1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
Normal school
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A normal school is a school created to train high school graduates to be teachers. Most such schools are now denominated teachers colleges, the first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, another school was established in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It operates today as Framingham State University, in the United States teacher colleges or normal schools began to evolve from their initial mission of training teachers to add programs in the sciences, engineering, technology, health, and business. They started to become universities in the 1940s. For instance, Southern Illinois University was formerly Southern Illinois Normal College, the University is now a system of two campuses of more than 34,000 students, but still issues most of its baccalaureate degrees in education. Further, the town of Normal, Illinois was named from the name of Illinois State University. Many famous state universities, such as the University of California, such a list includes Emporia State University in Emporia, Kansas, which was established as Kansas State Normal School in 1863, and which by 1889 had become the largest normal school in the Nation. In Canada, such institutions were typically assimilated by a university as the latters Faculty of Education and it requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study. The term normal school originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale, the French concept of an école normale was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building, although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary. In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality, Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher. In France, a system developed since the Revolution, primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales. Nowadays all teachers are educated in École supérieure du professorat et de léducation, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France and the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in Italy no longer specialize in teacher training. In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once separate institutions, the University of Chester traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were established by religious institutions and were single-sex until World War II, since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right or merged with another university to become its faculty of education. The latter was one of the last institutions to retain the word Normal in its name, in Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, former Vilnius Pedagogical University is the main teachers training institution, established in 1935. The terminology is still preserved in the translations of such schools in China since the early 20th century
3.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
4.
Peking University
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Peking University, is a major Chinese research university located in Beijing and a member of the C9 League. It is the first modern national university established in China, founded as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the ancient Taixue or Guozijian and it also served as the highest administration for education in China at the beginning of its founding. By 1920, it had become a center for progressive thought, Peking University is consistently ranked as the top higher learning institution in mainland China. In addition to academics, Peking University is especially renowned for its campus grounds, and the beauty of its traditional Chinese architecture. Throughout its history, the university has educated and hosted many prominent modern Chinese thinkers, including such as, Mao Zedong, Lu Xun, Gu Hongming, Mao Dun, Li Dazhao. Peking University was influential in the birth of Chinas New Culture Movement, May Fourth Movement, when it was established on July 3,1898, the school was known as the Imperial University of Peking. It was established to replace Taixue or Guozijian, or Imperial Academy, in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, the Imperial University was renamed National Peking University. Cai, inspired by the German model of freedom, recruited an intellectually diverse faculty that included Hu Shih, Chen Duxiu. In 1919, students of Peking University formed the bulk of the protesters of the May Fourth Movement, efforts by the Beiyang government to end the protests by sealing off the Peking University campus led to Cais resignation. In 1920, Peking University became the first Chinese university to accept female students, after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Peking University moved to Changsha and formed the Changsha Temporary University along with Tsinghua University and Nankai University. In 1938, the three schools moved again, this time to Kunming, and formed the National Southwestern Associated University, in 1946, after World War II, Peking University moved back to Beijing. At that time, the university comprised six schools, and an institute for humanities. The total student enrollment grew up to 3,000, in 1949, after the Peoples Republic of China was established, Peking University lost its national appellation to reflect the fact that all universities under the new socialist state would be public. In 1952, Mao Zedongs government re-grouped the countrys higher education institutions with individual institutions tending to specialize in a field of study. As a result, some arts and science faculties of Tsinghua University, at the same time, however, the university lost its Law, Medicine, Engineering and Agriculture schools. These schools and faculties were merged into other universities or to found new colleges. During the re-grouping, Yenching University was closed up, Peking University moved from downtown Beijing to the former Yenching campus. The first disturbances of the Cultural Revolution began at Peking University in 1966, in 2000, Beijing Medical University was merged back into Peking University and became the Peking University Health Science Campus
5.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
6.
Fu Jen Catholic University
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Fu Jen Catholic University, formerly The Catholic University of Peking, is a private, co-educational university founded by the Holy See, located in New Taipei City, Taiwan. It is the oldest Jesuit-Catholic university in the Sinophone world and is known for its ties with the Roman Curia. It takes its name from the Chinese Fu Jen meaning assistance and benevolence, among the Chinese, it is colloquially known as FǔDà. Fu Jen was ranked as one of Asias top 100 and worlds top 500 universities, to date, it is the 5th best ranked business school, top 8 colleges in alumni employment and the second largest university in the number of students in the country. In Taiwan, it is the university with an Italian Language. Its College of Management was the first one there with AACSB accreditation, also the College of Medicine was the earliest to promote PBL, developed at McMaster University Medical School in Canada, as pedagogy for medical education. Fu Jen alumni are referred to as FǔDàRén and they include the Premier Lin Chuan, former First Lady Wang Guangmei, a number of politicians represented in the Legislative Yuan and professors at various world-class institutions. Fu Jen has established relationships with more than 360 universities worldwide, such as the Notre Dame, UC Berkeley, Tohoku. In addition, Fu Jen is a member of Beta Gamma Sigma, Association of Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia, the International Secretariat of UMAP is located on the Fu Jen campus. Its campus adjoins the Fu Jen University Station, a station named after the university. The institution was established in Beijing in 1925 by the Benedictines of St. Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. Fu Jen, then known as The Catholic University of Peking, was itself a successor to the Fu Jen Academy. The universitys first president was the American missionary George Barry OToole and he was succeeded by Chen Yuan, a Chinese Protestant, who remained university president until the schools forced closure by the Chinese government in 1952. In 1933 the Benedictines in the United States, in the midst of the Great Depression, were no longer able to sustain Fu Jens mission, administration of the university passed to the Society of the Divine Word in Germany. After the Communists assumed power in China in 1949, religious organisations, including the Catholic Church, Fu Jen was re-established in 1961 in Taiwan. The new school opened under the auspices of the Chinese Regional Bishops Conference, the Society of Jesus, the University at present comprises 11 colleges with a student body of more than 25,000. The university motto, 真善美聖 in Chinese and Veritas, Bonitas, Pulchritudo, Sanctitas in Latin, expresses four ideals, Truth, Goodness, the laurel wreath symbolizes honor and peace while the twelve stars signify the Virgin Mary. The cross represents the Christian faith, the two colors on the shield suggest Christs dual nature as the rounded shape of the shield recalls the Sacred Heart
7.
May Fourth Movement
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Many political and social leaders of the next decades emerged at this time. The term May Fourth Movement in a broader sense often refers to the period during 1915-1921 more often called the New Culture Movement. The atmosphere and political mood that emerged around 1919, in the words of Mitter, are at the centre of a set of ideas that has shaped Chinas momentous twentieth century, following the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, the Qing Dynasty disintegrated. This marked the end of thousands of years of imperial rule. However, the reality was that China was a fragmented nation dominated by warlords, the Chinese Beiyang government was occupied with suppressing internal affairs and did little to counter the influence exerted by foreign powers. Leaders of the New Culture Movement believed that traditional Confucian values were responsible for the weakness of the nation. Chinese nationalists called for a rejection of traditional values and the adoption of Western ideals of Mr. Science. These iconoclastic and anti-traditional views and programs have shaped Chinas politics, China had entered World War I on the side of the Allied Triple Entente in 1917 with the condition that all German spheres of influence, such as Shandong, would be returned to China. Although in that year 140,000 Chinese labourers were sent to France, the Western Allies dominated the meeting at Versailles, and paid little heed to Chinese demands. Britain and France were primarily interested in punishing Germany. S, american advocacy of self-determination at the League of Nations was attractive to Chinese intellectuals, but their failure to follow through was seen as a betrayal. To recommend a large-scale gathering in Beijing, to promote the creation of a Beijing student union. To hold a demonstration that afternoon in protest to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, on the afternoon of May 4 over 3,000 students of Peking University and other schools marched from many points to gather in front of Tiananmen. They shouted such slogans as Struggle for the sovereignty externally, get rid of the traitors at home, Do away with the Twenty-One Demands. They voiced their anger at the Allied betrayal of China, denounced the governments inability to protect Chinese interests. Demonstrators insisted on the resignation of three Chinese officials they accused of being collaborators with the Japanese, after burning the residence of one of these officials and beating his servants, student protesters were arrested, jailed, and severely beaten. The next day, students in Beijing as a whole went on strike and in the cities across China, students, patriotic merchants. The demonstrators skillfully appealed to the newspapers and sent representatives to carry the word across the country, from early June, workers and businessmen in Shanghai also went on strike as the center of the movement shifted from Beijing to Shanghai. Chancellors from thirteen universities arranged for the release of student prisoners, and Cai Yuanpei, newspapers, magazines, citizen societies, and chambers of commerce offered support for the students
8.
Cultural Revolution
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The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement that took place in China from 1966 until 1976. The Revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward, the movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the countrys economy and society to a significant degree. The Revolution was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society at large, to eliminate his rivals within the Communist Party of China, Mao insisted that these revisionists be removed through violent class struggle. Chinas youth responded to Maos appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country, the movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a purge of senior officials, most notably Liu Shaoqi. During the same period Maos personality cult grew to immense proportions, a large segment of the population was forcibly displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth to rural regions during the Down to the Countryside Movement. Historical relics and artifacts were destroyed, Cultural and religious sites were ransacked. Mao officially declared the Cultural Revolution to have ended in 1969, after Maos death and the arrest of the Gang of Four in 1976, reformers led by Deng Xiaoping gradually began to dismantle the Maoist policies associated with the Cultural Revolution. In 1958, after Chinas first Five-Year Plan, Mao called for grassroots socialism in order to accelerate his plans for turning China into an industrialized state. In this spirit, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, established Peoples Communes in the countryside, many communities were assigned production of a single commodity—steel. Mao vowed to increase production to twice 1957 levels. The Great Leap was an economic failure, uneducated farmers attempted to produce steel on a massive scale, partially relying on backyard furnaces to achieve the production targets set by local cadres. The steel produced was low quality and largely useless, the Great Leap reduced harvest sizes and led to a decline in the production of most goods except substandard pig iron and steel. Furthermore, local authorities frequently exaggerated production numbers, hiding and intensifying the problem for several years, in the meantime, chaos in the collectives, bad weather, and exports of food necessary to secure hard currency resulted in the Great Chinese Famine. Food was in shortage, and production fell dramatically. The famine caused the deaths of millions of people, particularly in poorer inland regions, the Great Leaps failure reduced Maos prestige within the Party. Forced to take responsibility, in 1959, Mao resigned as the President of the Peoples Republic of China, Chinas de jure head of state
9.
Tiananmen Square protests of 1989
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The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in China as the June Fourth Incident, were student-led demonstrations in Beijing in 1989. More broadly, it refers to the national movement inspired by the Beijing protests during that period. The protests were suppressed after the government declared martial law. The number of deaths has been estimated at anywhere between the hundreds to the thousands. The reforms of the 1980s had led a nascent market economy which benefited some groups but seriously disaffected others, common grievances at the time included inflation, limited preparedness of graduates for the new economy, and restrictions on political participation. The students called for democracy, greater accountability, freedom of the press, at the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square. As the protests developed, the authorities veered back and forth between conciliatory and hardline tactics, exposing deep divisions within the party leadership, by May, a student-led hunger strike galvanized support for the demonstrators around the country and the protests spread to some 400 cities. Ultimately, Chinas paramount leader Deng Xiaoping and other party elders believed the protests to be a political threat, Party authorities declared martial law on May 20, and mobilized as many as 300,000 troops to Beijing. The Chinese government was condemned internationally for the use of force. Western countries imposed sanctions and arms embargoes. The Chinese government initially condemned the protests as a counter-revolutionary riot, the police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged, more broadly, the suppression temporarily halted the policies of liberalization in the 1980s. Considered a watershed event, the protests also set the limits on political expression in China well into the 21st century. Its memory is associated with questioning the legitimacy of Communist Party rule. In the Chinese language, the incident is most commonly known as the June Fourth Incident, June Fourth refers to the day on which the Peoples Liberation Army cleared Tiananmen Square of protesters, although actual operations began on the evening of June 3. Some use the June Fourth designation solely to refer to the carried out by the Army. Names such as June Fourth Movement and 89 Democracy Movement are used to describe the event in its entirety, outside mainland China, and among circles critical of the crackdown within mainland China, it is commonly referred to in Chinese as June Fourth Massacre and June Fourth Crackdown. The government of the Peoples Republic of China have used numerous names for the event since 1989, in English, the terms Tiananmen Square Massacre, Tiananmen Square Protests or Tiananmen Square Crackdown are often used to describe the series of events
