 square miles, of which 39.3 square miles is land and 10.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 38,467 people,13,517 households, the population density was 969.7 people per square mile. There were 14,065 housing units at a density of 354.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 88. 60% White,4. 59% African American,0. 21% Native American,2. 57% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,2. 35% from other races, and 1. 68% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 19% of the population,21. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the family size was 3.22. In the town, the population was out with 26. 5% under the age of 18,5. 3% from 18 to 24,30. 1% from 25 to 44,25. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males, the median income for a household in the town was $75,442, and the median income for a family was $89,053. Males had an income of $59,949 versus $41,115 for females. The per capita income for the town was $33,432, about 2. 9% of families and 4. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4. 1% of those under age 18 and 5. 1% of those age 65 or over. Cortlandt is governed by a town board, law enforcement services in Cortlandt are provided by the New York State Police and the Westchester County Department of Public Safety. Peters Church, and Van Cortlandtville School are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, verplanck – a hamlet of Cortlandt Woodybrook Town of Cortlandt official website
8.
Stony Point, New York
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Stony Point is a triangle-shaped town in Rockland County, New York, United States. It is part of the New York City Metropolitan Area, the town is located north of the town of Haverstraw, east and south of Orange County, New York, and west of the Hudson River and Westchester County. The population was 15,059 at the 2010 census, the name of the town is derived from a prominent projection into the Hudson River. The town is in the northeast part of the county, U. S. Route 9W, U. S. Route 202, and the Palisades Interstate Parkway are major north-south routes through the town. Stony Point is included in the North Rockland Central School District and it is the most rural out of the 5 towns in Rockland County. The Americans were unable to hold the fort for more than a few days and this may or may not have contributed to Anthony Wayne earning his nickname of Mad Anthony Wayne. The economy of the town increased upon the rediscovery of limestone deposits in the 19th century, the town of Stony Point was founded in 1865 from the northern part of the town of Haverstraw. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 31.6 square miles, of which 27.6 square miles is land and 4.0 square miles. The western town line is the border of Orange County, New York, as of the census of 2000, there were 14,245 people,4,832 households, and 3,802 families residing in the town. The population density was 511.7 people per square mile, there were 4,951 housing units at an average density of 177.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 33% White,1. 27% Black or African American,0. 19% Native American,1. 29% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 66% from other races, and 1. 24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 84% of the population,17. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the family size was 3.33. In the town, the population was out with 26. 1% under the age of 18,6. 6% from 18 to 24,30. 6% from 25 to 44,24. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.0 males, the median income for a household in the town was $71,940, and according to CNN Money the median income for a family was $97,633. Males had an income of $55,727 versus $36,424 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,244, in comparison, the average salary in 2010 for a full-time Stony Point police officer was $126,895
9.
Peekskill, New York
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Peekskill, officially the City of Peekskill, is a city in the New York City metropolitan area, Westchester County, New York, in the United States. Peekskill is situated on a bay along the east side of the Hudson River, the population was 23,583 during the 2010 census. This community was known to be an early American industrial center, primarily for its iron plow, the Binney & Smith Company, now makers of Crayola products, started as the Peekskill Chemical Company at Annsville in 1864. Peekskills manufacturing base operated well into the late 20th century, with the Fleischmann Company making yeast by-products under the Standard Brands corporate name, in September 1609, Henry Hudson, captain of the Halve Maen, anchored along the reach of the Hudson at Peekskill. His firstmate noted in the log that it was a very pleasant place to build a town. After the establishment of the province of New Netherland, New Amsterdam resident Jan Peeck made the first recorded contact with the Lenape people of this area, the date is not certain, but agreements and merchant transactions took place, formalized in the Rycks Patent Deed of 1684. The name Peekskill derives from a combination of Mr. Peeks surname, located on the north bank of the Annsville Creek as it empties into the Hudson, Fort Independence combined with Forts Montgomery and Clinton to defend the Hudson River Valley. Fort Independence was built in August 1776, while Forts Montgomery, Fort Hill Park, the site of Camp Peekskill, contained five barracks and two redoubts. European style settlement took place slowly in the early 18th century, by the time of the American Revolution, the tiny community was an important manufacturing center from its various mills along the several creeks and streams. These industrial activities were attractive to the Continental Army in establishing its headquarters here in 1776, the mills of Peeks Creek provided gunpowder, leather, planks, and flour. Slaughterhouses were important for food supply, the river docks allowed transport of supply items and soldiers to the several other fort garrisons placed to prevent British naval passage between Albany and New York City. Officers at Peekskill generally supervised placing the first iron link chain between Bear Mountain and Anthonys Nose in the spring of 1777, though Peekskills terrain and mills were beneficial to the Patriot cause, they also made tempting targets for British raids. The most damaging attack took place in spring of 1777. Another British operation in October 1777 led to destruction of industrial apparatus. On leaving New Windsor in June,1781, Washington established his quarters, for a short time, Peekskills first legal incorporation of 1816 was reactivated in 1826 when Village elections took place. The Village was further incorporated within the Town of Cortlandt in 1849, an effigy of Robeson was lynched in the town. The artists were able to plan a concert in nearby Van Cortlandtville on a farm owned by a Holocaust survivor. The publicity drew a crowd of around 20,000, and it was one of the earliest performances of Pete Seegers If I Had a Hammer, Robeson sang surrounded by union guards and volunteers from the audience as protection against other snipers
10.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
11.
New York State Bridge Authority
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The New York State Bridge Authority is a public benefit corporation in New York State, United States. The NYSBA was born out of the necessity for a bridge over the Hudson River to link the city of Hudson, the origin of the NYSBA was also embodied in the Great Depression during the 1930s and 1940s. State finances were in supply and an originally proposed plan for the state to build the Rip Van Winkle Bridge was vetoed by then Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. A possible precursor to the New Deal, Roosevelt supported the creation of an Authority, in 1933, during the construction of the Rip Van Winkle Bridge, the Authority acquired the Mid-Hudson Bridge, originally built by the State Department of Public Works in 1930. Of note, the toll for a trip across the Mid-Hudson Bridge for a car with 3 passengers in 1933 was $2.20. The 1933 $1 toll for a one horse wagon is no longer charged, the Rip Van Winkle Bridge was dedicated in 1935. The Bear Mountain Bridge, originally built by a venture in 1923, was sold to the Authority in 1940. The Authority dedicated the Kingston-Rhinecliff Bridge in 1957, the first span of the Newburgh-Beacon Bridge in 1963, the Bridge Authority charges an auto toll of $1.50 for eastbound traffic on all five bridges. The last rate increase was January 30,2012, a 50 cent increase from the rate of $1.00. Commercial tolls are based on axle count, NYSBA is a member of the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system. The New York State Bridge Authority has a force of 1 sworn police officer who is assigned to the Bridge Authoritys command center in Highland. The officer is unarmed and primarily responsible for system wide security and this officer also acts as a liaison to the multiple police agencies whose jurisdictions overlap Authority facilities and perform traffic enforcement and incident response services
12.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
13.
Annual average daily traffic
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Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in transportation planning and transportation engineering. Traditionally, it is the volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple measurement of how busy the road is, newer advances from traffic data providers are now providing AADT by side of the road, by day of week and by time of day. One of the most important uses of AADT is for determining funding for the maintenance, in the United States the amount of federal funding a state will receive is related to the total traffic measured across its Highway network. Each year on June 15, every state in the United States submits a Highway Performance Monitoring System HPMS report, the HPMS report contains various information regarding the road segments in the state based on a sample of the road segments. In the report, the AADT is converted to Vehicle Miles Traveled, VMT is the AADT multiplied by the length of the road segment. To determine the amount of traffic a state has, the AADT cannot be summed for all road segments since an AADT is a rate, the VMT is summed and is used as an indicator of the amount of traffic a state has. For federal-funding, formulas are applied to include the VMT and other highway statistics, to measure AADT on individual road segments, traffic data is collected either by an automated traffic counter or hiring an observer to record traffic. There are two different techniques of measuring the AADTs for road segments, one technique is called continuous count data collection method. This is where sensors are embedded into a road and traffic data is measured all 365 days. The AADT would be the sum of the traffic for the entire year divided by 365 days. There is a problem calculating the AADT with this method. The continuous count equipment is not operating for the full 365 days due to being shut down for maintenance or repair, because of this, seasonal or day-of-week biases might skew the calculated AADT. In 1992, AASHTO released the AASHTO Guidelines for Traffic Data Programs, for every month and day-of-week, a Monthly Average Day of Week is calculated. Each day-of-weeks MADW is then calculated across months to calculate an Annual Average Day of Week, finally, the AADWs are averaged to calculate an AADT. The United States Federal Highway Administration has adopted this method as the method in the. While providing the most accurate AADT, installing and maintaining continuous count stations method is costly, most agencies are only able to monitor a very small percentage of the roadway using this method. Most AADTs are generated using data collection methods sometimes known as the coverage count data collection method
14.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
15.
Benjamin Franklin Bridge
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The bridge was dedicated as part of the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition, celebrating the 150th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. From 1926 to 1929, it had the longest single span of any bridge in the world. Plans for a bridge to augment the ferries across the Delaware River began as early as 1818, when one plan envisioned using Smith/Windmill Island, but it was only in the 1910s that visions began to approach reality. The Delaware River Bridge Joint Commission was created in 1919, the chief engineer of the bridge was Polish-born Ralph Modjeski, the design engineer was Leon Moisseiff, and the supervising architect was Paul Philippe Cret. Work began on January 6,1922, at the peak of construction,1,300 people worked on the bridge, and 15 died during its construction. The bridge was painted by a commercial painting company owned by David A. Salkind, of Philadelphia. The bridge opened to traffic on July 1,1926, three ahead of its scheduled opening on the nation’s 150th anniversary. At completion, its 1, 750-foot span was the worlds longest for a suspension bridge, the name was changed to Benjamin Franklin Bridge in 1955, as a second Delaware River suspension bridge connecting Philadelphia and New Jersey was under construction. The bridge was closed to vehicles on July 1,2001, streetcar stations were also built in the bridges anchorages. Today, it carries the PATCO Speedline, which descends into tunnels on both sides of the bridge, both, the Eastbound and Westbound railroad tracks and support structure were reconstructed from June 2014 and finished October 2014. The Pennsylvania section of I-676 ends at the ramps to I-95, I-676 is signed across the bridge from both sides, however, to be less confusing to drivers. Before the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, New Jersey Route 25, Route 43, the seven vehicular lanes are divided by a concrete zipper barrier, which can be mechanically moved to configure the lanes for traffic volume or construction. Red and green signals mounted on overhead gantries indicate which lanes are open or closed to traffic in each direction, the lights indicate closures for construction, accidents or breakdown as well as traffic separation. Generally, during the rush hour, there are four lanes open westbound. A $5.00 one-way toll is charged to westbound passenger vehicles, trucks, commercial vehicles, mobile homes, and recreation vehicles, pay $7.50 per axle. Seniors aged 65 and older can use a program to pay $2.50 per trip. There are proposals for a Camden-Philadelphia BRT, a bus transit system between the two cities extending into Camden and Gloucester which would use the bridge. Pedestrian walkways run along both sides of the bridge, elevated over and separated from the lanes, of these
16.
Palisades Interstate Parkway
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The Palisades Interstate Parkway is a 38. 25-mile-long limited-access highway in the U. S. states of New Jersey and New York. The parkway is a commuter route into New York City from Rockland and Orange counties in New York. The southern terminus of the route is at the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee, New Jersey and its northern terminus is at a traffic circle in Fort Montgomery, New York, where the PIP meets US 9W and US202 at the Bear Mountain Bridge. At exit 18, the PIP forms a concurrency with US6 for the duration of its run. The route is named for the New Jersey Palisades, a line of cliffs rising along the side of the Hudson River. The PIP is designated, but not signed as Route 445 in New Jersey and New York State Route 987C, as with most parkways in the New York metropolitan area, commercial traffic is prohibited from using the PIP. The Palisades Interstate Parkway was built from 1947–1958, and fully opened to traffic on August 28,1958, the main line of the parkway is designated as Route 445 in New Jersey and NY 987C in New York. The latter is one of New Yorks reference routes, a 0. 42-mile spur connecting the parkway to US 9W in Fort Lee, New Jersey, is designated Route 445S. All three designations are unsigned and used only for inventory purposes, the parkway is owned and maintained by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission but occasional maintenance is performed by the New Jersey and New York state departments of transportation. Commercial vehicles are prohibited on the length of the Palisades Interstate Parkway. The Palisades Interstate Parkway begins at the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee, passengers riding northbound on the New Jersey Turnpike must be in local lanes to directly get on the PIP. Once the PIP leaves the GWB, it proceeds north along the New Jersey Palisades, unlike service areas further north along the parkway, there are two in Englewood, one for northbound drivers and one for southbound drivers. The others are in the center median shared by drivers going in both directions, there are also three different scenic lookout points over the Palisades near the northern tip of the island of Manhattan at the Harlem River. After this, the PIP parallels US 9W and the Hudson River for its run in New Jersey. All four exits in New Jersey are either with US 9W, the PIP leaves New Jersey into New York in the borough of Rockleigh. The entire New Jersey portion of the Palisades Interstate Parkway is within Bergen County and it is designated as a state scenic byway known as the Palisades Scenic Byway. The Palisades enters Rockland County in the hamlet of Palisades, at about the border the PIP changes direction from due north along the Hudson River to a north-west direction. Shortly after the Kings Ferry Service Area in the center median, exit 5 provides a link to St. Thomas Aquinas College, and exit 6 provides a link to Dominican College
17.
U.S. Route 9W
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U. S. Route 9W is a north–south U. S. Highway in the states of New Jersey and New York. As its W suffix indicates, US 9W is a alternate route of US9 between the two locations. US 9W directly serves three cities—Newburgh, Kingston, and Albany—and enters the vicinity of several others, as the route heads north, it connects to several highways of regional importance, including I-84, US209, New York State Route 23, and US20. Much of US 9W parallels the New York State Thruway and NY32, additionally, for much of its length, Route 9W is a two-lane surface road. However, some stretches in New York widen to four lanes, heading north on Fletcher Avenue in Fort Lee, US 9W occupies the right-of-way of the Palisades Interstate Parkway to Lemoine Avenue, the northern terminus of Route 67. US 9W exits the right-of-way, turning north onto Lemoine Avenue, later Sylvan Avenue, in Englewood Cliffs, where it passes the headquarters of Ferrari of North America, Unilever, and CNBC. It continues to parallel the PIP to its west as they progress northward along the west bank of the Hudson River until reaching the border with New York State, both roads run very near the top of the Palisades, occasionally offering views of New York City and the river. Near Norwood, just south of the line, Route 9W crosses under the parkway. Before the construction of the PIP, Route 9W used to follow a route through the State Line Lookout at the New Jersey–New York border which is now only from the parkway. The entire route of US 9W in New Jersey is within Bergen County, across the state line, US 9W continues in Palisades as Highland Avenue, a two-lane road through mostly residential suburban surroundings. It passes Columbia Universitys Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and then Tallman Mountain State Park, bending westward to Sparkill, it meets NY340. It returns to the riverside at Piermont, where it takes the name Broadway Avenue, running due north, it enters Nyack and meets with the New York State Thruway just west of the Tappan Zee Bridge. It then runs along the Thruway to the east terminus of NY59 in downtown Nyack, North of Upper Nyack, it passes Rockland Lake thru Valley Cottage and then Rockland Lake State Park. Alongside the park, it crosses town lines again, NY303 reaches its north end just after the park, and after a tight curve NY304, reaches its eastern terminus as well. US 9W then returns to the riverside briefly, trending away from it into Haverstraw under the name Congers Avenue, the village is followed immediately by West Haverstraw, where US202 comes in at an oblique angle and joins US 9W, creating the first concurrency along the route. The combined highways head north from the Haverstraws as South, then North, Liberty Drive and they return to the Hudson at Tomkins Cove, where the Hudson River National Defense Reserve Fleet was moored from 1947 to 1971. At Jones Point the road curves and bends above the river as it works its way around Dunderberg Mountain, the Orange County line is crossed just before Bear Mountain Circle. The circle marks the terminus of the Palisades Parkway and the junction with US6
18.
Bear Mountain Inn
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It is now called the Bear Mountain Inn & Conference Center. As of fall 2011, the first floor is now open and features the 1915 Cafe, renovation of the upper levels was finished in April 2012. It was added to The National Register of Historic Places on September 20,2002, the building has been called among the earliest examples of a monumental rustic park lodge of a type that became common in state and national parks. Construction required two years at a cost variously reported as $100,000 and $150,000 and it was designed by the New York City firm of Tooker & Marsh, in a style strongly influenced by the Adirondack Great Camps. Stone used in the foundations, wall facades and the two large fireplaces, was obtained from old walls on the properties acquired for Bear Mountain State Park. Chestnut timber used for framing, certain trim, siding and floor-covering, was obtained from local parklands. Despite appearances to the contrary, the basic framework is constructed of steel. The 1915 cellar contained an electric lighting plant that was planned to furnish power for an escalator from the excursion boat landing to the plateau on which the inn stands. The ground floor included a “luncheon counter” while on the second floor veranda, the main dining room offered “service equal to any metropolitan restaurant. ”According to a New York Times article published in June 1915, “There are no windows or doors. When cool weather comes, the floor is to be inclosed in glass. ”In 1922-23 the building became a year-round facility with steam heat. The aim was in part to make it a center for winter sports, between the 1930s and 1980s changes to the floor plan were made and some historic details and decorative motifs were concealed or lost, and much of the original, rustic furniture was removed. A current renovation aims to restore some of these details, when it became used for overnight accommodations, the third floor was initially remodeled as a dormitory. Later, individual guest rooms were installed with shared bath facilities, in 1975, individual bathrooms were installed as part of a larger renovation. If so, the mountain in question might be Anthonys Nose which lies to the east across the Hudson River, following the outbreak of World War II, the park commission gave up direct management of the hotel and it was offered as a concession. Terminal Operating Corp. operated the hotel from 1941 until 1965, as of 1991, ARA Leisure Services operated the inn. A similar contract was announced in December 2008 with Guest Services Inc. of Fairfax, on February 18,2012 the Bear Mountain reopened, after a six-year closure. A public lounge area which had included the buildings iconic second-floor fireplace has been reconfigured as a restaurant, as was the case prior to the renovations, most of the second floor remains devoted to a catering operation that is inaccessible to the public. A $12 million renovation by H3, hardyCorp, to restore the inns “original rustic splendor” announced by the park commission in 2005, would require closing the building to the public for 18 months
19.
New York State Route 9D
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New York State Route 9D is a north–south state highway in the Hudson Valley region of New York in the United States. While US9 follows a more inland routing between the bridge and Wappingers Falls, the course of NY 9D takes the route through the village of Cold Spring. The route was acquired by the state of New York in pieces over the course of the early 20th century, NY 9D was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, extending only from Beacon to Wappingers Falls. It was extended south to the Bear Mountain Bridge by the following year, like its parent road, US9, NY 9D runs north–south parallel to the Hudson River for its entire length. The route begins near the riverbank at the Bear Mountain Bridge in the Westchester County town of Cortlandt and it heads to the northeast as a two-lane road known as the Bear Mountain–Beacon Highway, passing through dense forests in the undeveloped northwestern part of Camp Smith. After just a quarter-mile, NY 9D leaves the reservation as it passes into Putnam County. Here, the crosses the Appalachian Trail and runs adjacent to part of Hudson Highlands State Park. NY403 is the first of several roads directly connecting NY 9D to US9, the highway, now named Chestnut Street, heads generally westward to the center of the village, where NY 9D intersects Main Street, designated as NY301 east of this point. On the opposite side of the intersection, NY 9D changes names to Morris Avenue for a half-mile before exiting Cold Spring on a northwesterly track, past the village line, the route parallels the Metro-North Railroad for 2 miles through another portion of Hudson Highlands State Park. This section of the route, located mere yards from the river, is known as the River Road, for its close proximity to the river. The two-mile stretch leads to a tunnel through the Breakneck Ridge, the road soon reaches the southern edge of the city of Beacon, where it becomes Wolcott Avenue and the surroundings transition from rural mountainous scenery to an urban setting. Maintenance of the route shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to the city. Upon reaching the city center, NY 9D traverses a 90-degree bend to the northwest, the highway crosses Fishkill Creek ahead of another 90-degree turn, this time to the northeast, giving NY 9D an S-shaped alignment as it travels through downtown Beacon. State maintenance of the road one block east of the northeasterly bend. North of the turn, NY 9D intersects Main Street, which carries NY52 Business through Beacons central business district, NY52 Business turns north onto NY 9D here, forming a concurrency along the latter as Wolcott Avenue changes names to North Avenue. The overlapping routes wind their way northward through residential blocks to reach an interchange with Interstate 84. NY52 Business terminates at the junction while NY 9D continues to meander northeastward through the northernmost part of the town. The highway runs by several housing tracts and Dutchess Stadium, the home of the Hudson Valley Renegades, NY 9D connects to Chelsea by way of CR92 just north of the town line, while New Hamburg is accessed via CR28 in the community of Hughsonville
20.
Fort Clinton
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Fort Clinton was one of a pair of American Revolutionary War fortifications located at the confluence of the Popolopen Creek and the Hudson River. It stood on the side of Popolopen Gorge, and its companion fort, Fort Montgomery. The forts defended a Hudson River Chain that stretched from Fort Montgomery on the west side of the Hudson River to Anthonys Nose on the east side, the sites of both forts are in present-day Highlands, Orange County, New York. Fort Clintons garrison of 300 soldiers was smaller than Fort Montgomerys, but it was built on higher ground, the fort was commanded by General James Clinton, for whom it was probably named. On October 6,1777, Forts Clinton and Montgomery were attacked by the British 63rd Regiment led by Sir Henry Clinton. The Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery was intense but brief, Both forts were overrun within an hour, Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery were razed by the British, and the iron chain they defended was dismantled. Today, the Fort Clinton site is part of Bear Mountain State Park and is used for the Trailside Museum and Zoo
21.
Anthony's Nose (Westchester County, New York)
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Anthonys Nose is a peak along the Hudson River at the north end of Westchester County, New York. Anthonys Nose, together with Dunderberg Mountain, comprises the South Gate of the Hudson Highlands, the Hudson makes a turn around the southwestern tip, so that the northwestern side also slopes down to salt marshes along the river. On the southeastern side are Mine Mountain and, across Broccy Creek, most of this land is part of Camp Smith, a New York National Guard reservation. US 6/202 crosses the Hudson on the Bear Mountain Bridge to the tip of the mountain. 9D runs northeast along the flank of the mountain to Garrison, New York, while 202/6 runs southeast, hugging the cliffs. The peak has been known as Anthonys Nose since at least 1697, the eponymous Anthony may be St Anthony, as a rock formation called Saint Anthonys Face existed on Breakneck Ridge nearby before its destruction by quarrying. Pierre Van Cortlandt, who owned this mountain, said it was named for a pre-Revolutionary War sea captain and this captain was reputed to have a Cyrano de Bergerac type nose. One of his mates, looking at this mount, as they sailed by it and he said that they looked similar in size. This good-natured joke soon spread, and the name Anthonys Nose stuck to this peak, washington Irvings History of New York, a satire, attributes the name to one Antony Van Corlear, who was the trumpeter on Henry Hudsons ship. Other traditions name Anthony de Hooges, a deacon of the Dutch Reformed Church and early settler of Rensselaerswyck, one of the Hudson River Chains was stretched from Fort Montgomery to the foot of the mountain. The Bear Mountain Bridge was later constructed along approximately that alignment, an airway beacon was once located on the summit. The mountain is composed of Canada Hill granite, large calcite crystals have been collected from the railroad cut along the base. The Appalachian Trail crosses the Bear Mountain Bridge and follows 9D for a distance before turning east. It skirts the summit ridge, descends into the clove between Anthonys Nose and Mine Mountain, and from there into South Mountain Pass, the blue-blazed Camp Smith Trail leaves the AT southwestward just above the descent to 9D, and runs along the ridge to reach the summit. From there, it runs along the border of Camp Smith to reach parking along 202/6 on the side of Manitou Mountain
22.
Derby, Connecticut
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Derby is a city in New Haven County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 12,903 at the 2010 census, Derby was settled in 1642 as an Indian trading post under the name Paugasset. It was named after Derby, England, in 1675, Derby was incorporated on May 13,1775. In the 19th century, both corsets and hoop skirts were manufactured in the city, in 1872, the Derby Silver Company began production. In 1898, the became a division of the International Silver Company headquartered in Meriden, CT. Charlton Comics, a book publishing company that existed from 1944 to 1986, was based in town. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 5.4 square miles. The city is home to the 1.4 square kilometres Osbornedale State Park, Derby is divided into two main sections by the Naugatuck River, East Derby and Derby Center. The center of Derby is approximately 66 miles from New York City, as of the census of 2000, there were 12,391 people,5,252 households, and 3,245 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,487.6 people per square mile, there were 5,568 housing units at an average density of 1,117.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 90. 08% White,3. 62% Black or African American,0. 16% Native American,1. 74% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,2. 52% from other races, and 1. 82% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7. 67% of the population,32. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the family size was 2.94. In the town the population was out with 21. 7% under the age of 18,7. 2% from 18 to 24,33. 0% from 25 to 44,21. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 93.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.0 males, the median income for a household in the town was $45,670, and the median income for a family was $54,715. Males had an income of $42,367 versus $30,458 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,117, about 6. 9% of families and 8. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 1% of those under age 18 and 7. 8% of those age 65 or over
23.
Naugatuck River Valley
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The Naugatuck River Valley refers to the watershed area of the Naugatuck River in the western part of Connecticut. The Naugatuck Valley straddles parts of Litchfield County, New Haven, the Route 8 corridor and Waterbury Branch of the Metro-North railroad line run along the river valley. Geographically, it comprises the municipalities located within the Naugatuck River basin, during the 19th and 20th centuries, the area was one of the main manufacturing centers in New England, and most of the communities around the river were emblematic New England mill towns. Traditionally, the Naugatuck Valley is often subdivided for historical, cultural, geographic, the Upper Naugatuck Valley, more often referred to as the Litchfield Hills, refers to the area centered on the city of Torrington. The West Branch and East Branch Naugatuck Rivers merge in Torrington to form the main river, the watershed area in the Upper Naugatuck Valley includes parts of the towns of Goshen, Harwinton, Litchfield, Morris, New Hartford, Norfolk, Torrington, Winchester. The Central Naugatuck Valley, more often referred to as the Greater Waterbury area, is the focused on the city of Waterbury. The last three towns are also grouped with the lower valley region. The Lower Naugatuck Valley, sometimes known as simply The Valley, the towns within the watershed area of the lower valley are Shelton, Seymour, Bethany, Woodbridge, Ansonia, and Derby. The towns of Beacon Falls, Oxford, and Naugatuck, usually grouped together in the valley region, are also sometimes assigned to the lower valley region. Naugatuck Railroad Naugatuck River Watershed Association Lower Naugatuck Valley Council of Governments Central Naugatuck Valley Council of Governments
24.
Andrew Carnegie
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He built a leadership role as a philanthropist for the United States and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away to charities, foundations and his 1889 article proclaiming The Gospel of Wealth called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and it stimulated a wave of philanthropy. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated in 1848 to the United States with his parents, Carnegie started work as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe and he built Pittsburghs Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 million. It became the U. S. Steel Corporation, after selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next couple of years. Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education. Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weavers cottage with only one main room, the main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his legal grandfather, in 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street, following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father, William Carnegie, benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, which had been a gift to the town by the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask, Lauders son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Andrew and would become his business partner. When Carnegie was thirteen, his father had fallen on hard times as a handloom weaver. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother who was a cobbler and she eventually became the primary breadwinner by the 1840s. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to move with his family to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Andrews family had to borrow money from the Lauders in order to migrate. Allegheny was an industrial area that produced many products including wool. The Made in Allegheny label used on these and other diversified products was becoming more and more popular. His first job at age 13 in 1848 was as a bobbin boy and his starting wage was $1.20 per week. Andrews father, William Carnegie, started off working in a cotton mill and his mother, Margaret Morrison Carnegie, earned money by binding shoes. In 1849, Carnegie became a messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburghs businesses
25.
Long Depression
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The Long Depression was a worldwide price and economic recession, beginning in 1873 and running either through the spring of 1879, or 1896, depending on the metrics used. It was the most severe in Europe and the United States, the episode was labeled the Great Depression at the time, and it held that designation until the Great Depression of the 1930s. Though a period of deflation and a general contraction, it did not have the severe economic retrogression of the Great Depression. It was most notable in Western Europe and North America, at least in part because reliable data from the period is most readily available in parts of the world. The United Kingdom is often considered to have been the hardest hit, the National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879. At 65 months, it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER, in the US, from 1873 to 1879,18,000 businesses went bankrupt, including 89 railroads. Ten states and hundreds of banks went bankrupt, unemployment peaked in 1878, long after the panic ended. Different sources peg the peak U. S. unemployment rate anywhere from 8. 25% to 14%, the period preceding the depression was dominated by several major military conflicts and a period of economic expansion. New technologies in such as the Bessemer converter were being rapidly applied. This essentially ended the bimetallic standard of the US, forcing it for the first time onto a gold standard. This measure, referred to by its opponents as the Crime of 1873 and it also drove down silver prices further, even as new silver mines were being established in Nevada, which stimulated mining investment but increased supply as demand was falling. Silver miners arrived at US mints, unaware of the ban on production of silver coins, by September, the US economy was in a crisis, deflation causing banking panics and destabilizing business investment, climaxing in the Panic of 1873. The Panic of 1873 has been described as the first truly international crisis, the optimism that had been driving booming stock prices in central Europe had reached a fever pitch, and fears of a bubble culminated in a panic in Vienna beginning in April 1873. Financial panic arrived in the Americas only months later on Black Thursday, September 18,1873 after the failure of the house of Jay Cooke. The New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days on September 20, the financial contagion then returned to Europe, provoking a second panic in Vienna and further failures in continental Europe before receding. France, which had been experiencing deflation in the preceding the crash, was spared financial calamity for the moment. The primary cause of the depression in the United States was the tight monetary policy that the US followed to get back to the gold standard after the US Civil War. The US government was taking out of circulation to achieve this goal
26.
Panic of 1873
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The Panic of 1873 was a financial crisis that triggered a depression in Europe and North America that lasted from 1873 until 1879, and even longer in some countries. In Britain, for example, it started two decades of stagnation known as the Long Depression that weakened the economic leadership. The Panic was known as the Great Depression until the events in the early 1930s set a new standard, the Panic of 1873 and the subsequent depression had several underlying causes, of which economic historians debate the relative importance. The first symptoms of the crisis were financial failures in the Austro-Hungarian capital, Vienna, the American Civil War was followed by a boom in railroad construction. 33,000 miles of new track were laid across the country between 1868 and 1873, much of the craze in railroad investment was driven by government land grants and subsidies to the railroads. At that time, the industry was the nations largest employer outside of agriculture. A large infusion of cash from speculators caused abnormal growth in the industry as well as overbuilding of docks, factories, at the same time, too much capital was involved in projects offering no immediate or early returns. As a result, the United States Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1873, before the Act, the United States had backed its currency with both gold and silver, and it minted both types of coins. The Act moved the United States to a de facto gold standard, the Act had the immediate effect of depressing silver prices. This hurt Western mining interests, who labeled the Act The Crime of 73, but the coinage law also reduced the domestic money supply, which raised interest rates, thereby hurting farmers and anyone else who normally carried heavy debt loads. The resulting outcry raised serious questions about how long the new policy would last and this perception of instability in United States monetary policy caused investors to shy away from long-term obligations, particularly long-term bonds. The problem was compounded by the boom, which was in its later stages at the time. In September 1873, the U. S. economy entered a crisis and this followed a period of post-Civil War economic over-expansion that arose from the Northern railroad boom. It came at the end of a series of setbacks, the Black Friday panic of 1869, the Chicago fire of 1871, the outbreak of equine influenza in 1872. In September 1873, Jay Cooke & Company, a component of the United States banking establishment. Cookes firm, like others, had invested heavily in the railroads. At a time when investment banks were anxious for more capital for their enterprises, while businesses were expanding, the money they needed to finance that growth was becoming scarcer. Cooke and other entrepreneurs had planned to build the second transcontinental railroad, cookes firm provided the financing, and ground was broken near Duluth, Minnesota, for the line on 15 February 1870
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Panic of 1893
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The Panic of 1893 was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897. It deeply affected every sector of the economy, and produced political upheaval that led to the 1896 realigning election, one of the causes for the panic of 1893 can be traced back to Argentina. Investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers, however, the failure of the 1890 wheat crop and a coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. As concern for the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, the credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The Populists were a short-lived agrarian-populist political party which appealed politically to wheat farmers in the West and they saw the resulting panic as confirmation that the values of rootless global finance were assailing traditional American values. Historian Hasia Diner notes, Some Populists believed that Jews made up a class of international financiers whose policies had ruined small family farms, Jews, they asserted, owned the banks and promoted the gold standard, the chief sources of their impoverishment. Agrarian radicalism posited the city as antithetical to American values, asserting that Jews were the essence of urban corruption, the Free Silver movement arose, gaining support from farmers and mining interests. People attempted to redeem notes for gold. Ultimately, the limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments, the National Cordage Company went into receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCCs financial distress. The company, a manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price, holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and this was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies, in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the west, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panics peak, the huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result, as a result of the panic, stock prices declined. 500 banks closed,15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation, the unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to feed the destitute
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George Walbridge Perkins
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George Walbridge Perkins I was an American politician and businessman. He was a leader of the Progressive Movement, especially the Theodore Roosevelts Progressive party of 1912, starting as an office boy he became a leading executive in insurance, steel and banking, always on the alert for new and better ways to do business. He was a top aide to financier J. P. Morgan, and handled complex issues involving U. S. Steel, International Harvester and he was vice-president of New York Life Insurance Company and a partner in J. P. Morgan & Co. He served as president of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission from its creation in 1900 until his death in 1920 and he was born on January 31,1862 in Chicago, Illinois. With only an education, he began work as an office boy in the Chicago office of the New York Life Insurance Company. By 1898 he had risen to the position of vice president, Perkins played an important role in the development of New York Life. A strong believer in the Efficiency Movement, he sought out instances of waste, for example, he noticed that the old routine of farming out territory to middlemen, who in turn appointed men who did the actual soliciting for policies, was inefficient. The local agents were underpaid and often made misrepresentations in order to get initial premiums, Perkins, starting in 1892, made the local agents and solicitors permanent employees, and by introducing in 1896, his system of benefits based on length of service and value of policies written. He opened up new markets in Russia and Europe. He also helped reorganize Morgans United States Steel Corporation, in 1910 Perkins began to pursue Progressive Era reform causes. Perkins was an exponent of the evils of competition and the advantages of cooperation in business— he believed in the Good Trust. His biographer, John A. Garraty summarizes Perkins business philosophy as follows, competition is cruel, wasteful, destructive, outmoded, co-operation, inherent in any theory of a well-ordered Universe, is humane, efficient, inevitable and modern. In 1912 he helped organize Theodore Roosevelts new Progressive party, becoming its executive secretary, at the convention an anti-trust plank was suddenly dropped, shocking reformers like Gifford Pinchot who saw Roosevelt as a true trust-buster. They blamed Perkins Perkins ties to big business alarmed the radical wing of the party, after 1913 he focused on New York City politics, while continuing as Progressive National Chairman. In 1916 he campaigned for Charles Evans Hughes and the GOP, the result was a deep split in the new party that was never resolved. Perkins was in control of the party in 1913. On September 7,1917, the New York State Senate rejected his nomination as Chairman of the recently established New York State Food Control Commission. On October 2, the State Senate rejected again his nomination, as chairman of a finance committee of the Young Mens Christian Association, he raised $200,000,000 for welfare work among American soldiers abroad
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Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
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Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
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Walkway over the Hudson
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The Walkway over the Hudson is a steel cantilever bridge spanning the Hudson River between Poughkeepsie, New York, on the east bank and Highland, New York, on the west bank. Built as a double track bridge, it was completed on January 1,1889. It was taken out of service on May 8,1974 and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and its entry updated in 2008. It was reopened on October 3,2009 as a walkway as part of the new Walkway Over the Hudson State Historic Park. In 1868, a proposed an railroad bridge across the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie. The proposal seemed so absurd that the Eagle ridiculed it, over the years, many plans had been made for a fixed span across the Hudson River south of Albany to replace numerous car float and ferry operations. The Poughkeepsie Bridge Company was chartered in June 1871 to build the bridge, contracts were let to a firm called the American Bridge Company, but the Panic of 1873 intervened and the scheme collapsed. In 1886, the Manhattan Bridge Building Company was organized to finance the construction, among the prominent backers was Henry Clay Frick, the coal tycoon and associate of Andrew Carnegie. The Union Bridge Company of Athens, Pennsylvania, which had completed the Michigan Central cantilever bridge at Niagara, was subcontracted to build the Poughkeepsie Bridge. Dawson, Symmes and Usher were the engineers, while John F. ORourke, P. P. Dickinson. The bridge was designed by Charles Macdonald and Arthur B, the first train crossed the bridge on December 29,1888, and it was formally opened for scheduled passenger service on January 1,1889. Considered an engineering marvel of the day, the bridge has seven main spans, the total length is 6,768 feet, including approaches, and the top of the deck is 212 feet above water. All seven spans were built of newly available Bessemer Process mild steel and it formed part of the most direct rail route between the industrial northeastern states and the midwestern and western states. Ownership of the bridge passed through several railroads including the Central New England Railway, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, Penn Central and Conrail. In 1917–18, the tracks on the bridge were converted to gantlet track operation to center the weight of heavier NH 2-10-2 steam locomotives. Even so, trains were restricted to 12 miles per hour, in 1959, the gantlet tracks were replaced by a centered single track. During World War II, the bridge was a link for war freight traffic. At its peak, nearly 3,500 train cars crossed over the Hudson on a daily basis, traffic across the bridge began a slow decline in the 1950s as industry shrank in New England and with it the need for the raw materials railroads excelled at transporting
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George Washington Bridge
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As of 2015, it carried over 106 million vehicles per year, making it the worlds busiest motor vehicle bridge. The speed limit on the bridge is 45 mph, though congestion frequently slows traffic on weekdays and weekends. The bridges upper level also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic, Interstate 95 and U. S. Route 1/9 cross the river via the bridge. US46, which lies entirely within New Jersey, terminates halfway across the bridge at the border with New York. At its eastern terminus in New York City, the bridge connects with the Trans-Manhattan Expressway, unsuccessful, Washington evacuated Manhattan by crossing between the two forts. Construction on the began in October 1927 as a project of the Port of New York Authority. The bridges chief engineer was Othmar Ammann, with Cass Gilbert as architect, geologists made 300-foot test bores on the New Jersey side to determine if the geological strata would support the bridge. When construction started, the estimated cost of the bridge was $75,000,000 and it was expected to carry 8 million vehicles and 1.5 million pedestrians in its first year of operation. Prior to and while construction, the bridge was unofficially known as the Hudson River Bridge. However, the Port Authority named the bridge after George Washington that year, the bridge was dedicated on October 24,1931, and opened to traffic the following day. It held this title until the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937, in 1946, two more lanes were created on the current upper level, widening it from the original six lanes. A second, lower deck, which had anticipated in Ammanns original plans, was approved by Lt. Col. Joseph R. McCammon, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. The original design for the towers of the called for them to be encased in concrete and granite. However, because of cost considerations during the Great Depression and favorable aesthetic critiques of the steel towers. The exposed steel towers, with their distinctive criss-crossed bracing, have one of the bridges most identifiable characteristics. Le Corbusier said of the steel structure, The George Washington Bridge over the Hudson is the most beautiful bridge in the world. Made of cables and steel beams, it gleams in the sky like a reversed arch and it is the only seat of grace in the disordered city. It is painted a color and, between water and sky, you see nothing but the bent cord supported by two steel towers
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Golden Gate Bridge
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The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate strait, the one-mile-wide, one-point-seven-mile-long channel between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The bridge is one of the most internationally recognized symbols of San Francisco, California, and it has been declared one of the Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The Frommers travel guide describes the Golden Gate Bridge as possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed and it opened in 1937 and was, until 1964, the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet. Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco. Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacifics automobile ferries became very profitable, the trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes. Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County, San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation. San Franciscos City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, which would have been $2.12 billion in 2009 and he asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less. One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis. At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges—most of which were inland—and nothing on the scale of the new project. Strausss initial drawings were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss would alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts. A suspension-bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy, Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California. The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources, the Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic. The navy feared that a collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs, in May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction. Another ally was the automobile industry, which supported the development of roads. The bridges name was first used when the project was discussed in 1917 by M. M
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Bronx River Parkway
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The Bronx River Parkway is a 19. 12-mile long parkway in downstate New York in the United States. It is named for the nearby Bronx River, which it parallels, the southern terminus of the parkway is at Story Avenue near Bruckner Expressway in the Bronx neighborhood of Soundview. The northern terminus is at the Kensico Circle in North Castle, Westchester County, within the Bronx, the parkway is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation and is designated New York State Route 907H, an unsigned reference route. In Westchester County, the parkway is maintained by the Westchester County Department of Public Works and is designated unsigned County Route 9987, most of the exits on the parkway, including the traffic light-controlled intersections in Westchester County, have interchange numbers. Current usage of the term is confined to the roadway, the southern third of the parkway, in the Bronx, is exclusively limited-access. It serves as a route, intersecting several major east-west routes. Halfway through the borough it begins to parallel the Harlem Line of Metro-North Railroad. In Westchester County, the continues to have the same character until the Sprain Brook Parkway splits off at Bronxville. The stretches north of that junction have more of the original park character, North of White Plains the exits take the form of at-grade intersections with traffic lights. The parkway begins at Story Avenue in the Bronx neighborhood of Soundview, immediately to the north is the cloverleaf interchange at the Bruckner Expressway, where most traffic enters the parkway. Basketball courts and baseball fields flank the highway in the strip of parkland as the leads to the north. North of Watson Avenue, within a half-mile of the southern terminus, the corresponding offramp for southbound traffic merges onto Harrod Avenue north of Westchester Avenue. Now in West Farms, another onramp joins the southbound lanes from East 174th Street, North of it is exit 4, the interchange with the Cross Bronx Expressway. The single ramp of exit 5 allows southbound traffic to follow East 177th Street to the terminus of the Sheridan Expressway. North of the interchange the road veers to the northeast slightly, at East 180th Street, the linear park ends temporarily. The road becomes elevated to cross the East 180th Street Yard along the former IRT White Plains Road Line, on the northbound side, as it enters the park, is an unnumbered exit allowing authorized vehicles access to local streets via Birchall Avenue. Past the exit the large wooded area on the west is the New York Botanical Garden, one half-mile further north, exit 8 allows access to the Mosholu Parkway and Allerton Avenue. The railroad tracks join the river and the parkland in paralleling the north as it continues straight along the east edge of Woodlawn Cemetery
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Kensico Reservoir
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The Kensico Reservoir is a reservoir located in the towns of Armonk, Harrison and Valhalla, New York. It was formed by the old earth and gravel dam, built in 1885, which impounded waters from the Bronx and Byram rivers, and supplied about 18 million gallons daily. The construction of a new dam in 1915, replaced the old dam. It is about 3 miles north of downtown White Plains, New York, the reservoir serves mainly to store the waters received from the Catskill Mountains west of the Hudson River. Along with the West Branch Reservoir and Boyds Corner Reservoir, it is one of three reservoirs within the Catskill/Delaware system outside the Catskill Mountains region. The Kensico Reservoir also provides for fishing and boating recreation, every year, the reservoir is stocked with over 2,000 brown trout. According to the Department of Environmental Conservation, the Kensico Reservoir was stocked in April 2016 with 8620 brown Trout 8.5 to 9.5 inches long, as the population of New York City grew in the 19th century, so did the need for water. The first use of water from Westchester County came from the old Croton Dam, in the 1880s, the City faced increasing demands for water and therefore needed to enlarge the Croton Reservoir to meet that need. The enlargement of the Croton Reservoir was completed in 1906 as a part of a system of reservoirs designed to bring water from Putnam and Westchester Counties to New York City. The village of Kensico, NY was named in 1849 for a Siwanoy Indian chief, Cokenseko, in 1885, the old Kensico Dam was built south of the village of Kensico, NY as an additional source of water for New York City. The earth and gravel dam formed a lake from water supplied by the Bronx River and the Byram River. A reservoir was needed that would contain waters from various new reservoirs, Kensico was surrounded by hills that came to a natural V-shape making it an ideal area to hold a vast amount of water. Just to the south of Kensico was Rye Pond and Little Rye Pond in Harrison, NY, a nearby quarry in Harrison bordering Cranberry Lake, provided the necessary materials for building the new dam. Although relatively small—with a population of about 200 people—Kensico had houses, stores, churches, hotels, in 1905, legislation was passed by New York State to allow money to be raised for the building of the Kensico Reservoir. The next year, final planning by the state was approved, a camp for the workers and their families had to be constructed, along with facilities such as schools for their children. To prepare for the dam construction, each lot of land was condemned and appraised. Many of the families had to move to such surrounding communities as Armonk, Harrison, Valhalla, the village of Kensico was then flooded to make way for the reservoir. After the events of September 11,2001 the road running across the top of the Kensico Dam was closed indefinitely for fear of an attempt to destroy the dam
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Bear Mountain State Parkway
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The Bear Mountain State Parkway is a parkway located in northern Westchester County, New York, in the United States. Crompond Road provides a connection between the two sections, collectively, the parkway extends from an intersection with US6, US9, and US202 southeast of the Bear Mountain Bridge to an interchange with the Taconic State Parkway in Yorktown. The parkway was built in 1932 but, unlike most other parkways in Westchester County, the initial reason for the Bear Mountain Parkway was to connect the Taconic State Parkway to the Bear Mountain Bridge. The Tappan Zee Bridge became a more popular Hudson River crossing following its construction, and consequently, the Bear Mountain Parkway was never finished. The parkway begins at an intersection with US6, US9 and US202 south of Annsville Creek in Peekskill, the parkway intersects another street at-grade prior to entering Cortlandt. In Cortlandt, the parkway meets US6 at an interchange and becomes a two lane undivided roadway again and meets several surface roads ahead of an intersection with US202 and NY35. Here, the Bear Mountain Parkway merges with the two-lane US202 and NY35, creating a physical, roughly one mile from the town line, the parkway separates from US202 and NY35 and progresses to the northeast as a four-lane undivided roadway. After a short distance, the parkway becomes separated by a prior to merging with the southbound Taconic State Parkway. The northbound Taconic Parkway is accessed by way of US202, the parkway was designated but not signed as NY821 prior to the creation of the current reference route system. It was intended to provide a quick, scenic trip from the Bronx to the Bear Mountain Bridge, in 1941, the Taconic State Park Commission assumed control of the Bronx River extension. The commission subsequently combined the north–south portion of the extension with the then-Eastern State Parkway to create the Taconic State Parkway, the east–west section of the extension between the Taconic Parkway and Annsville was renamed the Bear Mountain State Parkway. At the time of the construction, the Bear Mountain Bridge was an extremely important crossing of the Hudson River for Westchester, Rockland, Putnam. In 2000, there was an initiative to complete the missing piece of the Bear Mountain Parkway. Although most, if not all, of the right-of-way has already been acquired, the entire route is in Westchester County. New York Roads portal Bear Mountain State Parkway at Alps Roads • New York State Highway Termini Bear Mountain State Parkway at nycroads. com
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Taconic State Parkway
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The Taconic State Parkway, is a 104. 12-mile divided highway between Kensico Dam and Chatham, the longest parkway in the U. S. state of New York. It follows a generally northward route midway between the Hudson River and the Connecticut and Massachusetts state lines, along the Taconic Mountains and its southernmost three miles are a surface road, from the junction with the Sprain Brook Parkway northward it is a limited-access highway. It is open only to vehicles, as with other parkways in New York, and maintained by the state Department of Transportation. Its winding, hilly route was designed by landscape architect Gilmore Clarke to offer scenic vistas of the Hudson Highlands, Catskills, the bridges and now-closed service areas were designed to be aesthetically pleasing. It has been praised for the beauty of not only the landscape and views it offers. It was completed in its present form in the early 1960s and it is the second-longest continuous road listed on the Register after Virginias Skyline Drive, and the longest limited-access highway. The parkway continues to provide access to state parks, including one named for Roosevelt. It has also become an important regional artery, one of the routes to northern New England and upstate New York from New York City. The southern sections, particularly in Westchester County, have become a route into the city for residents who moved into towns that became suburbanized as a result of the parkway. The state and regional transportation planners have worked to adapt to change since the 1940s. The Taconics character changes with its surroundings, in the busy suburbs of its first few miles, it is an arterial surface road, paralleling a commuter rail line through a small downtown. Soon after that it becomes a divided highway, with median strips. In the Hudson Highlands, it again as it curves back and forth and climbs up. When the terrain levels out again, it widens and begins to assume its scenic character in a growing and this winding route contributes to its 104. 12-mile length, which makes the parkway the states longest. The Taconic begins at Kensico Circle, just south of Kensico Dam, in the town of Mount Pleasant, also the terminus of the Bronx River Parkway. The roadway here is narrow, with two lanes in either direction divided by a metal box beam median barrier and it curves northwest to a traffic light at Cleveland Street in the hamlet of Valhalla. The Valhalla station on Metro-North Railroads Harlem Line is on the west side and it is the only densely developed community the road goes through rather than near. The road then crosses over the line into a wooded area where the two roadways split wide apart, becoming onramps to the Sprain Brook Parkway
38.
Outerbridge Crossing
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The Outerbridge Crossing is a cantilever bridge which spans the Arthur Kill. The Outerbridge, as it is known, connects Perth Amboy, New Jersey, with Staten Island. It carries NY440 and NJ440, the two roads connecting at the border near the bridges center. The Outerbridge Crossing is one of three bridges connecting New Jersey with Staten Island, and like the others, is maintained and operated by the Port Authority of New York. The others are the Bayonne Bridge, which connects Staten Island with Bayonne, and the Goethals Bridge, the bridge was named for Eugenius Harvey Outerbridge, the first chairman of the then–Port of New York Authority and a resident of Staten Island. It opened simultaneously with the Goethals Bridge on June 29,1928, neither bridge saw high traffic counts until the opening of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in 1964. Traffic counts on both bridges were also depressed due to the effects of the Great Depression and World War II, in recent years, the bridge has undergone numerous repair jobs as a result of the high volume of traffic that crosses the bridge each day. On October 11,2013, the Port Authority announced the completion of the bridges repaving project, on March 2,2017, Port Authority Executive Director Patrick Foye announced the funding of a $230 million study into a potential replacement bridge. The Outerbridge Crossing carried 32,438,000 vehicles in 2006, tolls are collected in the eastbound direction only. Motorists using the high-speed E-ZPass lanes cannot use Exit 1 to Page Avenue, which is located immediately after the toll plaza. As of December 6,2015, the cash toll going from New Jersey to New York is $15 for cars and motorcycles, there is no toll for passenger vehicles going from New York to New Jersey. E-ZPass users are charged $12.50 for cars or $11.50 for motorcycles during peak hours, and $10.50 for cars or $9.50 for motorcycles during off-peak hours. com Historic American Engineering Record No
39.
Rip Van Winkle Bridge
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The Rip Van Winkle Bridge is a cantilever bridge spanning the Hudson River between Hudson, New York and Catskill, New York. The structure carries NY23 across the river, connecting on the west side, US 9W, the bridge was built by the newly created New York State Bridge Authority, opening on July 2,1935, at a cost of $2.4 million. Upon its opening, the toll was $0.80 per passenger car, the current toll for autos is $1.50 for eastbound traffic only. The bridge extends 5,040 feet across the river, with a clearance of 145 feet. The bridge is named after the 1819 short story of the name by Washington Irving. A multi-year repainting project was completed in 2009 which removed all lead-based paint, the bridge includes a pedestrian walkway on the south side of the bridge which is open from dawn to dusk. Cyclists may use the roadway or may walk their cycles across the pedestrian walkway
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American Society of Civil Engineers
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The American Society of Civil Engineers is a tax-exempt professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. Headquartered in Reston, Virginia, it is the oldest national engineering society in the United States and it was the first national engineering society created in the United States. In 1999, the ASCE elected the top-ten civil engineering achievements that had the greatest positive impact on life in the 20th century in broad categories. Monuments of the Millennium were a combination of technical engineering achievement, courage and inspiration, and it also publishes conference proceedings, standards, manuals of practice, technical reports, and monographs. The ASCE corporate website hosts the society’s bookstore, the access to all journal articles published since 1983, all conference proceedings since 2000. Each year, more than 55,000 engineers earn continuing education units and/or professional development hours by participating in ASCE’s continuing education programs, ASCE hosts more than 15 annual and specialty conferences, over 200 continuing education seminars and more than 300 live Web seminars. The Societys Committee on Technical Advancement has 10 divisions, each year, more than 6,000 civil engineering professionals contribute volunteer technical expertise through participation on ASCE technical committees. These committees are housed in the divisions of the Committee on Technical Activities or in the Society’s institutes, the efforts of these volunteers advance the profession in many ways including the numerous conferences held each year, manuals of practice, journals and standards. Certification is the recognition of attaining advanced knowledge and skills in a specialty area of civil engineering, ASCE offers certifications for engineers who demonstrate advanced knowledge and skills in their area of engineering. American Academy of Water Resources Engineers Academy of Geo-Professionals Academy of Coastal, Ocean, michel Award for Industry Advancement of Research and the Charles Pankow Award for innovation,11 scholarships and fellowships for student members. Special consideration is given to private practice engineering work that is recognized as a contribution to the field of environmental engineering. The Lifetime Achievement Award has been presented annually since 1999 and recognizes five different individual leaders, one award is present in each category of design, construction, government, education, and management. ASCE designates national and international Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks, on February 12,2007 Lt. Gen Strock gave all expert review panel members an Outstanding Civilian Service Medals. On June 1,2007, the ASCE issued its expert review panel report, the report stated that had levees and pump stations not failed, far less property loss would have occurred and nearly two-thirds of deaths could have been avoided. The ASCE administration was criticized by the Times-Picayune for an attempt to minimize, the Corps acknowledged receiving a copy of the letter and refused to comment until the ASCEs Committee on Professional Conduct had commented on the complaint. It took over a year for the ASCE to announce the results of the CPC, the ASCE self-study panel did not file charges of ethical misconduct and blamed errors on staff and not review panel members having created the June press release. On November 14,2007, ASCE announced that U. S, congressman Sherwood Boehlert, R‑N. Y. would lead an independent task force of outside experts to review how ASCE participated in engineering studies of national significance. ASCE President David Mongan said the review was to address criticism of ASCE´s role in assisting the Army Corps of Engineers-sponsored investigation of Katrina failures
41.
E-ZPass
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E‑ZPass tags are active RFID transponders, made exclusively by Kapsch TrafficCom. They communicate with reader equipment built into lane-based or open-road toll collection lanes by transmitting a unique radio signature, the most common type of tag is an internal tag that can be mounted on the inside of the vehicles windshield in proximity to the rear-view mirror. Transponders may be put in a shirt or jacket pocket, if necessary, in some areas, however, there is no need to slow down, because E‑ZPass users can utilize dedicated traffic lanes that are physically separate from the toll-booth lanes. S. This will result in a violation and possible large fine assessed to the tag holder, in an attempt to avoid this, E‑ZPass tags for commercial vehicles are blue in color, contrasting with the white tags assigned to standard passenger vehicles. The blue E‑ZPass is also used in government employee vehicles, for purposes of interoperability, all agencies are connected to each other by a secure network. This network provides the means to exchange tag data and process toll transactions across the various agencies, tag data is exchanged among the agencies on a nightly basis. This data can take up to 24 hours on the network the unit is issued by. The E‑ZPass transponder works by listening for a signal broadcast by the reader stationed at the toll booth and this 915 MHz signal is sent at 500 kbit/s using the TDM protocol in 256‑bit packets. Transponders use active Type II read/write technology, in April 2013, Kapsch made the protocol available to all interested parties royalty-free in perpetuity and is granting the right to sublicense the protocol. Some issuing agencies offer a packaged E‑ZPass transponder preloaded with toll funds sold over-the-counter at a setting that is valid immediately. According to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey,83. 2% of vehicles crossing its five bridges, the notion of electronic tolling had been considered as early as the 1980s, particularly in the New York metropolitan area. The E‑ZPass trademark, however, belongs to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Under the direction of Peter Tufo, chairman of the New York State Thruway from 1989 to 1996, over the following three and a half years, the New York State Thruway Authority installed electronic toll-collection equipment, in stages, along the Thruway. By February 6,1997, E‑ZPass had been installed along the length of the corridor. By December 15,2001, E-ZPass could be used on the length of the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike. Commercial vehicles were allowed to use the beginning on December 14,2002. On October 6,1998, a U. S. patent for a toll collection system was issued to Fred Slavin. Meanwhile, various agencies began work on similar electronic toll collecting facilities
42.
Lead(II,IV) oxide
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Lead oxide, also called minium, red lead or triplumbic tetroxide, is a bright red or orange crystalline or amorphous pigment. Chemically, red lead is Pb3O4, or 2 PbO·PbO2 and it is used in the manufacture of batteries, lead glass and rust-proof primer paints. Lead oxide has a crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to an orthorhombic form at temperature 170 K. This phase transition only changes the symmetry of the crystal and slightly modifies the interatomic distances and angles. Lead oxide is prepared by calcination of lead oxide in air at about 450 to 480 °C,6 PbO + O2 →2 Pb3O4 The resulting material is contaminated with lead oxide. g. The best known natural specimens come from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia, red lead is virtually insoluble in water and in alcohol. However, it is soluble in hydrochloric acid present in the stomach and it also dissolves in glacial acetic acid and a diluted mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. When heated to 500 °C, it decomposes to lead oxide, at 580 °C, the reaction is complete. Lead tetraoxide is most often used as a pigment for primer paints for iron objects, due to its toxicity, its use is being limited. In the past, it was used in combination with linseed oil as a thick, the combination of minium and linen fibres was also used for plumbing, now replaced with PTFE tape. Currently it is used for manufacture of glass, especially lead glass. It finds limited use in amateur pyrotechnics as a delay charge and was used in the past in the manufacture of Dragons eggs pyrotechnic stars. Red lead is used as an agent in some polychloroprene rubber compounds. It is used in place of magnesium oxide to provide better water resistance properties, red lead was also used for engineers scraping, before being supplanted by Engineers blue. When inhaled, lead oxide irritates lungs, in case of high dose, the victim experiences a metallic taste, chest pain, and abdominal pain. When ingested, it is dissolved in the acid and absorbed. High concentrations can be absorbed through skin as well, and it is important to safety precautions when working with lead-based paint. Long-term contact with lead oxide may lead to accumulation of lead compounds in organisms, chronic poisoning displays as agitation, irritability, vision disorders, hypertension, and also a grayish facial hue
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Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
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