1.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
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The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
2.
Flag of Indonesia
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The Flag of Indonesia is a simple bicolour with two equal horizontal bands, red and white with an overall ratio of 2,3. It was introduced and hoisted in public at the Indonesian Independence declaration ceremony on 17 August 1945 in Pegangsaan Timur street, the design of the flag has remained the same since. The flag of Indonesia is graphically identical to the Flag of Monaco, the Naval Jack of Indonesia is reserved for sole use by the Indonesian Navy. It flies from every active Indonesian war ship mast, the design of the jack is described as nine alternating stripes of red and white. It is nicknamed Ular-ular Perang, probably due to the stripes design, the naval jack dates to the age of Majapahit Empire. The Majapahit Empire, renowned for its maritime strength, flew similar jacks on its vessels. The flags colours are derived from the banner of the 13th century Majapahit Empire, however it has been suggested that the red and white symbolism can trace its origin to the older common Austronesian mythology of the duality of Mother Earth and Father Sky. This is why these colours appear in so many flags throughout Austronesia and this suggests that even before the Majapahit era, the red and white colours were already revered and used as the kingdoms banner in the Kediri era. Red and white textile colouring was available in ancient Indonesia and it was not only the Javanese kingdoms that used red and white. The battle flag of King Sisingamangaraja IX of Batak lands bore an image of white twin swords called piso gaja dompak against a red background. During the Aceh War of 1873-1904, Aceh warriors used a flag with the image of a sword, star and crescent, sun. The red and white flag of of the Buginese Bone kingdom in South Sulawesi is called Woromporang, the Balinese Badung royal banner is red, white, and black, probably of Majapahit origin. During the Java War Prince Diponegoro also used a red and white banner, in the early 20th century these colours were revived by students and then nationalists, as an expression of nationalism against the Dutch. The modern red and white flag which was first flown in Java in 1928, was prohibited under Dutch rule, upon Indonesias declaration of independence on 17 August 1945 it was adopted as the national flag, and has been in use ever since. There is another story about the flag of Indonesia, which is related to the flag of the Netherlands. Under the colonial rule of the Dutch, the Netherlands flag was flown over Indonesia, while the flag of Indonesia, the blue element in the Dutch flag was understood as representing the blue-blooded aristocracy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The official name of the flag is Sang Merah-Putih according to Article 35 of the 1945 Constitution, the flag is commonly called Bendera Merah-Putih. Occasionally, it is also called Sang Dwiwarna, Sang Saka Merah-Putih refers to the historical flag called Bendera Pusaka and its replica
3.
Sukarno
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Sukarno was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his countrys struggle for Independence from the Netherlands and he was a prominent leader of Indonesias nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to support for the Japanese war effort from the population. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 and he led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party to the irritation of the military and he also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto, the spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a u, not oe, but said that he had told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno–Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno. Like many Javanese people, he had one name. He is sometimes referred to in accounts as Achmad Sukarno. The first name was added by a British journalist, who felt his readers would be confused over someone with just a single name. He was originally named KusnoJavanese pronunciation, following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, in 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminotos daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study engineering at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit, Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati
4.
Fatmawati
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Fatmawati is a National Hero of Indonesia. As the first Indonesian First Lady, She was the wife of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia. She constructed the first flag flown by Indonesia, Fatmawati was born on 5 February 1923 in Bengkulu to Hasan Din and Chadijah. One of her ancestors was a princess of a Minangkabau kingdom, when she met Sukarno she was a teenager and he was married to a 53-year-old woman named Inggit. Unsurprisingly, Sukarnos wife was unwilling to release her husband but, Sukarno rationalised the need for his new wife by stating his desire to have a child to carry on his name. In 1943 Fatmawati became the wife of Sukarno and the following year gave birth to his first child. Sukarno named his child Guntur meaning thunder, in 1945 she was his wife when Indonesia declared independence. The flag of the new country was sewn by Fatmawati, and she was not his first wife, as he had married several times before. However, all his previous wives had been divorced in accordance with state law, Fatmawati was therefore his only wife at that time. There was a movement to reform womens rights in Indonesia. Fatmawati was not initially in favour of reforming these laws until she found out about her husbands intentions to marry again, moreover, this time Sukarno had decided that he did not want to divorce Fatmawati but intended to have two wives. Fatmawati objected when her husband took Hartini, his new wife, Sukarno married another woman from Java in 1953 and Fatmawati moved out of the presidential palace and lived separately in Jakarta. As part of the settlement Fatmawati was allowed to keep the title of First Lady and this development was a major blow to the growing womens movement. Fatmawati decided that she was going to divorce the President, the womens organisation consoled and advised Fatmawati and they tried to encourage her to return to the palace and reestablish her rights. Sukarno himself was annoyed by this development although his new wife understood Fatmawatis anger, Sukarno returned and had her thrown out of the meeting and exiled to Bogor. In 1953 Fatmawati became concerned about the plight of children with tuberculosis and she founded the Ibu Soekarno Foundation to fund a hospital. The following year a hospital was opened with the assistance of government funding and this was called the Madam Soekarno Hospital and Fatmawati laid the foundation stone in 1954. The birth of the hospital was a long one, the construction of the new building was halted by financial problems and it was not until 1961 that the hospital opened
5.
National Monument (Indonesia)
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The National Monument is a 132 m tower in the centre of Merdeka Square, Central Jakarta, symbolizing the fight for Indonesia. It is the monument of the Republic of Indonesia, built to commemorate the struggle for Indonesian independence. Construction began in 1961 under the direction of President Soekarno, Monas was opened to the public in 1975. It is topped by a covered with gold foil. The monument and the museum are open daily from 07.00 am until 12.00 am Western Indonesia Time throughout the week except for the last Monday of each month when the monument is closed. On 17 August 1954, a National Monument Committee was established, a repeat competition was held in 1960, but once again, none of the 136 entries met the criteria. The chairman of the team then asked Silaban to show his design to Sukarno. However, Sukarno did not like the design as he wanted the monument to be in the form of a linga and yoni. Silaban was asked to design such a monument, but his design was for a monument so large that it would have been given the economic conditions at the time. Silaban refused to design a monument, suggesting that construction be delayed until the Indonesian economy improved. Sukarno then asked the architect R. M, soedarsono to continue with the design. Soedarsono incorporated the numbers 17,8 and 45, representing the 17 August 1945 Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, the construction of Monas proceeded in three stages. The first period, from 1961/1962–1964/1965 began with the start of construction on 17 August 1961 with Sukarno ceremonially driving in the first concrete pile. A total of 284 piles were used for the foundation block, a further 360 piles were driven in for the museum foundations, with work being completed in March 1962. The walls of the museum in the base were completed by October, construction of the obelisk then commenced and was finished in August 1963. Work in the stage, from 1966 to 1968, was delayed by shortages of funding. In the final phase, from 1969–1976, the dioramas for the museum were added. Problems remained once construction was complete, and work was needed to solve problems with water leaking into the museum, Monas was officially opened to the public on 12 July 1975
6.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
7.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
8.
Bamboo
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The bamboos /bæmˈbuː/ are evergreen perennial flowering plants in the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent, the absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 cm within a 24-hour period, giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are of economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick, or concrete. The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Indonesian, the subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae. The woody bamboos do not form a group, instead. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera, most bamboo are native to warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. However, many species are found in climates, from hot tropical regions to cool mountainous regions. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin south to Northern Australia, and west to India, China, Japan, Korea, India, and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique. Bamboo is also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States, canada and continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 91 cm in 24 hours. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 25–30 cm in diameter. However, the range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4. 6–12 m, depending on species
9.
Indonesia Raya
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Indonesia Raya has been the national anthem of Indonesia since the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Indonesia on the 17 August 1945. The song was introduced by its composer, Wage Rudolf Supratman, the first newspaper to openly publish the musical notation and lyrics of Indonesia Raya — an act of defiance towards the Dutch authorities — was the Chinese Indonesian weekly Sin Po. The first stanza of Indonesia Raya was chosen as the anthem when Indonesia proclaimed its independence at 17 August 1945. Jozef Cleber, a Dutch composer, created an arrangement of the tune for orchestra in 1950. Indonesia Raya is played in flag raising ceremonies in schools across Indonesia every Monday, the flag is raised in a solemn and timed motion so that it reaches the top of the flagpole as the anthem ends. The main flag raising ceremony is annually on 17 August to commemorate Independence day. The ceremony is led by the President of Indonesia and is held in Istana Negara. In 1928, youths from across Indonesia held the first Indonesian Youth Congress, the organizers wanted to avoid suspicion so that the Dutch would not ban the event. Supratman promised them this, and the organizers allowed him access to the event. Supratman, who was also a musician and also a teacher, was inspired by the meetings, after receiving encouragement from the conference leader Sugondo Djojopuspito, Supratman played on the violin the song Indonesia with the hope that it would someday become a national anthem. He kept the script to himself because he felt that it was not the time to announce it. Supratman first performed Indonesia on the violin on 28 October 1928 during the Second Indonesian Youth Congress, following the Second Youth Congress, the text of Indonesia was distributed by many political and student organisations. The press also played a key role in the publication of the song, on 7 November 1928, the Soeloeh Rajat Indonesia daily published the text to the song. This was followed by the Sin Po Chinese weekly on 10 November, in 1929, Wage Rudolf Supratman changed the title of his song to Indonesia Raya and appended the phrase National Anthem of Indonesia below it, but the text of the song did not change. Supratman personally printed and distributed copies of the song with its new title through pamphlets, all one thousand copies of the manuscript were sold within a short amount of time to his friends and family. A businessman friend of his, Yo Kim Tjan, also expressed interest in recording Indonesia Raya, with Supratmans consent, Yo created a copy of the song on a gramophone record overseas to obtain the best sound quality with the intention of bringing the copy back to Indonesia. However, before Yo was able to do so, Dutch colonial authorities had imposed a ban on the song, Yo was unable to bring the original back but was able to bring home a copy. According to Yo, Supratman had also given him the rights to sell copies of Indonesia Raya through his store Toko Populair
10.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
11.
Yogyakarta
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Yogyakarta is a city on Java, Indonesia. It is renowned as a center of education, classical Javanese fine art and culture such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry and puppet shows. Yogyakarta is the capital of the Yogyakarta Special Region and was the Indonesian capital during the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949, one of the districts in Yogyakarta, Kotagede, was the capital of the Mataram Sultanate between 1575 and 1640. The city is named after the Indian city of Ayodhya from the Ramayana epic, yogya means suitable, fit, proper, and karta, prosperous, flourishing. While urbanization sprawls, Yogyakarta-Magelang and Surakarta are being agglomerated in a few years, according to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as Mataram became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya. Around the year 929, the centre of the kingdom was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, the exact cause of the move is still uncertain, however, a severe eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle probably caused the move. Historians suggest that, some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram, during the Majapahit era, the area surrounding modern Yogyakarta was identified again as Mataram and recognized as one of the twelve Majapahit provinces in Java ruled by a Duke titled Bhre Mataram. During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the title of Bhre Mataram was held by kings nephew, Kotagede was established as the capital of the Mataram Sultanate. During the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, the Sultanate Mataram reached its zenith as the greatest kingdom in Java, after two changes of capital, the capital of Mataram Sultanate moved to Kartasura. During the reign of Pakubuwono II, a war broke out in Mataram Sultanate. The civil war was fought between Prince Mangkubumi and his brother, Sunan Pakubuwono II. It started when Sunan Pakubuwono II agreed to cooperate with the VOC, ceded some Mataram territory to the Dutch and his younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi stood against the agreement due to concerns that his people would become slaves under Dutch rule. Prince Mangkubumi defeated the Pakubuwono forces and declared sovereignty in the Kingdom of Yogjakarta occupying the southern parts of the former Mataram Sultanate, the Yogyakarta Sultanate was established as a result of the Treaty of Giyanti by Prince Mangkubumi, who later ascended the throne as Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. Officially, the creation of Yogyakarta Sultanate is dated at 7 October 1756 as a result of war among the princes of The Mataram Sultanate. This civil war marked the end of the Mataram Sultanate and resulted in the birth of the Yogyakarta Sultanate, during the British occupation of Java, rumors of plans by the Javanese court to stage a rebellion caused uneasiness among the colonial authorities. On 20 June 1812, Stamford Raffles led a 1, 200-strong British force to attack the royal city, the Javanese were surprised by the attack and were easily subdued. In one day the city of Yogyakarta fell, with the city destroyed, the event completely stripped the sultanate of its remaining power and influence. The sack also left the court humiliated and fueled a rebellion which would be known as Java War, in 1942 the Japanese Empire invaded Dutch East Indies and ruled Java until they were defeated in 1945
12.
Bangka Island
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Bangka is an island lying east of Sumatra, administratively part of Sumatra, Indonesia, with a population of about 1 million. It is the part of Bangka-Belitung Province. The provincial capital, Pangkal Pinang, lies on the island, the island is administratively divided into 4 regencies and a chartered city. Bangka is an island together with Belitung Island. The size is about 12,000 km², most of the geographical faces of the island consists of lower plains, swamps, small hills, beautiful beaches, white pepper fields and tin mines. The largest town is Pangkal Pinang which also serves as the capital of Bangka-Belitung Province, sungai Liat is the second largest city in Bangka island. Mentok is the port in the west. The other important town are Toboali in the region, Koba an important tin mining town, also located on the southern part of the island. There are 4 sea ports in Bangka, Mentok on the far west, Belinyu on the far north, Sadai on the far south and it is intended, that a nuclear power station be built there. The population was 626,955 in 1990, and 960,692 in the 2010 census,1710, Bangka has been one of the worlds principal tin-producing centers. Tin production is an Indonesian government monopoly, and there is a tin smelter at Muntok, white pepper is also produced on the island. The majority of the inhabitants are Malays and Chinese, mostly Hakkas, the population is split between those work on the tin mines, palm oil plantations, rubber plantations, fisherman and those who work on pepper farms. The sultan of Palembang ceded Bangka to Britain in 1812, in 1930 Bangka had a population of 205,363. Japan occupied the island from February 1942 to August 1945 during World War II, the Japanese military perpetrated the Bangka Island massacre against Australian nurses and British and Australian servicemen and civilians. Bangka became part of independent Indonesia in 1949, the island, together with neighboring Belitung, was formerly part of South Sumatra province, but in 2000 the two islands became the new province of Bangka-Belitung. Bangka is also home to a number of communist Indonesians who have been under house arrest since the 1960s anti-Communist purge and are not permitted to leave the island, Bangka is reputedly the setting for Joseph Conrads book Lord Jim
13.
Gold plating
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Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver, by chemical or electrochemical plating. This article covers plating methods used in the electronics industry, for more traditional methods, often used for much larger objects. There are several types of gold plating used in the industry, Soft. The gold layer is easily soldered and wire bonded and its Knoop hardness ranges between 60-85. The plating baths have to be free of contamination. Bright hard gold on contacts, with Knoop hardness between 120-300 and purity of 99. 7-99. 9% gold, often contains a small amount of nickel and/or cobalt, these elements interfere with die bonding, therefore the plating baths cannot be used for semiconductors. Bright hard gold on printed circuit board tabs is deposited using lower concentration of gold in the baths, usually contains nickel and/or cobalt as well. Edge connectors are made by controlled-depth immersion of only the edge of the boards. Soft, pure gold is deposited from special electrolytes, entire printed circuit boards can be plated. This technology can be used for depositing layers suitable for wire bonding, pre-Columbian smiths working in northern Peru gilded and silvered copper objects by electrochemical replacement techniques. During the excavations in 1987–1990 at Sipan, a treasure of gold and silver ornamental and ceremonial artifacts was recovered. These objects demonstrate the outstanding craftsmanship of the Moche metalsmiths, alloys of copper with gold and some silver were employed, known as tumbaga. Like copper, silver atoms diffuse into the layer, causing slow gradual fading of its color. This process may take months and even years, depending on the thickness of the gold layer, a barrier metal layer is used to counter this effect. Copper, which migrates into gold, does so more slowly than silver. The copper is usually further plated with nickel, a gold-plated silver article is usually a silver substrate with layers of copper, nickel, and gold deposited on top of it. Gold, applied by either evaporated methods or Electroplating has been specified by NASA to thermally control spacecraft instruments thanks to its 99% reflectivity in Infrared Wavelengths. Gold plating is used in electronics, to provide a corrosion-resistant electrically conductive layer on copper, typically in electrical connectors
14.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
15.
Palm sugar
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Palm sugar was originally made from the sap of the Palmyra palm, the date palm or the sugar date palm. Now it is made from the sap of Arenga pinnata and the nipa palm. Palm sugar is often labelled under various other names reflecting the different species of palm utilised and its wide production area across Africa. Palm sugar is produced by tapping the sap from the inflorescence of the tree and boiling it down to produce a syrup, in some instances the tree itself is tapped rather than the flowering spikes, but this is an isolated production method. Often the distinction is made between coconut sugar and palm sugar, but this reflects the different species from which the sugar is sourced. The differences are semantic, as all the sugars under their various names are produced from the sucrose-rich sap of a palm species. In Thai cuisine, palm sugar is used in sweets and desserts
16.
Indonesian cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavour. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences, Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in local modest shops to street-side snacks, rendang top the list as the number one, followed closely by nasi goreng in number two, and satay in number fourteen. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has different influences. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine, elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine, foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in due to its location. Additionally, Indonesia’s indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands The Moluccas, which are famed as the Spice Islands, also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian, Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours, most often described as savory, hot and spicy, seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, roasting, grilling, sautéing, roasted, boiling and steaming. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, Satay, today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia, soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases, created by different fungi. Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup, in a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls, each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into ones own personal plate. Each of the members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes, vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal
17.
Aceh
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Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
18.
Sutiyoso
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Sutiyoso is an Indonesian politician and former general who was the Director of the State Intelligence Agency from 8 July 2015 -9 September 2016. Known informally as Bang Yos, he was the governor of Jakarta, during this time there was a total of five presidents in Indonesia. The transitions between presidents were accompanied by much turmoil and disturbance in the streets of Jakarta. Sutiyoso also served as chairman of the Badminton Association of Indonesia for the period 2004-2008 and he is particularly known for his work in supporting the introduction, in early 2000, of the TransJakarta, a bus rapid transit system, in Jakarta. It is widely agreed that public transport arrangements are badly needed in Jakarta so the introduction of the TransJakarta system was seen as an important initiative. However it has not proved easy to ensure that the TransJakarta bus system works well so the arrangements are currently regarded as being of mixed success. Sutiyoso announced he was standing for the presidency of Indonesia in the 2009 and 2014 election but failed to get enough support to win the nomination
19.
Merdeka Palace
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The Merdeka Palace, is one of six presidential palaces in Indonesia. It is located on the side of the Merdeka Square in Central Jakarta. The palace was a residence for the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the colonial era, in 1949, the palace was renamed Merdeka Palace, merdeka meaning freedom or independence. The Merdeka Palace is part of the 6.8 hectares Jakarta Presidential Palace Complex, which includes the Negara Palace, Wisma Negara, Sekretariat Negara. It is the center of the Indonesian executive authority, the history of the Merdeka Palace starts with the mansion of merchant Jacob Andries van Braam, built in Rijswijk in 1804. The estate was purchased by the government of Dutch East Indies to house the administration, during the mid-19th century, the Rijswijk palace no longer sufficed for administrative purposes, thus Governor-General Pieter Mijer ordered the construction of a new palace in 1869. Construction started later on 23 March 1873 under Governor-General James Loudons administration, the Neo-Palladian palace was designed by Jacobus Bartholomeus Drossaers, and was built by the Department of Public Works and the contracting firm Drossaers & Company at a cost of ƒ360,000. The new building was built in part of the Rijswijk Palace grounds. The palace was finished in 1879 during Governor-General Johan Wilhelm van Lansberges administration and this new palace was also known as Istana Gambir. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the Saiko Shikikan of the Japanese garrison resided in the Rijswijk Palace compound, the Indonesian national revolution ended with the Netherlands recognition of the republic of Indonesia. The Indonesian declaration of independence from the Dutch in 1949 was announced in Gambir Palace, during the ceremony, the Dutch flag was substituted with the Flag of Indonesia. Many spectators were rejoicing when the flag was hoisted, and yelled Merdeka, from that moment, Gambir Palace became known as Merdeka Palace. On December 27,1949, a day after the ceremony, President Sukarno, for the first time, the President of the Republic of Indonesia settled in Merdeka Palace. The first annual Independence Day ceremony was held at the Merdeka Palace in 1950, since its construction, fifteen Governor-Generals, three Japanese commanders, and one Indonesian President have taken residence in the Merdeka Palace. The building has remain unchanged since the building was finished in 1879, after the Indonesian independence, the Merdeka Palace compound was expanded to include not only Istana Negara, but also to construct Wisma Negara, Sekretariat Negara and Bina Graha. Several colonial buildings and residences were demolished in the Weltevreden area to make way for todays State Palace compound, a small octagonal gazebo located in the courtyard of the palace was used as private school for Sukarnos and the palace staffs children. This gazebo was used by Dutch colonial officials as muziekkoepel. When Suharto became president of Indonesia, he changes to the previously residential function of the Palace
20.
Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage
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The conservation-restoration of cultural heritage focuses on protection and care of tangible cultural heritage, including artworks, architecture, archaeology, and museum collections. Conservation activities include preventive conservation, examination, documentation, research, treatment and this field is closely allied with conservation science, curators and registrars. Conservation of cultural heritage can be described as a type of ethical stewardship, Conservation of cultural heritage applies simple ethical guidelines, Minimal intervention, Appropriate materials and reversible methods, Full documentation of all work undertaken. Often there are compromises between preserving appearance, maintaining original design and material properties, and ability to reverse changes, reversibility is now emphasized so as to reduce problems with future treatment, investigation, and use. The care of cultural heritage has a history, one that was primarily aimed at fixing and mending objects for their continued use. Until the early 20th century, artists were normally the ones called upon to repair damaged artworks, louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint as well. The society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb, both of whom were influenced by the writings of John Ruskin. He not only developed an approach to the care of objects in the collections. The early development of conservation of heritage in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for chemists within museums. Lauries interests were fostered by William Holman Hunt, the creation of this department moved the focus for the development of conservation theory and practice from Germany to Britain, and made the latter a prime force in this fledgling field. In the United States, the development of conservation of heritage can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum. Importantly he also brought onto the staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first of usch in the US to be employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies, Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia in 1942, reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly, only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens and Stouts book are now outdated. George T. Oliver, of Oliver Brothers Art Restoration and Art Conservation-Boston invented the vacuum hot table for relining paintings in 1920s, taylors prototype table, which he designed and constructed, is still in operation. Oliver Brothers is believed to be the first and the oldest continuously operating art restoration company in the United States, the focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, and it was in Britain that the first International Conservation Organisations developed. Art historians and theorists such as Cesare Brandi have also played a significant role in developing conservation science theory, in recent years ethical concerns have been at the forefront of developments in conservation
21.
National emblem of Indonesia
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The national emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda Pancasila. The main part of Indonesian national emblem is the Garuda with a shield on its chest. The shields five emblems represent Pancasila, the five principles of Indonesias national ideology, the Garuda claws gripping a white ribbon scroll inscribed with the national motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika written in black text, which can be loosely translated as Unity in Diversity. Garuda Pancasila was designed by Sultan Hamid II from Pontianak, supervised by Sukarno, Garuda, the discipled carrier or vehicle of Lord Vishnu, appears in many ancient Hindu-Buddhist temples of ancient Indonesia. Temples such as Mendut, Borobudur, Sajiwan, Prambanan, Kidal, Penataran, Belahan, in Prambanan temple complex there is a single temple located in front of Vishnu temple, dedicated to Garuda. However, there is no statue of Garuda inside the chamber today, the deified statue of King Airlangga depicted as Vishnu mounting Garuda from Belahan, probably the most famous statue of Garuda from ancient Java. Now the statue is one of the important collection of Trowulan Museum, Garuda appear in many traditions and stories, especially in Java and Bali. In many stories Garuda symbolises the virtue of knowledge, power, bravery, loyalty, as the vehicle of Vishnu, Garuda also bears the attributes of Vishnu, which symbolise preservation of cosmic order. Balinese tradition venerated Garuda as the lord of all flying creatures, in Bali, Garuda traditionally portrayed as a divine creature with head, beak, wings, and claw of an eagle, while has the body of a human. Usually portrayed in intricate carving with golden and vivid colours, as the vehicle of Vishnu or in battle scene against Nāga serpents. The important and noble position of Garuda in Indonesian tradition since ancient times has venerated Garuda as the symbol of Indonesia. Garuda also chosen as the name of Indonesian national airlines, Garuda Indonesia, next to Indonesia, Thailand also uses the Garuda as its national symbol. The committee task is to select the proposals of United States of Indonesia national emblem to be presented to the government, according to Mohammad Hatta, in his memoire Bung Hatta Menjawab, to fulfill the mandate of the Cabinet, Minister Priyono had launched the design competition. After the competition was held, there were two proposed designs selected as the finalist, one is the work of Sultan Hamid II, on 8 February 1950, the design created by Sultan Hamid II was presented to President Sukarno. The design featuring Garuda in its form, similar to traditional depiction of Garuda in ancient Javanese, Balinese and Siamese art. However, the Masyumi Islamic party expressed their objection and stated that the bird with human neck, President Sukarno presented this design to the cabinet and Prime Minister Hatta. At that time, the Rajawali Garuda Pancasila was still bald without crest crowning its head like current version, President Sukarno introduced the national emblem of Indonesia to the public at Hotel Des Indes, Jakarta, on 15 February 1950. Sukarno continued to improve the design of Garuda Pancasila, on 20 March 1950, Sukarno ordered the palace artist Dullah to make several improvements according to his suggestions, such as the addition of a crest and the change of talons position to the scroll
22.
Nusantara
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Nusantara is a contemporary Indonesian term for the Indonesian archipelago. It originated in Old Javanese and literally means archipelago, in Malaysia today, the term has been adopted to mean the Malay world. The word Nusantara was taken from an oath by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written in the Old Javanese Pararaton, Gajah Mada was a powerful military leader and prime minister of Majapahit who was credited with bringing the empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah Palapa, in which he vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had conquered all of Nusantara under the glory of Majapahit. Today, Indonesian historians believed that the concept of Nusantara was not an idea coined by Gajah Mada for the first time in 1336 and it was coined earlier in 1275 as Cakravala Mandala Dvipantara by Kertanegara of Singhasari. Dvipantara is a Sanskrit word for the islands inbetween, the synonym to Nusantara as both dvipa and nusa mean island, the term is used to describe the Southeast Asian Archipelago. Kertanegara envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime kingdoms under Singhasari as a bulwark against the rise of the expansionist Mongol Yuan dynasty in mainland China, Nusantara is a Javanese word which appears in the Pararaton manuscript. In Javanese, Nusantara means outer islands, from nūsa, meaning island and antara, based on the Majapahit concept of state, the monarch had the power over three areas, Negara Agung, or the Grand State, the core kingdom. The traditional or initial area of Majapahit during its formation before entering the imperial phase and this includes the capital city and the surrounding areas where the king effectively exercises his government. The Brantas river valley corridor, connecting Majapahit Trowulan area to Canggu and estuarine areas in Kahuripan, mancanegara, areas surrounding Negara Agung — traditionally refer to Majapahit provinces in East and Central Java. This area covered the half of Java, with all its provinces ruled by the Bhres. These areas are influenced by Javanese Majapahit court culture. These areas usually possess their own rulers that might be directly related, Majapahit stationed their officials and officers in these places and regulate their foreign trade activities and collect taxes, yet they enjoyed substantial internal autonomy. This includes the rest of Java island, Madura and Bali, however, in later period, overseas provinces which has developed culture reflected or comparable to those of Java, or possess significant trading importance, are also considered as mancanegara. Either the province has their own native rulers subject to the king, or a regent appointed and this realm includes Dharmasraya, Pagaruyung, Lampung and Palembang in Sumatra. Nusantara, areas which do not reflect Javanese culture, but are included as colonies and these areas such as the vassal kingdoms and colonies in Malay peninsula, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi and Maluku. The new proposed name was the locally developed name Nusantara and this is the first instance of the term Nusantara appearing after it had been written into Pararaton manuscript. The definition of Nusantara introduced by Setiabudi is different to the 14th century definition of the term, during the Majapahit era, Nusantara described vassal areas to be conquered
23.
Flags of the World
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Flags of the World is an Internet-based vexillological association and resource. Its principal project is the Internets largest website devoted to vexillology, containing information about all kinds of flags. The mailing list began as a group in about September 1993, while the website was founded by Giuseppe Bottasini in late 1994. FotW became the 56th member of the FIAV in 2001, both the website and the mailing list operate in the English language, though there are members from around the world and as such information from many languages is translated and included. The mailing list is monitored by the FOTW Listmaster, while work on the website is coordinated by the FOTW Editorial Director, the website is updated once a week with fresh material, some mirrors update monthly. Due to the amount of material there is an editing backlog. There are also some mirrors that have not been updated for varying periods of time, the source for material on the FOTW website are contributions to the FOTW mailing list, which has over 1000 members, of which some 100 are active contributors. The mailing list has notable minorities of Portuguese, French, Dutch, a staff of three unpaid volunteers manages and moderates the list. An affiliated Flags of the World Facebook group has established, inaugurated by Edward Mooney. As of November 2016 the group is run and moderated by a team of ten administrators, FOTW displays standardized flag images in GIF format, usually at a height of 216 pixels. While the GIF file format is capable of displaying 256 colours, the organizations flag is a design by Mark Sensen, which was selected over 10 challengers in a poll of FOTW mailing list members and was adopted 8 March 1996. Since then, March 8 has been regarded as FOTWs Flag day, Sensen described its symbolism, White on the hoist stands for peace, blue on the fly for progress. The six colours of the stars are the colours used in flags. The stars help to make one bigger symbol, the way the stars are all connected to each other represents the Internet. The flag is used as a rare representation of the Internet on a flag. List of flags List of flags by country Gallery of country flags Flags of the World Dictionary of Vexillology Flag Days Of The World FOTW mailing list
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
26.
History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is a country of 17,000 to 18000 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The countrys strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history, the area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelagos landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, the boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the Java Man, austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, for the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, in 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, by the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942–45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968 and his New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests, political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, in 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of man in Indonesia. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo erectus
27.
Spread of Islam in Indonesia
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The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Buddhism and Hinduism, initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. The eastern islands of Indonesia remained largely animist until the 17th and 18th centuries when Christianity became predominant in those areas, the spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam, dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies, nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamised Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta which was contracted to Jakarta. Assimilation increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, funds, both public and private, are spent on the construction of new mosques, rather than the exploration of old ones. Before Islam was established in Indonesian communities, Muslim traders had been present for several centuries, Islam is thought to have been present in Southeast Asia from early in the Islamic era. From the time of the caliph of Islam, Uthman, Muslim emissaries. It would have been through this contact that Arabic emissaries between 904 and the century are thought to have become involved in the Sumatran trading state of Srivijaya. The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, the presence of foreign Muslims in Indonesia does not, however, demonstrate a significant level of local conversion or the establishment of local Islamic states. The most reliable evidence of the spread of Islam in Indonesia comes from inscriptions on tombstones. The earliest legibly inscribed tombstone is dated AH475, although as it belongs to a non-Indonesian Muslim, the presence of the Shafii school of thought, which was to later dominate Indonesia, was reported by Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, in 1346. In his travel log, Ibn Battuta wrote that the ruler of Samudera Pasai was a Muslim who performs his religious duties with utmost zeal, the madhhab he used was Al-Shafi‘i with similar customs to those he had seen in India. Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and these Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language. This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, Zheng He, originally named Ma He, was a Hui court eunuch, mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral during Chinas early Ming dynasty. Zheng commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia and his larger ships stretched 400 feet in length. These carried hundreds of sailors on four tiers of decks, as a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing
28.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
29.
Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
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The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history, initially, most Indonesians joyfully welcomed the Japanese, as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. The sentiment changed, as Indonesians were expected to more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–1945, Allied troops largely bypassed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java, as such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender, in August 1945. Unlike the Dutch, the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians down to the village level, particularly in Java and, to a lesser extent, Sumatra, the Japanese educated, trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice. Until 1942, Indonesia was colonised by the Netherlands and was known as the Dutch East Indies, the Japanese spread the word that they were the Light of Asia. The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and these ranged from small town barbers, photographic studios and salesmen, to large department stores and firms such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade. The Japanese population peaked in 1931, with 6,949 residents before starting a gradual decrease, a number of Japanese had been sent by their government to establish links with Indonesian nationalists, particularly with Muslim parties, while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit Japan. Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism was part of a broader Japanese plan for an Asia for the Asians, also concerned were members of the Indonesian communist underground who followed the Soviet Unions popular united front against fascism. Japanese aggression in Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to support the anti-Japanese effort, Dutch intelligence services also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia. The memorandum was refused because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people, within only four months, the Japanese had occupied the archipelago. On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war on Japan, in January the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command was formed to co-ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia, under the command of General Archibald Wavell. In the weeks leading up to the invasion, senior Dutch government officials went into exile taking political prisoners, family, before the arrival of Japanese troops, there were conflicts between rival Indonesian groups where people were killed, vanished or went into hiding. Chinese- and Dutch-owned properties were ransacked and destroyed, the invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete. By January 1942, parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were under Japanese control, by February, the Japanese had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch. On 27 February, the Allied navys last effort to contain Japan was swept aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea, from 28 February to 1 March 1942, Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed. The fiercest fighting had been in invasion points in Ambon, Timor, Kalimantan, in places where there were no Dutch troops, such as Bali, there was no fighting. On 9 March, the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor General Jonkheer A. W. L, as the Japanese advanced, rebellious Indonesians in virtually every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans and informed the Japanese reliably on the whereabouts of larger groups
30.
Liberal democracy period in Indonesia
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With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesias independence now over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. Regional differences in customs, morals, tradition, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, the new country was typified by poverty, low educational levels, and authoritarian traditions. The economy was in a state following three years of Japanese occupation then four years of war against the Dutch. In the hands of a young and inexperienced government, the economy was unable to boost production of food, most of the population was illiterate, unskilled, and suffered from a dearth of management skills. Inflation was rampant, smuggling cost the government much needed foreign exchange. It was abrogated on 9 July 1959 when President Sukarno issued a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly, a proliferation of political parties and the deals brokered between them for shares of cabinets seats resulted in rapid turnover coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. Instead, he sought a system based on the village system of discussion and consensus. He proposed a threefold blend of nasionalisme, agama, and komunisme into a co-operative Nas-A-Kom government and this was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics – the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957, Guided Democracy, western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the Reformasi era. 1948–62, Darul Islam rebellions begin in West Java, spread to other provinces,1952,17 October, General Nasution is suspended as army chief of staff following army indiscipline over command and support that threatens the government. 1955, April, The city of Bandung hosts the Bandung Conference, pope sunk the Indonesian Navy vessel, the KRI Hang Toeah, and heavily damaged its sister, the KRI Sawega. Bailed out and captured by Indonesian armed forces on board the KRI Pulau Rengat
31.
Transition to the New Order
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Indonesias transition to the New Order in the mid-1960s, ousted the countrys first president, Sukarno, after 22 years in the position. One of the most tumultuous periods in the modern history. Described as the great dhalang, Sukarno drew power from balancing the opposing and increasingly antagonistic forces of the army, by 1965, the PKI extensively penetrated all levels of government and gained influence at the expense of the army. On 30 September 1965, six of the militarys most senior officers were killed in an action by the so-called 30 September Movement, within a few hours, Major General Suharto mobilised forces under his command and took control of Jakarta. The politically weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, in March 1967, the Indonesian parliament named General Suharto acting president. He was formally appointed president one year later, Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970. Nationalist leader Sukarno had declared Indonesian independence in 1945 and was appointed president and he stressed socialist policies domestically and an avidly anti-imperialist international policy, underpinned by an authoritarian style of rule dependent upon his charismatic personality. Sukarno was also a figure in developing the Non-Aligned Movement. In Indonesias domestic politics, Sukarno also carefully balanced Indonesias various political parties, from the late 1950s, political conflict and economic deterioration worsened. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread, and Sukarno led his country in a confrontation with Malaysia whilst stepping up revolutionary. Described as the great dhalang, President Sukarnos position came to depend on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and his anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and China. By 1965, at the height of the Cold War, the PKI penetrated all levels of government extensively, with the support of Sukarno and the air force, the party gained increasing influence at the expense of the army, thus ensuring the armys enmity. By late 1965, the army was divided between a faction allied with the PKI, and a right-wing faction that was being courted by the United States. These same policies, however, won Sukarno few friends and many enemies in the Western world and these especially included the United States and United Kingdom, whose investors were increasingly angered by Sukarnos nationalisation of mineral, agricultural, and energy assets. In need of Indonesian allies in its Cold War against the Soviet Union and this fostered a split in the militarys ranks, with the United States and others backing a right-wing faction against a left-wing faction overlapping with the PKI. In an attempt to curtail the right-wing militarys increasing power, the PKI, in 1963, a policy of Konfrontasi against the newly formed Federation of Malaysia was announced by the Sukarno regime. The Confrontation further encouraged the West to seek ways to topple Sukarno, on the night of 30 September–1 October 1965 six senior army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by a battalion of soldiers from the Presidential Guard in an attempted coup. The right faction among the top generals was wiped out, including the powerful Army Chief of Staff and they claimed to have arrested several generals belonging to a conspiracy, the Council of Generals, that had plotted a military coup against the government of President Sukarno
32.
New Order (Indonesia)
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The New Order is the term coined by the second Indonesian President Suharto to characterise his regime as he came to power in 1966. Suharto used this term to contrast his rule with that of his predecessor, the term New Order in more recent times has become synonymous with the Suharto years. The generation of 66 epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders, strident anti-communism remained a hallmark of the regime for its subsequent 32 years. Within a few years, however, many of its allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order. Among much of the movement which forced Suharto to resign in the 1998 Indonesian Revolution and then gained power. It is frequently employed to describe figures who were tied to the Suharto period, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian regime, such as corruption, collusion. Sukarno was Indonesias founding president, a position he had held since the Republics formation in 1945, in 1955, the first general parliamentary elections delivered an unstable parliament and from the late 1950s, Sukarnos rule became increasingly autocratic under his Guided Democracy. To the resentment of the Military and Muslim groups, this arrangement became increasingly reliant on the PKI which had become the country’s strongest political party, Sukarno’s anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and China which was met with indignation from Western countries. Sukarno’s administration became increasingly ineffective in providing an economic system to lift its citizens out of poverty. Meanwhile, Sukarno led Indonesia into Konfrontasi, a confrontation with Malaysia, removed Indonesia from the United Nations. By 1965 at the height of the Cold War, the PKI penetrated all levels of government, with the support of Sukarno and the Air Force, the party gained increasing influence at the expense of the Army, thus ensuring the Armys enmity. Muslim clerics, many of whom were landowners, felt threatened by the PKIs rural land confiscation actions, the army was alarmed at Sukarno’s support for the PKI’s wish to quickly establish a fifth force of armed peasants and labourers. On 30 September 1965, six generals were killed by a group calling themselves the 30 September Movement who alleged a plot to kill the President. General Suharto led the army in suppressing the coup attempt. The Communist Party of Indonesia were quickly blamed and the led an anti-communist purge which killed an estimated 500,000 people. Student groups, such as KAMI, were encouraged by, and sided with, in March 1966, Suharto secured a presidential decree, which gave him authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. A June session of the parliament banned Marxism-Leninism, ratified the Supersemar. In August–September 1966, and against the wishes of Sukarno, the New Order ended Indonesias confrontation with Malaysia, in March 1967, the MPRS stripped Sukarno of his remaining power, and Suharto was named Acting President
33.
Post-Suharto era
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The Post-Suharto era in Indonesia began with the fall of Suharto in 1998 during which Indonesia has been in a period of transition, an era known in Indonesia as Reformasi. A more open and liberal political-social environment ensued following the resignation of authoritarian President Suharto, the process of reformasi in Indonesia has resulted in a greater degree of freedom of speech, in contrast to the pervasive censorship under the New Order. This has led to an open political debate in the news media. Events that have shaped Indonesia in this include a bombing campaign by Islamic terrorists. The Reformasi of 1998 led to changes in Indonesias various governmental institutions, reforms upon the structures of the judiciary, legislature, and executive office. When Suharto attempted to have Megawati removed as head of party in a back-room deal. This culminated in Black Saturday on 27 July, when the Indonesian military broke up the demonstrations and these further worsened when the 1997 Asian financial crisis reached Indonesia, highlighting the corruption of the New Order. Economic instability from the crisis affected much of the country, in the form of increased prices for staple foods and goods, and lowered standards of living and quality of life. In West Kalimantan, there was violence between Dayaks and Madurese in 1996, in the Sambas riots in 1999 and the Sampit conflict 2001. In the Sambas conflict, both Malays and Dayaks massacred Madurese, growing dissatisfaction with Suhartos authoritarian rule and the rapid erosion of the economy led many, chiefly the younger generation, to renew their protests directly against the New Order. During the years 1997–1998, a riot broke out in Indonesia. People were burning everything within the city including cars, motorcycles, buildings and this was further worsened when many were killed and raped, most of which were Indonesians of Chinese descent. No action was taken by the army or the police, in 1998, Suharto made the decision to stand before the parliament for a re-election and won. The result was considered so outrageous that students occupied the Parliament, Suharto soon stood down from the presidency, and named B. J. Habibie his successor. On Suhartos resignation, Vice-President B. J. Habibie was sworn in as President of Indonesia, as President, Habibie undertook numerous political reforms. In February 1999, Habibies Government passed the Political Parties Law, under this law, political parties were not limited to just three as had been the case under the Suharto regime. Political parties were not required to have Pancasila as their ideology. This resulted in the emergence of political parties and 48 would go on to compete in the 1999 legislative election
34.
Geography of Indonesia
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Indonesia is an archipelagic island country in South east Asia, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean, Indonesias different cultures have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with the physical environment. Indonesia is a country extending 5,120 kilometres from east to west and 1,760 kilometres from north to south. According to a survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping, Indonesia has 13,466 islands. However, according to survey conducted in 2002 by National Institute of Aeronautics and Space. According to the CIA factbook, there are 17,508 islands, there are 8,844 islands have been named according to estimates made by the government of Indonesia, with 922 of those permanently inhabited. It comprises five islands, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi. Indonesias total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometres, included in Indonesias total territory is another 93,000 square kilometres of inland seas. The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesias generally recognised territory to about 5 million square kilometres, the government, however, also claims an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometres. Latitude =5.00 S & Longitude =120.00 E Because part of New Guinea is Indonesian territory and this of course is an arbitrary definition by culture and language on the Asian side, since Indonesia has no territory on the Asian mainland. Sumatra, Java, Madura, and Kalimantan lie on the Sunda Shelf and geographers have conventionally grouped them, at Indonesias eastern extremity is western New Guinea, which lies on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 metres or less, between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and the Maluku Islands, which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in some places reach 4,500 metres in depth. The term Outer Islands is used inconsistently by various writers but it is taken to mean those islands other than Java. Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Papua, the outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the mountainous islands of Sumba. The Maluku Islands are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands and they are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram and Buru and this abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains. The islands of North Maluku are the original Spice Islands, a distinct rainforest ecoregion, geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Papua is a part, may once have been part of the Australian continent
35.
Deforestation in Indonesia
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Deforestation in Indonesia involves the long-term loss of forests and foliage across much of the country, it has had massive environmental and social impacts. Indonesia is home to some of the most biologically diverse forests in the world and ranks third in number of species behind Brazil, as late as 1900, Indonesia was still a densely forested country, forests represented 84 percent of the total land area. Deforestation intensified in the 1970s and has accelerated further since then, the estimated forest cover of 170 million hectares around 1900 decreased to less than 100 million hectares by the end of the 20th century. In 2008, it was estimated that tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in a decade, of the total logging in Indonesia, up to 80% is reported to be performed illegally. Large areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared by large multinational companies, such as Asia Pulp and Paper. Forests are often burned by farmers and plantation owners, another major source of deforestation is the logging industry, driven by demand from China and Japan. Agricultural development and transmigration programs moved large populations into rainforest areas, logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia the worlds third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, behind China and the United States. Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks, including old-growth rainforest, in May 2011, Indonesia declared a moratorium on new logging contracts to help combat this. This appeared to be ineffective in the short-term, as the rate of continued to increase. By 2012 Indonesia had surpassed the rate of deforestation in Brazil, the Indonesian archipelago of about 17,000 islands is home to some of the most biodiverse forests in the world. In 1900 the total forest represented 84% of the land area. By 1950 plantations and smallholder plantings of tree crops still only covered a small area, the forest cover by that time is estimated to 145 million ha of primary forest and another 14 million ha of secondary and tidal forest. In the early 1970s Indonesia used this resource to its economic benefit with the development of the countrys wood-processing industries. The rate of deforestation continues to increase, the 2009 State Environment Report launched by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono revealed that the number of fire hotspots rose to 32,416 in 2009 from only 19,192 in 2008. The Environment Ministry blamed the increase on weak law enforcement and a lack of supervision from local authorities, between 1990 and 2000 20% of the forest area in Indonesia had been lost and by 2010, only 52% of the total land area was forested. Even despite a moratorium on new logging contracts imposed in 2010, Indonesias lowland tropical forests, the richest in timber resources and biodiversity, are most at risk. By 2000 they have been almost entirely cleared in Sulawesi, and predicted to disappear within few years in Sumatra, in Sumatra tens of thousands of square kilometres of forest have been cleared often under the command of the central government who comply with multi-national companies to remove the forest. In Kalimantan, from 1991–2014, large areas of the forest were burned because of uncontrollable fire causing atmospheric pollution across South-East Asia
36.
Environmental issues in Indonesia
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Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the worlds third largest emitter of greenhouse gases. For centuries, the resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the worst virtual disappearance of the fish in some areas. Effluent from fertiliser plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry, the danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait. The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland, soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and into the sea. As Indonesian fishermen improved their technological capacity to catch fish, they threatened the total supply. The 1997 Indonesian forest fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra caused the 1997 Southeast Asian haze and it was a large-scale air quality disaster. The total costs are estimated at US$9 billion to care, air travel. In 2013, the air quality in Singapore sank to its lowest in 15 years due to smoke from Sumatran fires, Singapore urged Indonesia to do more to prevent illegal burning. A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s among the peasants living in the plains. Rising population densities and the consequent demand for arable land gave rise to soil erosion, deforestation due to the need for firewood. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in areas and poisoned fish ponds. Major problems faced the mountainous regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, in 1983 some 30,000 km2 of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10 billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. In many areas of Kalimantan large sections of forest were cleared, although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. The use of fires to clear land for agriculture has contributed to Indonesia being the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, after China. Forest fires destroy carbon sinks in old-growth rainforests and peatlands, one such monitoring system is the Center for Global Developments Forest Monitoring for Action platform, which currently displays monthly-updating data on deforestation throughout Indonesia
37.
Geology of Indonesia
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This is a brief summary of the geology of Indonesia. The tectonics of Indonesia are very complex, as it is a point of several tectonic plates. Indonesia is located between two plates, the Eurasian Plate and Australian Plate, and between two oceanic plates, the Philippine Sea Plate and Pacific Plate. This chain of volcanoes formed Sumatra, Java, Bali. The Pacific and Australian plate movements controlled the tectonics of the portion of Indonesia. The tectonics processes in Indonesia formed major structures in Indonesia, the most prominent fault in the west of Indonesia is the Semangko Fault or the Great Sumatran Fault, a dextral strike-slip fault along Sumatra Island. The formation of this zone is related to the subduction zone in the west of Sumatra. Palu-Koro fault is another major structural feature formed in the part of Indonesia. This fault runs across the part of Sulawesi Island and extends offshore to the west across Makassar Strait. The fault is named after the city of Central Sulawesi, Palu, on the west coast of Sulawesi and the Koro River. Sorong fault is a significant left lateral fault in the part of Indonesia. It has east-west orientation and extends from the part of West Papua to East Sulawesi for about 2000 km. The stratigraphy of the part of Indonesia is dominated by Cenozoic age formations. Minor Mesozoic and Paleozoic formations were found in places, devonian limestones were found in Telen River, East Kalimantan, as fragments within Paleogene clastic sediments. Eastern Indonesia has generally older stratigraphy compared to the western part, the stratigraphy ranges from Permian to Tertiary. Ichthyosaur fossils were found in the mud volcanoes in Kai Island, Mesozoic macro fossils were studied in Misool Island by Fauzie Hasibuan Volcanology of Indonesia Bemmelen, R. W. van The Geology of Indonesia The Hague, Govt. Charlton, T.2004, The petroleum potential of inversion anticlines in the Banda Arc, AAPG Bulletin, V.88, darman, H. & Sidi, H.2000, An Outline of the Geology of Indonesia, Indonesian Geologists Association publication. Hasibuan F.2012, Mesozoic Geology and Paleontology of Misool Archipelago, Eastern Indonesia, Geological Agency, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia
