1.
Bethlehem Steel FC
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Bethlehem Steel FC is an American professional soccer team based in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, part of the Lehigh Valley region. Founded in 2015, the plays in the United Soccer League. The team is the affiliate of the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer. Its colors are blue, gold, and red. Brendan Burke is the head coach, since the formalized partnership between United Soccer League and Major League Soccer in 2013, MLS teams had begun to form and field their own teams on the third tier. This endeavor was largely driven to fill in the piece of player development between high school/college players and professional soccer players. In June 2015, the Philadelphia Union sent out a survey to fans gauging interest in fielding their own USL team. The survey input and directives from the Union front office eventually led to the creation of a team that would play in the Lehigh Valley and this announcement made the Union the ninth MLS team to independently own and operate a USL club. The announcement also coincided with dissolving the previous affiliation with USL side Harrisburg City Islanders, after surveying fans for a name of the team, the results ended overwhelmingly in favor of “Bethlehem Steel FC” honoring the previous incarnation of the team in the early twentieth century. Bethlehem Steel FC would become the “missing link” of player development between the YSC Academy and first team for the Philadelphia Union, the club began to take shape hiring former Union assistant coach, Brendan Burke as the first head coach of the team’s history on October 29,2015. On December 3,2015, Burke made his first signing to the team in Derrick Jones, who was a player developing in the Union Academy. On January 5,2017, the United States Soccer Federation granted USL provisional Division II status, on October 27,2015, Bethlehem Steel FCs name, crest, and colors were officially announced during a ceremony held at the ArtsQuest at SteelStacks. Steel FC alludes to the historical Bethlehem Steel F. C. which played from 1907 to 1930, the origin of the clubs name is the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, which was once Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder and was important to the economy of the area. The name was chosen following a fan poll held between September 8,2015 and September 28,2015, the three options were Lehigh Valley Steel SC, Lehigh Valley Blast, and Steel FC. The colors of Bethlehem Steel FC are navy blue and gold, the teams crest is elongated, representing the foundation of a new player development program and extension of the Union brand. Its gold rivets symbolize the relationship between the Bethelehem and Philadelphia clubs, the red beam in the middle of the crest is a tribute to the original logo of Bethlehem Steel F. C. Before sponsoring a team in the USL, the Philadelphia Union commemorated the original Bethlehem Steel F. C. once before. In February 2013, the club unveiled a third kit with Steel F. C. s colors, featuring a jersey with white trim, a sublimated Union logo
2.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
3.
Shipbuilding
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. The construction of boats is an activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking, the ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC, the Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were sewn together, the ship dating to 3000 BC was about 25 m,75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor OConnor, the 5, 000-year-old ship may have belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India, other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade, ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India, native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia, other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr. The ships of Ancient Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters in length and they mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled, the ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon. The ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design, the naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as ships, which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. There is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean and this was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century
4.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
5.
ArcelorMittal
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ArcelorMittal S. A. is a Luxembourg-based multinational steel manufacturing corporation headquartered in Boulevard d’Avranches, Luxembourg. It was formed in 2006 from the takeover and merger of Arcelor by Mittal Steel, ArcelorMittal is the worlds largest steel producer, with an annual crude steel production of 98.1 million tons as of 2014. It is ranked 108th in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 ranking of the worlds biggest corporations, Mittal Steel launched a hostile takeover bid which replaced a previous planned merger between Arcelor and Severstal, which had lacked sufficient shareholder approval. The resulting merged business was named ArcelorMittal and is headquartered in Luxembourg, the resulting firm produced approximately 10% of the worlds steel, and was by far the worlds largest steel company. Total revenues in 2007 were $105 billion, in October 2008, the market capitalisation of ArcelorMittal was over $30 billion. In December 2008, ArcelorMittal announced several plant closings, including the Bethlehem Steel plant in Lackawanna, New York, after purchase of Kryvorizhstal, Ukraines largest steel producer, employment was scaled back from 57,000 employees to 30,000. The firm was part of a 17 steel member groups nicknamed Club Zürich that later known as Club Europe. For a period of 18 years, the fixed the market, prices. This was almost as if they were acting in a planned economy, fines were particularly high for the firm owing to two prior convictions. In August 2016 the South African Competition Commission found the company guilty of price fixing following an investigation first launched in 2008, ArcelorMittal was fined R1.5 billion to be paid over a 5-year period. As part of the settlement the firm agreed to invest R4.64 billion in capital over five years. The firm entered into a $2.2 billion contract to develop an iron ore deposit in Senegal and this included construction of a 750 km railway line. After stalling on the contract and failing to build according to schedule the Government of Senegal sued, in June 2014, the International Chamber of Commerces arbitration court in Paris awarded Senegal $150 million. On 26 January 2011, the Stainless steel division split off as a new company, in 2012 the company had $22 billion of debt. As of 2012, due to overcapacity and reduced demand in Europe it had idled 9 of 25 blast furnaces, in October 2012 it permanently shut down two blast furnaces at Florange, France. On October 31,2012, the company reported a loss of $709 million as compared to a $659 million profit for the same period a year ago. In January 2013, ArcelorMittal bid $1.5 billion to acquire ThyssenKrupp AGs rolling mill in Calvert, Alabama, the joint venture with Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corporation was finalized in February 2014. In May,2014, ArcelorMittal, citing economic self-interest, declared its opposition to sanctions on Russia, Lakshmi Mittal is the chairman and CEO
6.
Mittal Steel Company
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Mittal Steel Company N. V. was one of the worlds largest steel producers by volume, and also one of the largest in turnover. The company is now part of ArcelorMittal, CEO Lakshmi Mittals family owned 88% of the company. Mittal Steel was based in Rotterdam but managed from London by Mittal and it was formed when Ispat International N. V. acquired LNM Holdings N. V. and merged with International Steel Group Inc. in 2004. On 25 June 2006, Mittal Steel decided to take over Arcelor, the takeover has been successfully approved by shareholders and directors of Arcelor making L. N. Mittal the largest steel maker in the world, in 1989, the company acquired Iron & Steel Company of Trinidad & Tobago. In 1992, the company acquired Sibalsa, in 1994, the company acquired Sidbec-Dosco. In 1995, the company acquired Hamburger Stahlwerke, which formed Ispat International Ltd. and Ispat Shipping, in 1997, the company acquired Walzdraht Hochfeld GmbH and Stahlwerk Ruhrort. In 1997, the company went public as Ispat International NV, in 1998, the company acquired Inland Steel Company. In 1999, the company acquired Unimétal, in 2001, the company acquired ALFASID and Sidex. In 2002, it bought a majority stake in Iscor, in 2003, the company acquired Nowa Huta. In 2004, the company acquired Polskie Huty Stali, BH Steel, in 2005, the company hired Deloitte as the primary auditors for the company. In 2005, the company acquired International Steel Group, in 2005, the company acquired Kryvorizhstal. In 2005, the announced the investment of $9 billion in Jharkhand. In 2006, the merged with Arcelor after much controversy. In 2006, the company announced investment for a 12 million tonne capacity steel plant in Odisha, in October 2005 Mittal Steel acquired Ukrainian steel manufacturer Kryvorizhstal for $4. In 2005 Lakshmi Mittal flew into Jharkhand, India to announce a $9 billion investment to build a steel plant with a 12 million tonnes per annum production capacity. On 27 January 2006 it announced a $23.3 billion bid for Arcelor, on 19 May 2006 Mittal increased its offer for Arcelor by 38. 7% to $32. 4bn, or $47.34 per share. ArcelorMittal is now by far the largest steelmaker in the world by turnover as well as volume, controlling 10% of the total world steel output
7.
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
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Bethlehem is a city in Lehigh and Northampton counties in the Lehigh Valley region of the eastern portion of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 74,982, making it the seventh largest city in Pennsylvania, after Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading. Of this,55,639 were in Northampton County, and 19,343 were in Lehigh County, Bethlehem lies in the center of the Lehigh Valley, a region of 731 square miles that is home to more than 800,000 people. Smaller than Allentown but larger than Easton, Bethlehem is the Lehigh Valleys second most populous city, in turn, this metropolitan area comprises Pennsylvanias third-largest metropolitan area and the states largest and most populous contribution to the greater New York City metropolitan area. There are four sections of the city, central Bethlehem, the south side, the east side. Each of these sections blossomed at different times in the citys development, ZIP codes that use the address Bethlehem totaled 116,000 in population in the year 2000. These ZIP codes include Bethlehem Township and Hanover Township, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Bethlehem heading east to Easton, Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg, New Jersey across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Bethlehem heading west to Allentown, in July 2006, Money magazine placed Bethlehem as number 88 on its Top 100 Best Places to Live. The areas along the Delaware River and its tributaries in eastern Pennsylvania were long inhabited by peoples of various cultures. By the time of European contact, these areas were the historic territory of the Algonquian-speaking Lenape Nation and they traded with the Dutch and then English colonists in the mid-Atlantic area. They came to set up missionary communities among the Native Americans and they named the settlement after the Biblical town Bethlehem of Judea, the birthplace of Jesus. Count Zinzendorf said, Brothers, how more fittingly could we call our new home than to name it in honor of the spot where the event we now commemorate took place and we will call this place Bethlehem. And so was Bethlehem named after the birthplace of the Man of Peace, originally it was a typical Moravian Settlement Congregation, where the Church owned all the property. Until the 1850s, only members of the Moravian Church were permitted to land plots in Bethlehem. The historic Brethrens House, Sisters House, Widows House and Gemeinhaus with the Old Chapel are remnants of this period of communal living, the Moravians ministered to regional Lenape Native Americans through their mission in the area, as well as further east in the New York colony. In the historic Bethlehem Gods Acre cemetery, converted Lenape lie buried alongside the Moravians, in 1762, Bethlehem built the first water-works in America to pump water for public use. While George Washington and his troops stayed in Valley Forge, Washington stored his personal effects at the farm of James Burnside in Bethlehem – as of 1998 a historical museum, the prosperous village was incorporated into a free borough in the County of Northampton in 1845. After the Unity Synod of 1848, Bethlehem became the headquarters of the Northern Province of the Moravian Church in North America
8.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
9.
Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation Shipbuilding Division was created in 1905 when Bethlehem Steel Corporation acquired the San Francisco shipyard Union Iron Works in 1905. In 1917 it was incorporated as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited, headquarters were in Quincy, Massachusetts, after acquiring Fore River Shipyard in 1913 and later in Sparrows Point, Maryland, in 1964. In 1940, it was number 1 of the Big 3 U. S. shipbuilders who could build any ship, newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock and New York Shipbuilding Corporation were #2 and #3. Bethlehem had 4 yards in early 1940, Fore River, Sparrows Point, San Francisco, Bethlehem expanded during World War II as a result of the Emergency Shipbuilding program administered under the United States Maritime Commission. The Quincy yard was sold to General Dynamics Corporation in the mid-1960s, Bethlehem Steel ceased shipbuilding activities in 1997 in an attempt to preserve its core steel making operations. The following shipyards were owned by Bethlehem and they are listed in order of acquisition. Beaumont, Texas The Beaumont Yard was one of the sources of offshore drilling rigs built in the United States with seventy–two offshore rigs built at the yard. Seventy-one Type C1 ships were built during World War II by Pennsylvania Shipyards, Shipbuilding Division Photographs, circa 1900-1945 at San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park
10.
Labour economics
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Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers, Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services and the demanders of labour services, and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and it is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital, there are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market, microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income, the labour force is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of people in the force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed, the unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population, in these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and they can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost, structural unemployment – This reflects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. The process of globalization has contributed to changes in labour markets. Natural rate of unemployment – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment and it is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%. The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to time, demand deficient unemployment – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs, neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine price and quantity
11.
Management
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Management is the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. The term management may also refer to the people who manage an organization, management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study social organization and organizational leadership. Individuals who aim at becoming management researchers or professors may complete the Doctor of Business Administration or the PhD in business administration or management, in larger organizations, there are generally three levels of managers, which are typically organized in a hierarchical, pyramid structure. Senior managers provide direction to the managers who report to them. Middle managers, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers and section managers, middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers. Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees, in smaller organizations, the roles of managers have much wider scopes. A manager can perform several roles or even all of the commonly observed in a large organization. There are many smaller organizations than larger ones. Views on the definition and scope of management include, According to Henri Fayol, to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate, fredmund Malik defines it as the transformation of resources into utility. Management included as one of the factors of production - along with machines, materials, peter Drucker saw the basic task of management as twofold, marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing, peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge. Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and this implies effective communication, an enterprise environment implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism, not the herding of animals, management does not need to be seen from enterprise point of view alone, because management is an essential function to improve ones life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a range of application. Based on this, management must have humans, communication, plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans and this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow, one habit of thought regards management as equivalent to business administration and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as business schools
12.
Joseph Pennell
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Joseph Pennell was an American artist and author. Born in Philadelphia, and first studied there, but like his compatriot and friend, James McNeill Whistler, he went to Europe. Joseph Pennell had many etchings that depicted historic landmarks in the city of Philadelphia and his etching of Wakefield- Fisher’s Lane was created in 1882. This was the mansion of William Logan Fisher which was standing until 1985 and it would have been located on the corner of Ogontz and Lindley Avenues near La Salle Universitys St. Basil Court. He produced numerous books, but his chief distinction is as an etcher and lithographer. He taught at Slade School of Art and he won a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle, and 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Pennell visited San Francisco in March 1912, where he undertook a series of so-called municipal subjects. These were exhibited in December 1912 at the gallery of Vickery, Atkins & Torrey, according to Mary Millman and Dave Bohn, authors of The Master of Line, John W. Winkler. Pennell did the poster for the fourth Liberty Loans campaign of 1918 and it showed the entrance to New York Citys New York Harbor under aerial and naval bombardment, with New York in flames and the Statue of Liberty partly destroyed, her head and her torch blown off. He taught at the Art Students League of New York, in 1880 Joseph Pennell created Little Wakefield which is an etching of the Little Wakefield estate. It is a home that is located on what is now South Campus of La Salle University. This estate was built by Thomas Fisher in 1829 and was occupied by his families for generations however, the etching of the estate created by Pennell was created almost fifty years after the house was built. It depicts the house lived in by the generation of Fishers. Little Wakefield has served multiple purposes besides just residency, during World War I it was used as demonstration center for a local branch of the National League of Womens Service. Little Wakefield was also the location where Thomas R. Fisher ran the first knitting factory in America and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pennell, Joseph. Works by Joseph Pennell at Project Gutenberg Works by Joseph Pennell at Faded Page Works by or about Joseph Pennell at Internet Archive Pennell, the Winterthur Library Overview of an archival collection on Joseph Pennell
13.
Panic of 1857
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The Panic of 1857 was a financial panic in the United States caused by the declining international economy and over-expansion of the domestic economy. Because of the interconnectedness of the economy by the 1850s. In Britain, the Palmerston government circumvented the requirements of the Peel Banking Act of 1844, surfacing news of this circumvention set off the Panic in Britain. Beginning in September 1857, the downturn did not last long, however. The sinking of the SS Central America contributed to the panic of 1857, American banks did not recover until after the civil war. By the mid 1850s, the amount of gold mined began to decline, eastern banks became cautious with their loans to the west and some even refused to accept western bank-issued paper currencies. The Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford was handed down in March 1857. After Scott sued for his freedom, Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was an African American and therefore did not have the right to sue in court. The ruling also made the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, and it was clear that the decision would have a significant impact on the development of western territories. Soon after the ruling, the struggle between free soil and slavery in the territories began. The western territories were now opened to the possibility that slavery might expand into them, Kansas land warrants and western railroad securities prices declined slightly just after the Dred Scott decision in early March. This fluctuation in railroad securities proved that political news about future territories called the tune in the land, before 1857, the railroad industry was booming due to large migrations of people to the west, especially in Kansas. With the large influx of people, the became a profitable industry. Many of these never made it past the stage of a paper railroad. Prices of railroad stocks as a whole began to experience a stock bubble, in the meantime, the aforementioned Dred Scott decision lent uncertainty to railroads in general. In July 1857, railroad stocks saw their peak values, on August 11,1857, N. H. Wolfe and Company, the oldest flour and grain company in New York City, failed. The failure shook investor confidence and began a slow selloff in the market continued into late August. On the morning of August 24,1857, the president of Ohio Life Insurance, Ohio Life was an Ohio-based bank with a second main office in New York City
14.
Alfred Hunt (steel magnate)
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Alfred Hunt was the first president of Bethlehem Iron Company, precursor of Bethlehem Steel Corporation. Alfred Hunt was born of Quaker parentage, at Brownsville, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, Alfred Hunt is a grandson of Joshua and Esther Hunt, who had removed with their young family from Moorestown Township, New Jersey and settled near Brownsville in 1790. Shortly after his fathers death, Hunt and his six youngest siblings were brought by members to Moorestown. Here they lived with Elisha Hunt, their fathers brother, Alfred Hunt died at Moorestown and is interred in the family plot at Colestown Cemetery, Cherry Hill Township, New Jersey. His career in the iron and steel industry began in 1849 when the firm of Rowland and Hunt was formed for the purpose of operating The Cheltenham Rolling Mill, Cheltenham Township, in 1850, Alfred Hunt and John C. Fremont formed a relationship to mine gold on Fremonts property in California. Alfred Hunt was elected president on July 15,1860 by the board of directors of the fledgling Bethlehem Iron Company and he remained president until his death. Philadelphia and Reading, Peter Fritts, Chapter XLV, pp. 212–213, semi-centennial, the borough of South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1865-1915. The descendants of John and Elizabeth Borton, mount Holly, New Jersey, John Woolman Memorial Association. Alfred Hunts obituary Hunt family history Biographical information about Caleb and Elisha Hunt
15.
Blast furnace
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A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper. The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the bottom, the downward flow of the ore and flux in contact with an upflow of hot, carbon monoxide-rich combustion gases is a countercurrent exchange and chemical reaction process. In contrast, air furnaces are naturally aspirated, usually by the convection of hot gases in a chimney flue, according to this broad definition, bloomeries for iron, blowing houses for tin, and smelt mills for lead would be classified as blast furnaces. Blast furnaces existed in China from about 1st century AD and in the West from the High Middle Ages and they spread from the region around Namur in Wallonia in the late 15th century, being introduced to England in 1491. The fuel used in these was invariably charcoal, the successful substitution of coke for charcoal is widely attributed to Abraham Darby in 1709. The efficiency of the process was enhanced by the practice of preheating the combustion air. The oldest extant blast furnaces were built during the Han Dynasty of China in the 1st century AD. However, cast iron tools and weapons were widespread in China by the 5th century BC. These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus-containing minerals as a flux, the effectiveness of the Chinese blast furnace was enhanced during this period by the engineer Du Shi, who applied the power of waterwheels to piston-bellows in forging cast iron. He suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt bronze, certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the State of Qin had unified China. Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang Dynasties and this may have happened as early as the 4th century AD. The Chinese blast furnace remained in use well until the 20th century, the backyard furnaces favoured by Mao Zedong during the Great Leap Forward were of this type. In the regions with strong traditions of metallurgy, the production actually increased during this period. In most places in the other than in China, there is no evidence of the use of the blast furnace. Instead, iron was made by reduction in bloomeries. The bloomery process was invented probably in modern-day Xinjiang or other parts of Western China by Hans or Mongols around 800 BC. Iron finds in China proper are few before bloomeries were supplanted by the blast furnace in the 5th century BC which seems to have developed independently in the southern Chinese cultural sphere, in Europe, the Greeks, Celts, Romans, and Carthaginians all used this process. Several examples have found in France, and materials found in Tunisia suggest they were used there as well as in Antioch during the Hellenistic Period
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Rolling (metalworking)
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In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The concept is similar to the rolling of dough, Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, if the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products such as structural steel, bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products, there are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling, roll bending, roll forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling. The invention of the mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in his drawings. The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the basic principles were found in Middle East. Earliest rolling mills were slitting mills, which were introduced from what is now Belgium to England in 1590 and these passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670, in 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill at Pontypool to roll Pontypool plates—blackplate. Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make tinplate, the earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills. The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to Christopher Polhem in 1761 in Patriotista Testamente and he also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time. A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals, another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill. A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands, Fords tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods, Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by the late 17th century. Copper and brass were also rolled by the late 18th century, modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of Henry Cort of Funtley Iron Mills, near Fareham, England. In 1783 a patent was issued to Henry Cort for his use of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars, with this new design mills were able to produce 15 times more output per day than with a hammer. Although Cort was not the first to use grooved rolls, he was first to combine the use of many of the best features of various ironmaking and shaping processes known at the time, thus modern writers have called him father of modern rolling. The first rail rolling mill was established by John Birkenshaw in 1820, with the advancement of technology in rolling mills the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size products being rolled
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Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
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Vehicle armour
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Military vehicles are commonly armoured to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, missiles or shells, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft and ships, civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by reporters, officials and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common, armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo. Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space junk, the design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, rolled homogeneous armour is strong, hard, and tough. Steel with these characteristics is produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size, rolling and forging irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Aluminium is used when weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars, wrought iron was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 13 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one meter of solid wood, titanium is roughly the weight of aluminium, but as strong as iron. So despite being rather expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour, because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940, the original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the backing plate. Bulletproof glass is a term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour, bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, the polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance
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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
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Scranton, Pennsylvania
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Scranton is the sixth-largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania behind Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie and Reading. It is the county seat of Lackawanna County in Northeastern Pennsylvanias Wyoming Valley, with a population of 77,118, it is the largest city in the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of about 570,000. Scranton was incorporated on February 14,1856, as a borough in Luzerne County and it became a major industrial city, a center of mining and railroads, and attracted thousands of new immigrants. It was the site of the Scranton General Strike in 1877, people in northern Luzerne County began to seek a new county in 1839 but the Wilkes-Barre area resisted losing its assets. Lackawanna County did not gain independent status until 1878, under legislation allowing the issue to be voted by residents of the proposed territory, voters favored the new county by a proportion of 6 to 1, with Scranton residents providing the major support. The city was designated as the county seat when Lackawanna County was established in 1878, the city took its first step toward earning its reputation as the Electric City when electric lights were introduced in 1880 at Dickson Locomotive Works. Six years later, the nations first streetcars powered exclusively by electricity began operating in the city, rev. David Spencer, a local Baptist minister, later proclaimed Scranton as the Electric City. Present-day Scranton and its area had been long inhabited by the native Lenape tribe. In 1778, Isaac Tripp, the areas first known European-American settler, built his home here, it stands in North Scranton. More settlers from Connecticut came to the area in the late 18th and early 19th centuries after the American Revolutionary War and they gradually established mills and other small businesses in a village that became known as Slocum Hollow. People in the village during this time carried the traits and the accent of their New England settlers, though anthracite coal was being mined in Carbondale to the north and Wilkes-Barre to the south, the industries that precipitated the citys early rapid growth were iron and steel. It initially started producing nails, but that venture failed due to low-quality iron. The Erie Railroads construction in New York State was delayed by its having to iron rails as imports from England. The Scrantons firm decided to focus to producing T-rails for the Erie. In 1851, the Scrantons built the Lackawanna and Western Railroad northward, with recent Irish immigrants supplying most of the labor, to meet the Erie Railroad in Great Bend, thus they could transport manufactured rails from the Lackawanna Valley to New York and the Midwest. They also invested in mining operations in the city to fuel their steel operations. In 1856, they expanded the railroad eastward as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and this railroad, with its hub in Scranton, would be Scrantons largest employer for almost one hundred years. The Pennsylvania Coal Company built a gravity railroad in the 1850s through the city for the purpose of transporting coal, the gravity railroad was replaced by a steam railroad built in 1886 by the Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad
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Carnegie Steel Company
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The subsequent sale made Carnegie one of the richest men in history. Carnegie began the construction of his first steel mill, the Edgar Thomson Steel Works in 1872 at Braddock, the Thomson Steel Works began producing rails in 1874. Carnegie alone estimated that 40% was returned on the investment i. e. a profit of $40,000 from a $100,000 investment in the mill. The profits made by the Edgar Thomson Steel Works were sufficiently great to permit Carnegie and these included the Homestead Steel Works which Carnegie acquired in 1883. The presence of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio rivers provided a way to transport the materials associated with the steel-making industry. Each plant was located close to or alongside a river, Carnegie agreed to Fricks subsequent proposal that the various plants and assets be consolidated into one company. This consolidation occurred on July 1,1892 with the formation of the Carnegie Steel Company, the company headquarters were located in the Carnegie Building, an early skyscraper in Downtown Pittsburgh. Built to show its use of steel in its construction, the building was fifteen stories high, the Carnegie Building was demolished in 1952. It was later rebuilt as a memorial in 2012, Carnegie made major technological innovations in the 1880s, especially the installation of the open hearth furnace system at Homestead in 1886. It now became possible to make suitable for structural beams and for armor plate for the US Navy. In addition the plant moved increasingly toward the continuous system of production, Carnegie installed vastly improved systems of material-handling, like overhead cranes, hoists, charging machines, and buggies. All of this greatly sped the process of steelmaking, and allowed the production of far vaster quantities of steel, as the mills expanded the labor force grew rapidly, especially less skilled workers. The more skilled union members reacted with the unsuccessful 1892 Homestead Strike, along with demands for reduced working hours, after the unsuccessful strike the company continued to expand and profits grew year on year, with the company having earned net profits of $21 million in 1899. J&L Steel was the most important competitor to the Carnegie Steel Company, Carnegie Steel Company was sold in 1901 to the United States Steel Corporation, a newly formed organisation, set up by Pierpont Morgan. It sold for $480 million, of which $226 million went to Carnegie himself, U. S. Steel was a conglomerate with subsidiary companies. The name of the company was changed to the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Company in 1936. Changes in the way in which steel is produced had already appeared before the Carnegie Steel Company was sold, Steel manufacturers had begun to abandon the Bessemer converters and install open-hearth furnaces. Open-hearth furnaces were widely employed until the 1980s when the basic oxygen steelmaking, electric arc furnace, history of the steel industry Illinois Steel Co
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Lackawanna Steel Company
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The Lackawanna Steel Company was an American steel manufacturing company that existed as an independent company from 1840 to 1922, and as a subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel company from 1922 to 1983. Founded by the Scranton family, it was once the second-largest steel company in the world, Scranton, Pennsylvania developed around the companys original location. When the company moved to a suburb of Buffalo, New York, in 1902, at the beginning of the 1800s, the Lackawanna Valley in Pennsylvania was rich in anthracite coal and iron deposits. Brothers George W. Scranton and Seldon T. Scranton moved to the valley in 1840, although Europeans had been making steel for nearly three centuries, the processes for creating blister steel and crucible steel were slow and extremely expensive. The Scrantons focused instead on manufacturing pig iron using a blast furnace and they wanted to take advantage of a recent technological innovation in iron smelting, the hot blast. Developed in Scotland in 1828, the hot blast preheats air before it is pumped through molten iron, the Scrantons also intended to experiment with using anthracite coal to make steel, rather than existing methods which used charcoal or bituminous coal. The most likely successful first use of the hot-blast technique in the U. S. was carried out in 1835 at Oxford Furnace in Warren County, New Jersey, by William Henry, Seldon Scrantons father-in-law. By 1838, Henry had moved to the Lackawanna Valley, where he was experimenting with using coal in steelmaking. The Scrantons and Henry formed a partnership in 1840 to develop a hot blast furnace that used anthracite coal in the charge. Two other Pennsylvanians, Sanford Grant and Philipp Mattes, also invested in the new company, named Scranton, Grant, and Co. Henry bought 503 acres near Slocums Hollow, the blast furnace was completed in the early autumn of 1841. The companys first effort at smelting iron was not successful, George Scranton estimated the company lost between $6,000 and $7,000 in the year ending June 1843, but the total may have been as high as $10,000. George Scranton took control of the works from William Henry, near bankruptcy, the partners sought new sources of capital. In May 1843, a $20,000 loan permitted the company to continue operating, after many failures and two years of low-level and low-quality production of pig iron, the firm began producing significant amounts of pig iron in 1843. The company installed a rolling mill, five reverberatory furnaces,20 nail manufacturing machines, needing more cash, the company was reorganized in September 1846, taking the new name of Scrantons and Grant. New partners were brought in, including Joseph H. Scranton, the Scranton family retained 51.6 percent of the companys stock. Quality control problems plagued the company and nearly drove it to bankruptcy again, by summer 1844, the furnace averaged five to seven tons of pig iron a day. Railroad networks in the U. S. were tripling in size during the 1840s, but until 1844, the United States had no factories capable of manufacturing rails, and all rails had to be imported and shipped by sea from Great Britain. Realizing that the ore they used was ideal for manufacturing rail tracks
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American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
25.
William E. Chandler
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William Eaton Chandler was a lawyer who served as United States Secretary of the Navy and as a U. S. William E. Chandler was born in Concord, New Hampshire to Nathan S. Chandler, williams elder brother, John Chandler, was a successful East India merchant and his younger brother George Chandler, an attorney who served as a major during the Civil War. He graduated in 1854, was admitted to the bar in 1855, in 1859 Chandler married Ann Gilmore, the daughter of Governor Joseph A. Gilmore. In 1874, after his first wifes death, Chandler resumed his romance with Lucy Hale, Chandler and Hale were married in 1874, and in March 1875, their only son, John Parker Hall Chandler, was born. In 1859, Chandler was appointed reporter of the decisions of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire and he then served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives from 1862 to 1864 and was the Speaker during the last two years. In 1865, Chandler was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln solicitor, subsequently, he was appointed First Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, until he resigned in 1867. Chandler returned to New Hampshire and became a publisher and editor during the 1870s and 1880s. Continuing in politics, he was a member of the State constitutional convention in 1876, Chandler was appointed by President Chester A. Arthur as Secretary of the Navy in 1882. He took charge in 1883 in planning for the rescue of Lt. Adolphus Greelys Lady Franklin Bay Expedition, as a Republican, he was elected to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Austin F. Pike and served from June 14,1887, to March 3,1889, subsequently elected for the term beginning March 4,1889, he was reelected in 1895 and served from June 18,1889, to March 3,1901. He was a candidate for renomination. He served as chairman of the Committee on Immigration, Committee on Census, Committee on Privileges, the strongest opponents of the bill were the steamship companies, who stood to lose a major portion of their business. A watered-down version of The Chandler Immigration and Contract Labor Bill became law on March 3,1893, Chandler was appointed by President William McKinley to the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission in 1901. He was the president of the Commission from its inception until 1907, leaving public office, Chandler resumed the practice of law in Concord and Washington, D. C. He died at Concord in 1917 and was buried in Blossom Hill Cemetery in Concord, USS Chandler was named for him. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
26.
Robert Todd Lincoln
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Robert Todd Lincoln was an American politician, lawyer, and businessman. He was the first son of President Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd Lincoln, born in Springfield, Illinois, United States, he was the only one of Lincolns four sons to live an adult life, and the only member of the family to survive into the 20th century. Lincoln attended Harvard University, and then served on the staff of Ulysses S. Grant as a captain in the Union Army in the days of the American Civil War. Following completion of law school in Chicago, he built a law practice. After the war Lincoln married Mary Eunice Harlan, the daughter of a United States senator and they remained married until his death, and were the parents of three children. The one office to which he was elected was town supervisor of South Chicago, which he held from 1876 to 1877, the town later became part of the city of Chicago. Lincoln accepted appointments as secretary of war in the administration of James A. Garfield, continuing under Chester A. Arthur, in Lincolns later years he resided at homes in Washington, D. C. and Manchester, Vermont. The Manchester home, Hildene, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, in 1922 he took part in the dedication ceremonies for the Lincoln Memorial. A dedicated amateur astronomer and golfer, Lincoln remained active almost until his death and he died at Hildene on July 26,1926, six days before his eighty-third birthday, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in Springfield, Illinois, on August 1,1843, to Abraham Lincoln and he had three younger brothers, Edward Baker Lincoln, William Wallace Lincoln and Thomas Tad Lincoln. By the time Lincoln was born, his father had become a member of the Whig political party and had previously served as a member of the state legislature for four terms. Robert Lincoln was named after his maternal grandfather, by the time his father became president of the United States, Lincoln was the only one of the presidents three children to be largely on his own. He took the Harvard University entrance examination in 1859, but failed fifteen out of the sixteen subjects and he was then enrolled at Phillips Exeter Academy to further prepare for attending college, and he graduated in 1860. Admitted to Harvard College, he graduated in 1864, and was a member of the Hasty Pudding Club, morris states after gaining admission to Harvard, Robert Lincoln emerged from college an unsympathetic bore. After graduating from Harvard, Lincoln enrolled at Harvard Law School, Robert Lincoln attended Harvard Law School from September,1864 to January,1865, and left in order to join the Union Army. Much to the embarrassment of the president, Mary Todd Lincoln prevented Robert Lincoln from joining the Army until shortly before the wars conclusion. We have lost one son, and his loss is as much as I can bear, without being called upon to make another sacrifice, President Lincoln argued our son is not more dear to us than the sons of other people are to their mothers. However, Mary Todd Lincoln persisted by stating that she could not bear to have Robert exposed to danger, in January 1865, the First Lady yielded and President Lincoln wrote Ulysses S. Grant, asking if Robert could be placed on his staff
27.
Joseph Whitworth
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Sir Joseph Whitworth, 1st Baronet was an English engineer, entrepreneur, inventor and philanthropist. In 1841, he devised the British Standard Whitworth system, which created a standard for screw threads. Whitworth also created the Whitworth rifle, often called the sharpshooter because of its accuracy, at his death in 1887, he bequeathed much of his fortune for the people of Manchester, with the Whitworth Art Gallery and Christie Hospital partly funded by Whitworths money. Whitworth Street and Whitworth Hall in Manchester are named in his honour, Whitworth was created a baronet on 7 October 1869. Whitworth was born in Stockport, Cheshire, the son of Charles Whitworth, a teacher and Congregational minister and he was educated at Idle, near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, his aptitude for mechanics became apparent when he began work for his uncle. After leaving school Whitworth became an apprentice to his uncle, Joseph Hulse. The plan was that Whitworth would become a partner in the business and this early exposure to the mechanics of the industry forged in him the ambition to make machinery with much greater precision. His apprenticeship at Amber Mill lasted for a term after which he worked for another four years as a mechanic in a factory in Manchester. He then moved to London where he found employment working for Henry Maudslay, Whitworth also worked for Holtzapffel & Co and Joseph Clement. While at Clements workshop he helped with the manufacture of Charles Babbages calculating machine and he returned to Openshaw, Manchester, in 1833 to start his own business manufacturing lathes and other machine tools, which became renowned for their high standard of workmanship. Whitworth is attributed with the introduction of the thou in 1844, in 1853, along with his lifelong friend, artist and art educator George Wallis, he was appointed a British commissioner for the New York International Exhibition. In 1850, architect Edward Walters was commissioned to build The Firs for Whitworth and this was a grand mansion at Fallowfield, Manchester, which still stands today, functioning as Chancellors Hotel & Conference Centre. Whitworth received many awards for the excellence of his designs and was very successful. In 1850, then a President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, he built a house called The Firs in Fallowfield, in 1854 he bought Stancliffe Hall in Darley Dale, Derbyshire and moved there with his second wife Louisa in 1872. He supplied four six-ton blocks of stone from Darley Dale quarry and he was conferred with Honorary Membership of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1859. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1857, a strong believer in the value of technical education, Whitworth backed the new Mechanics Institute in Manchester and helped found the Manchester School of Design. In 1868, he founded the Whitworth Scholarship for the advancement of mechanical engineering and he donated a sum of £128,000 to the government in 1868 to bring science and industry closer together and to fund scholarships. In January 1887 at the age of 83, Sir Joseph Whitworth died in Monte Carlo where he had travelled in the hope of improving his health and he was buried at St Helens Church, Darley Dale, Derbyshire
28.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
29.
Robert H. Sayre
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Robert Heysham Sayre was vice president and chief engineer of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. He was also president and general manager of Bethlehem Iron Company. The town of Sayre, Pennsylvania was named in his honor, Sayre was born on October 13,1824 to William Heysham Sayre and Elizabeth Kent, his wife, on the Kent familys farm near Bloomsburg in rural Columbia County, Pennsylvania. In 1828, the Sayre family moved to Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania where William worked for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company as a lockmaster, as a result of observing the locks, young Robert showed an early interest in construction and civil engineering. Sayres first significant work in engineering was on the Morris Canal in New Jersey and he also participated in the surveys and construction for the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway. In 1854, Sayre was named Chief Engineer of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Sayre was one of the founders of Bethlehem Iron Company, precursor of Bethlehem Steel Corporation. He was responsible for the design and construction of the companys first iron works during the years 1861 through 1863 and he became vice president of Bethlehem Iron Works in 1891. Sayre built a house in Bethlehem and lived in it from 1858 until his death in 1907. Currently his house is known as the Sayre Mansion, and is in use as a bed-and-breakfast, Sayre was a trustee of St. Lukes Hospital and a Charter Trustee of Lehigh University. Sayre Observatory at Lehigh University was erected in 1868 and was paid for by a gift of $5000 from Sayre, the Diaries of Robert Heysham Sayre
30.
Joseph Wharton
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Joseph Wharton was an American industrialist. He was involved in mining, manufacturing and education and he founded the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, co-founded the Bethlehem Steel company, and was one of the founders of Swarthmore College. Wharton was born in Philadelphia in 1826, the child of ten in a liberal Hicksite Quaker family. His parents, William Wharton and Deborah Fisher Wharton, were both from prominent early American immigrant families of Quaker descent, interestingly, both of Whartons grandmothers were named Hannah and were from Newport, Rhode Island. Whartons maternal grandfather, Samuel R. Whartons youth was spent in the house near Spruce and 4th Streets in downtown Philadelphia. As a boy, Wharton attended two Quaker boarding schools in the towns outside of Philadelphia and also private schools in the city. Between the age of 14 and 16, Wharton was prepared for college by a private tutor, by that time, Wharton had matured to a strong frame,6 feet in stature, with a serious but cheerful outlook. He was accomplished in such as horseback riding, swimming. During the winter Wharton returned to his parents home in Philadelphia and studied such as French and German. He also studied chemistry at the Philadelphia laboratory of Martin Hans Boyè, Wharton and his brothers in their early years identified with inventors and builders such as Cyrus McCormick and Samuel F. B. Morse. When he was 19, Wharton apprenticed with an accountant for two years and became proficient in business methods and bookkeeping, at 21, he partnered with his older brother Rodman to start a business manufacturing white lead. Whartons chemistry mentor, Martin Boye, had developed a method to refine cottonseed oil, in 1849 Wharton started a business manufacturing bricks using a patented machine which pressed dry clay into forms. However, from the endeavor he gained valuable experience, in 1853, Wharton joined the Pennsylvania and Lehigh Zinc Company near Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, first managing the mining operation and later the zinc oxide works. In 1860 Wharton, after some challenging negotiations with the directors of the company, Wharton married Anna Corbit Lovering, a fellow Quaker and the younger sister of his brother Charles wife, in 1854 in a Quaker ceremony. She preferred a life of comfort but evidently did not wish to stifle his ambition, during this time Wharton lived a spartan life, boarding at a hotel and managing the zinc works in Bethlehem, and Anna cared for their first child Joanna at their home in Philadelphia. Although Joseph returned as often as possible and they communicated often by letter, they felt much stress during this period and their marriage suffered. He purchased a country estate several miles north of Philadelphia, called Ontalauna, Wharton often studied at night or played history games with the children. The Camden plant was located on the east side of 10th Street, adjacent to Cooper Creek, Wharton renamed the Camden plant the American Nickel Works, and his office there became his center of operations
31.
USS Texas (1892)
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Built in reaction to the acquisition of modern armored warships by several South American countries, Texas was meant to incorporate the latest developments in naval tactics and design. This includes the mounting of her main armament en echelon to allow maximum end-on fire and a heavily-armored redoubt amidships to ensure defensive strength. However, due to the state of U. S. industry at the time, Texass building time was lengthy, nevertheless, she and her near-sister USS Maine were considered advancements in American naval design. Texas developed a reputation as a jinxed or unlucky ship after several accidents early in her career and these mishaps included problems during construction, a grounding off Newport, Rhode Island, and flooding shortly afterwards while at dock in New York City. In the last, she settled to the bottom with her gun deck awash and she also received significant damage to her hull in drydock after being raised. Her reputation improved with her service in the Spanish–American War, when she blockaded the coast of Cuba, after the war, Texas returned to peacetime duty, interrupted by several refits. She became the ship in Charleston, South Carolina, by 1908 and was renamed San Marcos in 1911 to allow her name to be used by a new battleship. She became a ship that same year and was sunk in shallow water in Chesapeake Bay. She was used as a target through World War II and was finally demolished in 1959 because her remains were considered a navigational hazard. The United States Navy now felt capable only of defending its own ports, the Chairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee, Congressman Hilary A. The Navy Advisory Board, confronted with the possibility of hostile ironclads operating off the American coast, both had to fit within existing docks and had to have a shallow draft to enable them to use all the major American ports and bases. They had to have a speed of 17 knots and were to displace about 6,000 long tons. The first ship, laid down for the then-traditional cruiser mission of battleship substitute on overseas deployment and armed with four 10 in guns, the other, armed with two 12 in guns, became Texas. The Navy Department conducted a design competition for Texas and the winner was the Naval Construction & Armaments Co. of Barrow-in-Furness. The winning design placed Texass forward turret on the port side, the need for cross-deck fire caused the superstructure to be separated into three pieces to allow for each gun to fire between the sections of the superstructure. This significantly limited the ability to fire to the opposite beam as the superstructure still restricted each guns arc of fire. Even five years before Texas was complete, the blast effects from fire were considered prohibitive. This made Texass armament arrangement obsolete, Construction by this time was too far advanced for such a plan, however, and Navy Secretary Benjamin Tracy limited the Board to detail improvements
32.
USS Maine (ACR-1)
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USS Maine is an American naval ship that sank in Havana Harbor during the Cuban revolt against Spain, an event that became a major political issue in the United States. Commissioned in 1895, this was the first United States Navy ship to be named after the state of Maine, originally classified as an armored cruiser, she was built in response to the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo and the increase of naval forces in Latin America. She dispensed with full masts thanks to the reliability of steam engines by the time of her construction. Despite these advances, Maine was out of date by the time she entered service, due to her protracted construction period and changes in the role of ships of her type, naval tactics and technology. It took nine years to complete, and nearly three years for the armor plating alone, the general use of steel in warship construction precluded the use of ramming without danger to the attacking vessel. The potential for blast damage from firing end on or cross-deck discouraged en échelon gun placement, the changing role of the armored cruiser from a small, heavily armored substitute for the battleship to a fast, lightly armored commerce raider also hastened her obsolescence. Despite these disadvantages, Maine was seen as an advance in American warship design, Maine is best known for her loss in Havana Harbor on the evening of 15 February 1898. Sent to protect U. S. interests during the Cuban revolt against Spain, she exploded suddenly, without warning, the cause and responsibility for her sinking remained unclear after a board of inquiry investigated. Nevertheless, popular opinion in the U. S. fanned by inflammatory articles printed in the press by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. Became a rallying cry for action, which came with the Spanish–American War later that year, while the sinking of Maine was not a direct cause for action, it served as a catalyst, accelerating the approach to a diplomatic impasse between the U. S. and Spain. The cause of Maines sinking remains a subject of speculation, in 1898, an investigation of the explosion was carried out by a naval board appointed under the McKinley Administration. The consensus of the board was that Maine was destroyed by an explosion from a mine. However, the validity of this investigation has been challenged, George W. Melville, a chief engineer in the Navy, proposed that a more likely cause for the sinking was from a magazine explosion within the vessel. The Navys leading ordnance expert, Philip R. Alger, took this further by suggesting that the magazines were ignited by a spontaneous fire in a coal bunker. The coal used in Maine was bituminous coal, which is known for releasing firedamp, there is stronger evidence that the explosion of Maine was caused by an internal coal fire which ignited the magazines. This was a cause of the explosion, rather than the initial hypothesis of a mine. The ship lay at the bottom of the harbor until 1911, a cofferdam was then built around the wreck. The hull was patched up until the ship was afloat, then towed to sea, the Maine now lies on the sea-bed 3,600 feet below the surface
33.
William H. Rau
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William Herman Rau was an American photographer, active primarily in the latter half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He is best remembered for his stereo cards of sites around the world and he was official photographer of the St. Louis Worlds Fair in 1904, and of the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland in 1905. His work is now included in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution, Rau was born in Philadelphia in 1855, the son of German and Swiss immigrants Peter and Mary Witschi Rau. His older brother, George, operated a photography studio out of the Rau house, at the age of 13, he started doing photographic work for his future father-in-law, William Bell, who was a medical and survey photographer for the federal government. In 1874, with Bells recommendation, Rau joined an expedition to Chatham Island in the South Pacific to photograph the Transit of Venus, sailing along the sloop Swatara, Rau photographed some of the worlds most remote places while on this expedition. He was less successful in capturing the transit itself, however, after his tent caught fire, none of Raus photographs of the transit were sharp enough to be of use to scientists. After the exposition, he joined his father-in-laws stereo card studio and he operated this studio in partnership with his brother, George, until 1880. In 1881, Rau joined Wilson on an expedition to the Middle East and he photographed numerous sites in Egypt, Palestine, and Damascus, and captured some of the earliest photographs of the ruins of Petra. The expedition spent 45 days in the desert at one point, and Rau recalled being constantly threatened, harassed, the expedition ascended Mount Sinai, but was unable to capture any photographs due to poor lighting. Upon returning, Rau went to work full-time for Wilsons magazine, in 1885, he left Wilsons company and set up his own studio in Philadelphia, initially located on Chestnut Street, but later moved to South Camac Street. He operated this studio for the remainder of his life, producing stereo cards, lantern slides, in 1886, Rau made the first of several trips to Europe, photographing sites in Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, France and Italy. In 1889, he accompanied travel writer John Lawson Stoddard on a tour of Mexico, Rau was hired by the Lehigh Valley Railroad to photograph scenic views along the railroads route in 1891, and became the railroads official photographer in 1895. He spent a significant portion of the 1890s doing photographic work for both the Lehigh and the Pennsylvania Railroad, and published collections of his photos in 1892 and 1900. Rau complemented his landscape and travel photographs with event photographs and he was also the official photographer for the St. Louis Worlds Fair in 1904 and the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland the following year. With the rise of the Photo-Secession in New York in the 1900s, Rau, like many commercial photographers and he died at his home in Philadelphia on November 19,1920. Raus photographs span a range of topics in places around the world. Cities photographed by Rau include New York City, Paris, Moscow, Cairo, Tokyo, Naples, Nablus, St. Pierre, Martinique, Butte, Montana, and his native Philadelphia. Individuals who posed for portraits for Rau include Theodore Roosevelt, Admiral George Dewey, poet Edwin Markham, Apache chief Geronimo, Raus panoramic subjects include Niagara Falls and Hemlock Lake, and the cities of Rochester and Buffalo in New York and Easton in Pennsylvania
34.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”
35.
Axle
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An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating them, or fixed to the vehicle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle, on cars and trucks, several senses of the word axle occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. Strictly speaking, a shaft which rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, is called an axle or axle shaft, however, in looser usage an entire assembly including the surrounding axle housing is also called an axle. An even broader sense of the word refers to every pair of wheels on opposite sides of the vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection to each other. Thus, transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension may be called an axle in some contexts, axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a live-axle suspension system, the serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy duty trucks and some 2-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, conversely, many front wheel drive cars have a solid rear beam axle. In other types of systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels. This is typical of the independent suspension found on most newer cars and SUVs and these systems still have a differential, but it will not have attached axle housing tubes. It may be attached to the frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts then transmit driving torque to the wheels, like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front wheel drive independent suspension system do not support any vehicle weight. A straight axle is a rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels, such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains, for the axles of commercial trucks
36.
Ferris wheel
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Some of the largest modern Ferris wheels have cars mounted on the outside of the rim, with electric motors to independently rotate each car to keep it upright. These wheels are sometimes referred to as wheels and their cars referred to as capsules. The original Ferris Wheel was designed and constructed by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. as a landmark for the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The generic term Ferris wheel is now used for all such structures, since the original 1893 Chicago Ferris wheel there have been nine worlds tallest-ever Ferris wheels. The current record holder is the 167. 6-metre High Roller in Las Vegas, US, pleasure wheels, whose passengers rode in chairs suspended from large wooden rings turned by strong men, may have originated in 17th-century Bulgaria. A Frenchman, Antonio Manguino, introduced the idea to America in 1848, a much earlier description of a Ferris-type wheel can be seen in The Death of Arthur, a volume of the Vulgate Cycle dating from around 1220. The text describes King Arthur in a dream being approached by Fortuna, the following year he was granted the first U. S. patent for a Roundabout. George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. rode on Somers wheel in Atlantic City prior to designing his wheel for the Worlds Columbian Exposition, the original Ferris Wheel, sometimes also referred to as the Chicago Wheel, was designed and constructed by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. With a height of 80.4 metres it was the largest attraction at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois and it was intended to rival the 324-metre Eiffel Tower, the centerpiece of the 1889 Paris Exposition. Ferris was a graduate of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he began his career in the railroad industry and then pursued an interest in bridge building. Ferris understood the growing need for steel and founded G. W. G. Ferris & Co. in Pittsburgh, a firm that tested and inspected metals for railroads, the wheel rotated on a 71-ton,45. There were 36 cars, each fitted with 40 revolving chairs and able to accommodate up to 60 people, the Exposition ended in October 1893, and the wheel closed in April 1894 and was dismantled and stored until the following year. It was then rebuilt on Chicagos North Side, near Lincoln Park and this prompted William D. Boyce, then a local resident, to file a Circuit Court action against the owners of the wheel to have it removed, but without success. The Wiener Riesenrad is an example of nineteenth-century Ferris wheels. A demolition permit for the Riesenrad was issued in 1916, but due to a lack of funds with which to carry out the destruction, following the demolition of the 100-metre Grande Roue de Paris in 1920, the Riesenrad became the worlds tallest extant Ferris wheel. Still in operation today, it is one of Viennas most popular tourist attractions, chronology of worlds tallest-ever wheels 1893, the original Ferris Wheel was 80.4 metres tall. Built for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, it was moved to St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and demolished there in 1906
37.
Cast iron
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Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
38.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
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Frederick Winslow Taylor was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants, Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era. Taylor was also an athlete who competed nationally in tennis and golf, Taylor was born in 1856 to a Quaker family in Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Taylors father, Franklin Taylor, a Princeton-educated lawyer, built his wealth on mortgages, Taylors mother, Emily Annette Taylor, was an ardent abolitionist and a coworker with Lucretia Mott. His fathers ancestor, Samuel Taylor, settled in Burlington, New Jersey and his mothers ancestor, Edward Winslow, was one of the fifteen original Mayflower Pilgrims who brought servants or children, and one of eight who had the honorable distinction of Mister. Winslow served for years as the Governor of the Plymouth colony. Educated early by his mother, Taylor studied for two years in France and Germany and traveled Europe for 18 months, in 1872, he entered Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, with the plan of eventually going to Harvard and becoming a lawyer like his father. In 1874, Taylor passed the Harvard entrance examinations with honors, however, due allegedly to rapidly deteriorating eyesight, Taylor chose quite a different path. Instead of attending Harvard University, Taylor became a patternmaker and machinist. He left his apprenticeship for six months and represented a group of New England machine-tool manufacturers at Philadelphias centennial exposition, Taylor finished his four-year apprenticeship and in 1878 became a machine-shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works. At Midvale, he was promoted to time clerk, journeyman machinist, gang boss over the lathe hands, machine shop foreman, research director. Taylors fast promotions reflected both his talent and his familys relationship with Edward Clark, part owner of Midvale Steel, when he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen. In order to determine how much work should properly be expected, he began to study and his focus on the human component of production Taylor labeled scientific management. While Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis tournament in the 1881 US National Championships. Taylor became a student of Stevens Institute of Technology, studying via correspondence, on May 3,1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia. He spent time as a plant manager in Maine, in 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia. His business card read Consulting Engineer - Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty, through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management system. In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel in order to solve an expensive machine-shop capacity problem, as a result, he and Maunsel White, with a team of assistants, developed high speed steel, paving the way for greatly increased mass production
39.
Scientific management
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Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity and it was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to management. One early approach to management is known as Taylorism after its founder. Its development began in the United States with Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 90s within the manufacturing industries and its peak of influence came in the 1910s, by the 1920s, it was still influential but had entered into competition and syncretism with opposing or complementary ideas. Although scientific management as a theory or school of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrial engineering. Taylors own names for his approach initially included shop management and process management, when Louis Brandeis popularized the term scientific management in 1910, Taylor recognized it as another good name for the concept, and adopted it in his 1911 monograph. In the course of his studies, Taylor examined various kinds of manual labor. For example, most bulk materials handling was manual at the time and he looked at shoveling in the unloading of railroad cars full of ore, lifting and carrying in the moving of iron pigs at steel mills, the manual inspection of bearing balls, and others. He discovered many concepts that were not widely accepted at the time, for example, by observing workers, he decided that labor should include rest breaks so that the worker has time to recover from fatigue, either physical or mental. Workers were allowed to take more rests during work, and productivity increased as a result, flourishing in the late 19th and early 20th century, scientific management built on earlier pursuits of economic efficiency. While it was prefigured in the wisdom of thrift, it favored empirical methods to determine efficient procedures rather than perpetuating established traditions. There is a fluid continuum linking scientific management with the fields. Subsequent forms of management were articulated by Taylors disciples, such as Henry Gantt, other engineers and managers, such as Benjamin S. Graham. Taylors work also contrasts with other efforts, including those of Henri Fayol, Taylorism, in its strict sense, became obsolete by the 1930s, and by the 1960s the term scientific management was no longer favored in contemporaneous management theory. However, called by names, many aspects of scientific management have persisted in later management theories. In blending art, academic science, and applied science, modern management practice includes Taylorism as one of its ancestors, the process of improving on Taylorisms view of human resources began as soon as Taylors works had been published, and each subsequent decade brought further evolution. Today, task-oriented optimization of work tasks is nearly ubiquitous in industry, Scientific management requires a high level of managerial control over employee work practices and entails a higher ratio of managerial workers to laborers than previous management methods. Such detail-oriented management may cause friction between workers and managers, Taylor observed that some workers were more talented than others, and that even smart ones were often unmotivated
40.
Charles M. Schwab
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For the founder and chairman of the Charles Schwab Corporation brokerage firm, see Charles R. Schwab Charles Michael Schwab was an American steel magnate. Under his leadership, Bethlehem Steel became the second largest steel maker in the United States, Charles Michael Schwab was born in Williamsburg, Pennsylvania, the son of Pauline and John Anthony Schwab. All four of his grandparents were Roman Catholic immigrants from Germany, Schwab was raised in Loretto, Pennsylvania, which he considered his home town. He attended Saint Francis College, but left two years and obtaining two certificates to find work in Pittsburgh. Schwab began his career as an engineer in Andrew Carnegies steelworks, starting as a stake-driver in the corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Furnaces in Braddock. He was promoted often, including to the positions of superintendent of the Homestead Works in 1886. In 1897, at only 35 years of age, he became president of the Carnegie Steel Company, in 1901, he helped negotiate the secret sale of Carnegie Steel to a group of New York–based financiers led by J. P. Morgan. After the buyout, Schwab became the first president of the U. S. Steel Corporation, after several clashes with Morgan and fellow US Steel executive Elbert Gary, Schwab left USS in 1903 to run the Bethlehem Shipbuilding and Steel Company in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The company had gained shipyards in California, Delaware, and New Jersey through its brief, under his leadership, it became the largest independent steel producer in the world. A major part of Bethlehem Steels success was the development of the H-beam, in his most famous remark, Schwab told his secretary, Ive thought the whole thing over, and if we are going bust, we will go bust big. In 1908, Bethlehem Steel began making the beam, which revolutionized building construction and its success helped make Bethlehem Steel the second-largest steel company in the world. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was incorporated, virtually as a company town, in 1910, Schwab broke the Bethlehem Steel strike by calling out the newly formed Pennsylvania State Police. Schwab successfully kept labor unions out of Bethlehem Steel throughout his tenure (although Bethlehem Steel unionized in 1941, in 1911, Bethlehem Steel formed a company soccer team known as Bethlehem Steel F. C. In 1914 Schwab took the team professional, until its demise in 1930, the team won eight league championships, six American Cups and five National Challenge Cups. It was considered among the greatest soccer teams in U. S. history, during the first years of World War I, Bethlehem Steel had a virtual monopoly in contracts to supply the Allies with certain kinds of munitions. Schwab made many visits to Europe in connection with the manufacture and supply of munitions to the Allied governments and he circumvented American neutrality laws by funneling goods through Canada. On April 16,1918, Schwab became Director General of the Emergency Fleet Corporation and he was appointed over Charles Piez, the former general manager of the corporation. President Wilson had specifically asked Schwab to assume this responsibility, Schwabs biggest change to the shipbuilding effort was to abandon the cost plus profit contracting system that had been in place up to that time and begin issuing fixed-price contracts
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Charles R. Schwab
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Charles Robert Schwab is an American investor, financial executive, and philanthropist. He is the founder of the Charles Schwab Corporation and he pioneered discount sales of equity securities starting in 1975. His company became by far the largest discount securities dealer in the United States and he retired as CEO in 2008, but remains chairman and is the largest shareholder. As of February 2017, his net worth is estimated by Forbes Magazine to be $8.2 billion USD, Schwab was born in Sacramento, California, the son of Terrie and Lloyd Schwab. He attended Santa Barbara High School in Santa Barbara, California and he attended pre-college school at Holy Rosary Academy in Woodland, California. Schwab graduated from Stanford University in 1959 with a B. A. in economics, in 1961, he graduated from Stanford Graduate School of Business with an MBA. Schwab is a knight of the Sigma Nu fraternity, in 1963, Chuck Schwab and three other partners launched Investment Indicator, an investment newsletter. At its height, the newsletter had 3,000 subscribers, in November of that year, Schwab and four others purchased all the stock from Commander Industries, Inc. In 1972, Schwab bought all the stock from what was once Commander Industries, in 1973, First Commander changed its name to Charles Schwab & Co. Inc. A decisive turning point came in 1975, when the federal Securities, companies could then charge any fees they wanted. Schwab had long complained that the firms showed little concern for the needs of their customers. Financial securities were not bought by consumers, they were sold by salesman, Schwab set up a series of radically different policies. First, the charges to consumers were cut in half, second, salesmen are and were paid hourly salaries, rather than commissions on the total sale price. Third, Schwab refused to offer any advice to the customer and it also set up a toll-free number to take orders nationwide and later set up 24-7 system that would allow customers to place orders from anywhere at any time. Established firms were outraged, and tried to block Schwabs expansion, in September 1975, Schwab opened its first branch in Sacramento, California. It expanded across the state and cut its expenses by very heavy emphasis on automation, in 1981, Bank of America offered Schwab $53 million in stock for his 37 percent ownership. He sold, but remained as president of a semi-autonomous unit, at this point the unit had annual sales of $41 million,600 employees, and 220,000 customers through 40 branches. Expansion was rapid, reaching 1.6 million customers in 1986, Bank of America, however, had its own separate severe problems, and its stock plunged
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U.S. Steel
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The United States Steel Corporation, more commonly known as U. S. Steel, is an American integrated steel producer with major production operations in the United States, Canada, and Central Europe. The company was the worlds 15th largest steel producer in 2014, at one time, U. S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. It was capitalized at $1.4 billion, making it the worlds first billion-dollar corporation, the company headquarters was established in 1901 in the Empire Building, purchased from the estate of Orlando B. Potter for $5 million. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor, the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company and this led to Tennessee Coals being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U. S. Steel in 1911, in its first full year of operation, U. S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. One hundred years later, its shipments accounted for only about 8 percent of domestic consumption, the Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street, always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production, because of heavy debts taken on at the companys formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U. S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U. S, Steels former first president, Charles M. Schwab. Steels share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, james A. Farrell was named president in 1911 and served until 1932. U. S. Steel ranked 16th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, production peaked at more than 35 million tons in 1953. Its employment was greatest in 1943 when it had more than 340,000 employees, by 2000, however, the federal government has also intervened on other occasions to try to control U. S. Steel. President Harry S. Truman attempted to take over its steel mills in 1952 to resolve a crisis with its union, the United Steelworkers of America. The Supreme Court blocked the takeover by ruling that the president did not have the authority to seize the mills (see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. President John F. Kennedy was more successful in 1962 when he pressured the industry into reversing price increases that Kennedy considered dangerously inflationary. In the early days of the Reagan Administration, steel firms won substantial tax breaks in order to deal with imported goods, instead of modernizing their mills, steel companies shifted capital out of steel and into more profitable areas. In March 1982, U. S. Steel took its concessions and paid $1.4 billion in cash and $4.7 billion in loans for Marathon Oil, saving approximately $500 million in taxes through the merger. The architect of tax concessions to steel firms, Senator Arlen Specter, complained that we go out on a limb in Congress, the incident is the subject of a song by folk singer Anne Feeney. U. S. Steel finally acquired National Steels assets in 2003 after National Steel went bankrupt, as part of its diversification plan U. S. Steel acquired Marathon Oil on January 7,1982, as well as Texas Oil and Gas several years later
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United States Shipbuilding Company
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The United States Shipbuilding Company was a short-lived trust made up of seven shipbuilding companies, a property owner and steel company. Its stocks and bonds were unattractive to investors, and several of its member shipyards were overvalued, the company’s failure enabled Bethlehem Steel to become Bethlehem Shipbuilding & Steel Company. At the turn of the 20th century, John Willard Young, the United States Shipbuilding Company was the manifestation of that idea. Under that idea, the enterprises central designing office would apportion the shipbuilding work to the yards best able to take it, although American shipbuilding was not considered a highly profitable venture, the political environment seemed right for improvement. A renowned naval architect and public servant, Lewis Nixon, was chosen to lead the venture, unfortunately, however, the one thing lacked, individually and collectively, was a realistic prospect of earning sustained profits. Financially the corporation failed almost immediately. ”Young first obtained an option to purchase the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, then approached Nixon, Nixon agreed to work with Young in forming the proposed combination, and granted him an option on his own plant. They then obtained options to purchase other shipbuilding companies, a news dispatch of that date described the proposed combination. It described a combination that would include Union Iron Works, Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, Hyde Windlass Co. Crescent Shipyard, Samuel J. Moore & Sons Co. of Elizabethport, New Jersey, Canda Manufacturing Co. of Carteret, New Jersey, all but Canda Manufacturing were shipyards, and Canda reportedly owned a prime location near Staten Island for construction of a new shipyard. Three months later, it was announced that the new corporation would be launched in a few days. Ultimately, Vickers stayed out of the venture, in September 1901, while the USSC was still just a concept, Roosevelt replaced the assassinated President McKinley. Meanwhile, federal shipyard subsidy legislation stalled in Congress, in fact, incorporation had not yet occurred, and the board had not yet been constituted. Once the company was organized several months later, only four of those mentioned in the prospectus as directors ever served as directors, the prospectus also stated that the plants were earning $2.25 million for a year and had abundant facilities for additional work and increased earnings. With little cash to offer for Bethlehem, the promoters instead proposed to pay for the acquisition with $7.2 million in cash, the cash came from Schwab, who furnished it on conditions that were highly favorable to him. In August 1902 USSC purchased the Union, Bath, Hyde Windlass, Crescent, Moore, Eastern, Harlan & Hollingsworth shipyards, the Canda Manufacturing company, and the capital stock of Bethlehem Steel. The par value of these transactions totaled $69.5 million – yet the value of the companies was appraised at less than $12.5 million. The goal of organizing a huge trust had been accomplished, but the result was doomed to fail, the promoters were immediately forced to personally borrow $1.5 million from New York banks, to make up for cash that never arrived from foreign subscribers. USSC’s problems brought down the Trust Company of the Republic, which had placed its own future on the line when arranging USSC’s financing, by purchasing the largest share of bonds
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