1.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
2.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
3.
Bhutan
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Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in Asia and the smallest state located entirely within the Himalaya mountain range. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bordered by China in the north, Bhutan lacks a border with nearby Nepal due to the Indian state of Sikkim and with Bangladesh due to the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. Bhutan is geopolitically in South Asia and is the second least populous nation after the Maldives. Thimphu is its capital and largest city, while Phuntsholing is its financial center, the independence of Bhutan has endured for centuries and the territory was never colonized in its history. Situated on the ancient Silk Road between Tibet, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the Bhutanese state developed a national identity based on Buddhism. Headed by a leader known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, the territory was composed of many fiefdoms. Following a civil war in the 19th century, the House of Wangchuck reunited the country, Bhutan fostered a strategic partnership with India during the rise of Chinese communism and has a disputed border with the Peoples Republic of China. The King of Bhutan is known as the Dragon King, Bhutan is also notable for pioneering the concept of gross national happiness. The countrys landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the sub-alpine Himalayan mountains in the north. The highest mountain in Bhutan is the Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. There is also diverse wildlife in Bhutan, in South Asia, Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom, ease of doing business and peace, second in per capita income and is the least corrupt country, as of 2016. However, Bhutan continues to be a least developed country, hydroelectricity accounts for the major share of its exports. The government is a parliamentary democracy, Bhutan maintains diplomatic relations with 52 countries and the European Union, but does not have formal ties with the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Royal Bhutan Army maintains extensive military relations with the Indian Armed Forces. The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym Bod used for Tibet. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta end of Tibet, since the 17th century the official name of Bhutan has been Druk yul and Bhutan only appears in English-language official correspondence. Names similar to Bhutan — including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan, jean-Baptiste Taverniers 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan. However, in case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan
4.
Indian rupee
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The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
5.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
6.
Fixed exchange-rate system
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There are benefits and risks to using a fixed exchange rate. In doing so, the rate between the currency and its peg does not change based on market conditions, the way floating currencies do. A fixed exchange-rate system can also be used as a means to control the behavior of a currency, however, in doing so, the pegged currency is then controlled by its reference value. In other words, a currency is dependent on its reference value to dictate how its current worth is defined at any given time. The central bank provides the assets and/or the foreign currency or currencies which are needed in order to any payments imbalances. In the 21st century, the associated with large economies typically do not fix or peg exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange system was the Peoples Republic of China which, in July 2005. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a basis to establish a final conversion rate against the Euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone. The gold standard or gold standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914. The period between the two wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs, the early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates. Timeline of the exchange rate system, The earliest establishment of a gold standard was in the United Kingdom in 1821 followed by Australia in 1852. Under this system, the value of all currencies was denominated in terms of gold with central banks ready to buy. Each central bank maintained gold reserves as their official reserve asset, for example, during the “classical” gold standard period, the U. S. dollar was defined as 0.048 troy oz. of pure gold. Following the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system replaced gold with the U. S. dollar as the reserve asset. The regime intended to combine binding legal obligations with multilateral decision-making through the International Monetary Fund, the rules of this system were set forth in the articles of agreement of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. S. Dollar and to exchange rates within 1% of parity by intervening in their foreign exchange markets. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce
7.
Tibetan alphabet
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The Tibetan alphabet is an abugida used to write the Tibetic languages such as Tibetan, as well as Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, and sometimes Balti. The printed form of the alphabet is called uchen script while the cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. The alphabet is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in Tibet, Bhutan, India. The Tibetan alphabet is of Indic origin and it is ancestral to the Limbu alphabet, the Lepcha alphabet, the creation of the Tibetan alphabet is attributed to Thonmi Sambhota of the mid-7th century. Tradition holds that Thonmi Sambhota, a minister of Songtsen Gampo, was sent to India to study the art of writing, the form of the letters is based on an Indic alphabet of that period. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects, in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa and this divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan as it is pronounced, for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka-rgyud. In contrast, the pronunciation of the Balti, Ladakhi and Burig languages adheres more closely to the archaic spelling, in the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek, since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, spaces are not used to divide words. The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as radicals, as in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel, in the Tibetan script its ཨ /a/. The alphabet ཨ /a/ is also the base for dependent vowels marks, although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the scripts invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features they can usually be predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words. The unique aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be either as radicals, or they can be written in other forms. To understand how this works, one can look at the radical ཀ /ka/, in both cases, the symbol for ཀ /ka/ is used, but when the ར /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the ར /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, ར /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus རྐ rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster རྙ /rnya/, similarly, the consonants ཝ /wa/, ར /ra/, and ཡ /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus ཀྭ /kwa/, ཀྲ /kra/, ཀྱ /kja/. Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, the third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants ད /tʰa/ and ས /sa/. The superscript position above a radical is reserved for the consonants ར /ra/, ལ /la/, the vowels used in the alphabet are ཨ /a/, ཨི /i/, ཨུ /u/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/
8.
Dzongkha
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Dzongkha, or Bhutanese, is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by over half a million people in Bhutan, it is the sole official and national language of the Kingdom of Bhutan. The Tibetan alphabet is used to write Dzongkha, the word dzongkha means the language of the district, kha is language, and dzong is district. District-like dzong architecture characterises monasteries, established throughout Bhutan by its unifier, Ngawang Namgyal, 1st Zhabdrung Rinpoche, as of 2013, Dzongkha had 171,080 native speakers and about 640,000 total speakers. Dzongkha and its dialects are the native tongue of eight districts of Bhutan. There are also some speakers found near the Indian town of Kalimpong, once part of Bhutan, Dzongkha was declared as the national language of Bhutan in 1971. Dzongkha study is mandatory in all schools in Bhutan, and the language is the lingua franca in the districts to the south, the 2003 Bhutanese film Travellers and Magicians is entirely in Dzongkha. The Tibetan alphabet used to write Dzongkha has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as radicals, Dzongkha is usually written in Bhutanese forms of the Uchen script, forms of the Tibetan alphabet known as Jôyi cursive longhand and Jôtshum formal longhand. The print form is simply as Tshûm. There are various ways of Romanization and transliteration systems for Dzongkha, the phonetic transliteration was developed by the linguist George van Driem. Dzongkha is usually described as having three tones, high, medium and low, however, in monosyllabic words, each tone can occur with two distinct contours. The unaspirated stops /p/, /t/, /c/, and /k/ typically become voiced in the low tone and are pronounced, the sounds are regarded as allophones. Similarly, the stops, and are typically lightly aspirated in the low tone. The dialect of the social strata in Lhasa does not use voiced stops in the low tone. The alveolar trill is in distribution of the alveolar approximant, therefore. The voiceless alveolar lateral approximant resembles the voiceless lateral fricative found in languages such as Welsh. The consonants /m/, /ŋ/, /p/, /r/, /l/, the Classical Tibetan final /n/ is still present, but its modern pronunciation is normally realized as a nasalisation of the preceding vowel, rather than as a discrete consonant. However, /k/ is not pronounced in the position of a word except in very formal speech. Also, syllable-final /r/ and /l/ are often not clearly pronounced but realized as a lengthening of the preceding vowel
9.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
10.
Cooch Behar
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Cooch Behar (/ˌkuːtʃ bᵻˈhɑːr/ is the district headquarters of the Cooch Behar District in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas at 26°22′N 89°29′E, Cooch Behar is the only planned town in North Bengal region with remnants of royal heritage. One of the main tourist destinations in West Bengal, it is the location of the Cooch Behar Palace and it is the maternal home of Maharani Gayatri Devi. During the British Raj, Cooch Behar was the seat of the state of Koch Bihar. After 20 August 1949, Cooch Behar District was transformed from a state to its present status. The name Cooch Behar is derived from the name of the Koch or Rajbongshi tribes indigenous to this region for many centuries, the word behar is derived from Sanskrit, विहार vihara. Cooch Behar formed part of the Kamarupa Kingdom from the 4th to the 12th centuries, in the 12th century, the area became a part of the Kamata Kingdom, first ruled by the Khen dynasty from their capital at Kamatapur. The Khens were a tribe, and they ruled till about 1498 CE, when they fell to Alauddin Hussain Shah. The new invaders fought with the local Bhuyan chieftains and the Ahom king Suhungmung, during this time, the Koch tribe became very powerful and proclaimed itself Kamateshwar and established the Koch dynasty. The first important Koch ruler was Biswa Singha, who came to power in 1510 or 1530 CE, under his son, Nara Narayan, the Kamata Kingdom reached its zenith. Nara Narayans younger brother, Shukladhwaj, was a military general who undertook expeditions to expand the kingdom. He became governor of its eastern portion, after Chilarais death, his son Raghudev became governor of this portion. Since Nara Narayan did not have a son, Raghudev was seen as the heir apparent, However, a late child of Nara Narayan removed Raghudevs claim to the throne. To placate him, Nara Narayan had to anoint Raghudev as a chief of the portion of the kingdom east of the Sankosh river. This area came to be known as Koch Hajo, after the death of Nara Narayan in 1584, Raghudev declared independence. The kingdom ruled by the son of Nara Narayan, Lakshmi Narayan, the division of the Kamata Kingdom into Koch Behar and Koch Hajo was permanent. As the early capital of the Koch Kingdom, Cooch Behars location was not static, Maharaja Rup Narayan, on the advice of an unknown saint, transferred the capital from Attharokotha to Guriahati on the banks of the Torsa river between 1693 and 1714. After this, the capital was always in or near its present location, in 1661 CE, Maharaja Pran Narayan planned to expand his kingdom
11.
Naya paisa
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Indian paisa is 1⁄100 subdivision of the Indian rupee. The paisa was first introduced on 1 April 1957 after decimalisation of the Indian rupee, as of 30 June 2011, except for 50 paisa coins, all other paisa coins had been demonetized. In 1955, the Government of India first amended the Indian Coinage Act, from 1957 to 1964, the Paisa was called Naya Paisa and on 1 June 1964, the term Naya was dropped and the denomination was named Paisa. Paisa has been issued in 1,2,3,5,10,20,25 and 50 paisa coins, prior to 1957, Indian rupee was not decimalised and the rupee from 1835 to 1957 was further divided into 16 annas. Each anna was further divided to four Indian pices and each pice into three Indian pies till 1947 when the pie was demonetized, no mintmark = Kolkata ♦ = Mumbai mint B = Mumbai Proof issues * = Hyderabad ° = Noida Paisa History of the rupee
12.
Cupro-nickel
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Cupronickel is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. Despite its high content, cupronickel is silver in colour. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater because its potential is adjusted to be neutral with regard to seawater. Another common use of cupronickel is in silver-coloured modern-circulated coins, a typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. In the past, true silver coins were debased with cupronickel, Cupronickel alloys are used for marine applications due to their resistance to seawater corrosion, good fabricability, and their effectiveness in lowering macrofouling levels. Alloys ranging in composition from 90% Cu–10% Ni to 70% Cu–30% Ni are commonly specified in heat exchanger or condenser tubes in a variety of marine applications. Desalination plants, Cupronickel alloys are used in brine heaters, heat rejection and recovery, offshore oil and gas platforms and processing and FPSO vessels, Cupronickel alloys are used in systems and splash zone sheathings. Power generation, Cupronickel alloys are used in steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear, seawater system design, Cupronickel alloys are used in tubular heat exchangers and condensers, piping and high pressure systems. Seawater system components, Cupronickel alloys are used in condenser and heat exchanger tubes, tubesheets, piping, fittings, pumps, in Europe, Switzerland pioneered the nickel billon coinage in 1850, with the addition of silver. In 1968, Switzerland adopted the far cheaper 75,25 copper to nickel ratio then being used by the Belgians, the United States, and Germany. From 1947 to 2012, all “silver” coinage in the UK was made from cupronickel, prior to these dates, both denominations had been made only in silver in the United States. Cupronickel is the cladding on either side of United States half-dollars since 1971, currently, some circulating coins, such as the United States Jefferson nickel, the Swiss franc, and the South Korean 500 and 100 won are made of solid cupronickel. Single-core thermocouple cables use a single pair of thermocouple conductors such as iron-constantan. These have the element of constantan or nickel-chromium alloy within a sheath of copper. Cupronickel is used in cryogenic applications, beginning around the turn of the 20th century, bullet jackets were commonly made from this material. It was soon replaced with gilding metal to reduce fouling in the bore. Currently, cupronickel remains the basic material for silver-plated cutlery and it is commonly used for mechanical and electrical equipment, medical equipment, zippers, jewelry items, and as material for strings for string instruments. Fender Musical Instruments used CuNiFe magnets in their Wide Range Humbucker pickup for various Telecaster and Starcaster guitars during the 1970s, for high-quality cylinder locks and locking systems, cylinder cores are made from wear-resistant cupronickel
13.
Politics of Bhutan
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The Government of Bhutan has been a constitutional monarchy since 18 July 2008. Between 1907 and the 1950s, Bhutan was an absolute monarchy, the King of Bhutan is head of state. Executive power is exercised by the Lhengye Zhungtshog, or council of ministers, legislative power is vested in the bicameral Parliament, both the upper National Council and the lower National Assembly. A royal edict issued on April 22,2007 lifted the ban on political parties, ordering that they be created. In 2008, Bhutan adopted its first modern Constitution, codifying the institutions of government, the Bhutanese people have historically never had doubts about their nations sovereignty. Bhutan in fact has never been colonized, however, to the outside world, namely India and before that the British Raj, Bhutan was viewed as less than sovereign for their own geopolitical interests. Bhutan was treated as a suzerainty by the British Raj, during which time the present monarchy was established, foreign and defence policy was to be decided by the British according to the 1910 Treaty of Punakha. This did not mean so much to the Bhutanese, however, in 1949, after Indian independence, Bhutan and India agreed to a ten-article, perpetual treaty which effectively continued the relationship, but with India taking the place of the United Kingdom. That is, India agreed not to interfere in Bhutans internal relations, the treaty also established free trade and full extradition between the two countries. Article 2 of the 1949 treaty has mostly ignored by both countries as Bhutan confidently handles all of its foreign affairs, including the sensitive border demarcation talks with China. The secular and religious branches of government are unified in the person of the Druk Gyalpo, the trichotomy of secular government is not absolute. There are many independent commissions, agencies, and institutions that operate outside this framework, such as the Royal Monetary Authority. There are also agencies whose members are drawn more than one branch of government. The legislative branch itself oversees devolved local governments, Bhutans head of state is the Druk Gyalpo. Prior to 2008, a similar abdication process existed under which the unicameral National Assembly, the Je Khenpo is the highest religious official of Bhutan and head of the Dratshang Lhentshog. He is typically viewed as the closest and most powerful advisor to the King of Bhutan, the 70th and present Je Khenpo is Jigme Chhoeda. Bhutans head of government is its Prime Minister, the Prime Minister is nominated by the party that wins the most seats in the National Assembly and heads the executive cabinet, called the Lhengye Zhungtshog. In 1998, the executive powers were transferred to the Council of Ministers
14.
Economy of Bhutan
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The economy of Bhutan, one of the worlds smallest and least developed countries, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for more than 60% of the population. Agriculture consists largely of farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult, the economy is closely aligned with Indias through strong trade and monetary links and dependence on Indias financial assistance. Most production in the sector is of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as construction, rely on Indian migrant labour. Model education, social, and environment programs are underway with support from multilateral development organisations, each economic program takes into account the governments desire to protect the countrys environment and cultural traditions. For example, the government, in its cautious expansion of the tourist sector, encourages visits by upscale, detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas such as industrial licensing, trade, labour, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment. Hydropower exports to India have boosted Bhutans overall growth, even though GDP fell in 2008 as a result of a slowdown in India, its predominant export market. This is a chart of trend of gross product of Bhutan at market prices by the International Monetary Fund, Bhutans hydropower potential. The Bhutanese Government has made progress in expanding the nations productive base. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organisations, each economic program takes into account the governments desire to protect the countrys environment and cultural traditions. For example, the government, in its cautious expansion of the tourist sector, encourages visits by upscale, detailed controls and uncertain policies in such areas as industrial licensing, trade, labour, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment. In 2004, Bhutan became the first country in the world to ban smoking and this article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State website http, //www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm. Global Economic Prospects, Growth Prospects for South Asia The World Bank,13 December 2006
15.
Silver
–
Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
16.
Hindi
–
Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
17.
Vajra
–
Vajra is a Sanskrit word meaning both thunderbolt and diamond. Additionally, it is a weapon won in battle which is used as an object to symbolize both the properties of a diamond and a thunderbolt. The vajra is essentially a type of club with a spherical head. The ribs may meet in a top, or they may be separate. The use of the vajra as a symbolic and ritual tool spread from India along with Indian religion and culture to other parts of Asia. According to Asko Parpola, the Sanskrit Vajra- and Avestan Vazra- both refer to a weapon of the Godhead, and are possibly from the Proto-Indo-European root *weg- which means to be powerful, the earliest mention of the vajra is in the Rigveda, part of the four Vedas. It is described as the weapon of Indra, the chief among Gods, Indra is described as using the vajra to kill sinners and ignorant persons. The Rigveda states that the weapon was made for Indra by Tvastar, the associated story describes Indra using the vajra, which he held in his hand, to slay the asura Vritra, who took the form of a serpent. On account of his skill in wielding the vajra, some used for Indra in the Rigveda were Vajrabhrit, Vajrivat or Vajrin, Vajradaksina. The association of the Vajra with Indra was continued with some modifications in the later Puranic literature, buddhaghoṣa, a major figure of Theravada Buddhism in the 5th century, identified the Bodhisattva Vajrapani with Indra. Many later puranas describe the vajra, with the modified from the Rigvedic original. One major addition involves the role of the Sage Dadhichi, according to one account, Indra, the king of the deva was once driven out of devaloka by an asura named Vritra. Indra, who had lost all hope of recovering his kingdom was said to have approached Shiva who could not help him, Indra along with Shiva and Brahma went to seek the aid of Vishnu. Vishnu revealed to Indra that only the weapon made from the bones of Dadhichi would defeat Vritra, Indra and the other deva therefore approached the sage, whom Indra had once beheaded, and asked him for his aid in defeating Vritra. Dadhichi acceded to the devas request but said that he wished that he had time to go on a pilgrimage to all the rivers before he gave up his life for them. Indra then brought all the waters of the holy rivers to Naimisha Forest. Dadhichi is then said to have given up his life by the art of yoga after which the gods fashioned the vajrayudha from his spine and this weapon was then used to defeat the asura, allowing Indra to reclaim his place as the king of devaloka. Another version of the story exists where Dadhichi was asked to safeguard the weapons of the gods as they were unable to match the arcane arts being employed by the asura to obtain them
18.
Jigme Singye Wangchuck
–
Jigme Singye Wangchuck was the King of Bhutan from 1972 until his abdication in favour of his eldest son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, in 2006. He is credited with many reforms in the country and reigned through the ethnic cleansing in Bhutan. Jigme Singye Wangchuck was born at Dechencholing Palace, Thimphu on 11 November 1955, to Jigme Dorji Wangchuck and Ashi Kesang Choden Wangchuck. At the age of four, sometime in 1959, the young Crown Prince received the offerings of good wishes and respects by the public, monks, Wangchuck received western and traditional learning in various institutions. He began studying at Dechencholing Palace, when he was six years old, soon afterwards, he went to study at St Josephs College, Darjeeling, in India. In 1964, he attended Heatherdown Prep School in England where he completed his studies in 1969, the next phase of his formal education took place at Namselling Palace in 1969. Finally, he attended Ugyen Wangchuck Academy at Satsham Choten in Paro, in 1971, Wangchucks father appointed Wangchuck as the Chairman of Planning Commission, charged with the planning and co-ordination of the five year development plan. The following year, on June 16,1972, he was made the Tongsa Penlop bestowing on him directly the yellow scarf or namza, the 3rd Five-Year Plan, which spanned the period 1971-77, was in progress when his father died. Wangchuck was 16 at that time,1972 to 1976 was the period of the 3rd FYP, and 1976 to 1981 was the period of 4th FYP. In a public ceremony, the Royal Wedding of Wangchuck was held in Dechog Lhakhang in Punakha Dzong on 31 October 1988, previously, they had married privately in 1979. In his Coronation Address on June 2,1974, Jigme Singye stressed the need to attain self-reliance and preserve Bhutan’s sovereignty and he also stressed that any development undertaking should be a genuine collaboration between the people and the government. During the 1970s, immediate aims for rural households unfolded in terms of intensive valley projects, cash crops cultivation, especially potatoes – irrigation, enhancing the income and livelihood of the rural people were the main focus of the 3rd and 4th FYPs. Soon after he acceded to the throne, Jigme Singye launched the Tashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Development Projects in 1972 and these projects were part of a larger vision of food self-sufficiency and income generation. Encouraged by the achievements in the Tashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Projects, similar projects were replicated in Mongar. These projects were also sites of experimental and participatory decision making and it led to the formation of Dzongkhag Yargay Tshogchungs, which brought the chimis, gups and officials to prepare plans together. By 1981, Tashigang and Tsirang had fully functional DYTs, beginning with the large-scale production in Khaling and Chapcha, potatoes become a key export crop, reaching 60,000 tonnes, grown by over 10,725 households by 2006. In southern Bhutan, the focus was on growing citrus fruits, for example, in 1977, the King encouraged the people of Dagana to start cardamom and orange plantations. The social and economic indicators point towards sub-ordinate goals, not ultimate goals which was to be measured from a holistic, happiness and contentment became the ultimate yardstick of progress
19.
Jigme Dorji Wangchuck
–
Jigme Dorji Wangchuck was the Third Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan. He began to open Bhutan to the world, began modernization. His Majesty King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck was born in 1929 in Thruepang Palace in Tongsa (also spelled Trongsa, at a young age, he was apprenticed in etiquette and leadership at the royal court of his father the King. In 1943, he was appointed Tongsa Dronyer and then elevated as Paro Penlop in 1950, upon the death of Paro Penlop and his Majesty married Ashi Kesang Choden Wangchuck, the daughter of Gongzim Sonam Tobgay, in 1951. The royal wedding was held in Paro Garden Palace, the following year, His Majesty became the King after his father died in Kuenga Rabten Palace. Coronation was held in Punakha dzong on 27 October 1952, during his 20-year reign that ended in June 1972, the fundamental reorientation of Bhutanese society began. His Majesty not only achieved the reorganisation of society and government and he mobilised resources from the international donors as aid. His Majestys strategy was to broaden the source of aid by developing relationships with other countries, Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan in 1962 to obtain international aid. However, India became the source of financial and technical assistance. He was a deft and farsighted planner in the sense that he modernised Bhutan without destabilizing its culture and his Majesty brought modern techniques and methods to preserve and promote culture of Bhutan, yet at the same time, he introduced Western science and technology. He was a forerunner among environmentalists in this part of the world, the Manas Sanctuary established in 1966 was one of the first in the region. In the context of Bhutan, there were groups who were bonded labourers. They would work on the farms of the aristocratic and prominent families, in return, they would receive food, lodging and clothes. As soon as he became the King, labourers who worked on the lands were made into tenants. Later, similar indentured labourers were set free in other areas of the country, especially in parts of Eastern Bhutan. In 1953, His Majesty, realising that hitherto the decision of the King, as a result, His Majesty opened the National Assembly of Bhutan in 1953 in Punakha dzong. For the first time elders from different gewogs were invited to voice their concerns, ideas, at the same time, it was a forum for His Majesty to share his larger vision for Bhutan in the years to come. After the National Assembly was established in 1953, the drafted and devised a series of progressive laws for the Kingdom
20.
Ugyen Wangchuck
–
Gongsa Ugyen Wangchuck was the first Druk Gyalpo from 1907–1926. In his lifetime he made efforts to unite the country. Ugyen Wangchuck was born in Wangdicholing Palace in 1862 and died in 1926 in Phodrang Thinley Rapten, both of these places are in Choekhor valley in Bumthang. King Ugyen Wangchuck was a statesman and strategist. He was also a practitioner, particularly during his later years. He was apprenticed at the court of Desi Jigme Namgyal in the art of leadership, because he grew up in an embattled period, Ugyen Wangchuck was trained as a skilled combatant. At the age of 17, he headed his troops in the battle against Paro Ponlop Tshewang Norbu, when Ugyen Wangchuck was barely 21, his father Desi Jigme Namgyel died, leaving him to strike his own role as a leader in the country. In 1885, following the death of his father, when he was 23 years old, Bhutan had been ruled under 57 successive Druk Desis for 256 years until Buddhist monarchy was established. Ugyen Wangchuck founded the monarchy in 1907, although he had more or less the actual ruler for almost a decade. In British records, he is referred as the Tongsa Penlop – the ruler of Bhutan, a legal document on the institution of monarchy was attested with signet-rings and thumbprints, on that day. British political officer, Sir Claude White, represented the British government at the enthronement ceremony, since that day,17 December is celebrated as the National Day of Bhutan. Ugyen Wangchuck, then Tongsa Penlop, joined the Younghusband Expedition to Tibet in 1904 and his next official visit abroad took place in 1906 when he travelled to Kolkata to meet the Prince of Wales. Penlop Ugyen Wangchuck was not yet formally the King, but the role he took clearly suggests that he was indeed the ruler for all practical purpose for many years before he was crowned King in 1907. The British Political Officer for Bhutan was Sir John Claude White until 1908 when he was succeeded by Charles Alfred Bell. John Claude White developed a respect for King Ugyen Wangchuck. He was upright, honest, open and straightforward, White also took the photographs at the Kings 1907 coronation. His Majesty King Ugyen Wangchuck was acutely conscious that Bhutan must to be protected through times of regional conflict and his Majesty was exquisitely farsighted in updating the treaty of 1865 in 1910, with an additional clause. The new clause was that Bhutan would consult British India in its dealing with third countries, the clause was drawn up in the context of the British suspicion about the influence of the Chinese and Russians in Tibet, and beyond
21.
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck
–
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is the fifth and current reigning Druk Gyalpo or Dragon King of the Kingdom of Bhutan. After his father Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicated the throne in his favour, a public coronation ceremony was held on 1 November 2008, an auspicious year that marked 100 years of monarchy in Bhutan. Khesar is the eldest son of the fourth Dragon King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck and he has a younger sister, Princess Dechen Yangzom, and brother, Prince Jigme Dorji, as well as four half-sisters and three half-brothers. He also did a course at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, the Crown Prince, popularly known to the people of Bhutan as Dasho Khesar, accompanied his father in his many tours throughout the Kingdom to meet and speak to the people. He also officially represented Bhutan on several international events and he attended Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadejs 60th Anniversary Celebrations on 12–13 June 2006 in Bangkok along with royals from 25 countries. The youngest of the royals, the 26-year-old prince caused a sensation. The Thai press dubbed him Prince Charming, publishing his photograph, on 25 June 2002, the Crown Prince was awarded the Red Scarf by his father. On 31 October 2004, Khesar was installed as the Trongsa Penlop in Trongsa Dzong, in December 2005, the King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced his intention to abdicate in his sons favour in 2008, and that he would begin handing over responsibility to him immediately. Religious ceremonies and public celebrations were held at Tashichhodzong and Changlimithang in Thimphu. The coronation ceremony comprised an ancient and colourful ritual, attended by thousands of dignitaries, including the then-President of India. CNN reported that, to welcome Khesar as King of Bhutan, people painted street signs, hung festive banners and his Majesty received the white, yellow, red, green, and blue silk scarves. As he opened the session of parliament on Friday,20 May 2011 and they were married on 13 October 2011 in Punakha Dzong. The royal wedding was Bhutans largest media event in history, the royal wedding ceremony was held in Punakha followed by formal visits to different parts of the country. The wedding was held in traditional style with the blessings of the guardian deities, on 11 November 2015, it was announced that the King and Queen of Bhutan were expecting their first child, a son, early in 2016. The king and queen announced, via their Facebook page, the arrival of their son, HRH The Gyalsey, Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck. He stated that the responsibility of generation of Bhutanese was to ensure the success of democracy. He traveled extensively to explain and discuss the Draft Constitution of Bhutan with the people, the King signed a new treaty of friendship with India in February 2007, replacing the treaty of 1949. Many government initiatives were undertaken by the new King with a view to strengthen the system in preparation for the changes in 2008
22.
Raven Crown
–
The Raven Crown is worn by the Kings of Bhutan. It is a hat surmounted by the head of a raven, the hereditary monarchy of the Wangchuk dynasty in the independent Himalayan State of Bhutan was established in 1907. The first king of the Wangchuk dynasty, Sir Ugyen Wangchuck, was a figure who came to power against a turbulent background of incessant. He adopted as the symbol of his authority a crown surmounted by the head of a raven. The bird represents a form of Mahakala, Bhutans guardian deity, the prototype of the founding monarchs Raven Crown had first been devised as a battle helmet for his father, Jigme Namgyel. Known as the Black Regent, he had worn it in bloody struggles against his rivals within the country and against the British who tried, unsuccessfully. The story of the Wangchuck dynastys rise and triumph moves from a picture of turmoil and chaos to one of relative peace, the Raven Crown today is the official crown worn by the Kings of Bhutan. The Raven is the bird of Bhutan. The raven is known locally as Jaroq, at one time it was a capital crime to kill a raven in Bhutan. His Majesty Ugyen Wangchuck His Majesty Jigme Wangchuck His Majesty Jigme Dorji Wangchuck His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck His Majesty Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Aris, Raven Crown, The Origins of Buddhist Monarchy in Bhutan
23.
Jigme Singye Wangchuk
–
Jigme Singye Wangchuck was the King of Bhutan from 1972 until his abdication in favour of his eldest son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, in 2006. He is credited with many reforms in the country and reigned through the ethnic cleansing in Bhutan. Jigme Singye Wangchuck was born at Dechencholing Palace, Thimphu on 11 November 1955, to Jigme Dorji Wangchuck and Ashi Kesang Choden Wangchuck. At the age of four, sometime in 1959, the young Crown Prince received the offerings of good wishes and respects by the public, monks, Wangchuck received western and traditional learning in various institutions. He began studying at Dechencholing Palace, when he was six years old, soon afterwards, he went to study at St Josephs College, Darjeeling, in India. In 1964, he attended Heatherdown Prep School in England where he completed his studies in 1969, the next phase of his formal education took place at Namselling Palace in 1969. Finally, he attended Ugyen Wangchuck Academy at Satsham Choten in Paro, in 1971, Wangchucks father appointed Wangchuck as the Chairman of Planning Commission, charged with the planning and co-ordination of the five year development plan. The following year, on June 16,1972, he was made the Tongsa Penlop bestowing on him directly the yellow scarf or namza, the 3rd Five-Year Plan, which spanned the period 1971-77, was in progress when his father died. Wangchuck was 16 at that time,1972 to 1976 was the period of the 3rd FYP, and 1976 to 1981 was the period of 4th FYP. In a public ceremony, the Royal Wedding of Wangchuck was held in Dechog Lhakhang in Punakha Dzong on 31 October 1988, previously, they had married privately in 1979. In his Coronation Address on June 2,1974, Jigme Singye stressed the need to attain self-reliance and preserve Bhutan’s sovereignty and he also stressed that any development undertaking should be a genuine collaboration between the people and the government. During the 1970s, immediate aims for rural households unfolded in terms of intensive valley projects, cash crops cultivation, especially potatoes – irrigation, enhancing the income and livelihood of the rural people were the main focus of the 3rd and 4th FYPs. Soon after he acceded to the throne, Jigme Singye launched the Tashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Development Projects in 1972 and these projects were part of a larger vision of food self-sufficiency and income generation. Encouraged by the achievements in the Tashigang and Tsirang Intensive Valley Projects, similar projects were replicated in Mongar. These projects were also sites of experimental and participatory decision making and it led to the formation of Dzongkhag Yargay Tshogchungs, which brought the chimis, gups and officials to prepare plans together. By 1981, Tashigang and Tsirang had fully functional DYTs, beginning with the large-scale production in Khaling and Chapcha, potatoes become a key export crop, reaching 60,000 tonnes, grown by over 10,725 households by 2006. In southern Bhutan, the focus was on growing citrus fruits, for example, in 1977, the King encouraged the people of Dagana to start cardamom and orange plantations. The social and economic indicators point towards sub-ordinate goals, not ultimate goals which was to be measured from a holistic, happiness and contentment became the ultimate yardstick of progress
24.
Jetsun Pema
–
Queen Jetsun Pema is the queen consort of Bhutan, as the wife of King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Jetsun Pema was born in Thimphu on 4 June 1990 and her father, Dhondup Gyaltshen is the grandson of two Trashigang Dzongpon, Thinley Topgay and Ugyen Thsering. Her mother, Aum Sonam Chuki, comes from the family of Bumthang Pangtey, Sonam Chukis father was a half-brother of two queens consorts of Bhutan, Phuntsho Choden and her sister Pema Dechen. This makes the King and Queen of Bhutan second half-cousins once removed, Jetsun Pema is the second eldest of five children. Her four siblings include, two brothers, Thinlay Norbu and Jigme Namgyal and two sisters, Serchen Doma and Yeatso Lhamo, Jetsun Pemas early education took place in Thimphu at the Little Dragon School, the Sunshine School and finally the Changangkha Lower Secondary School. She then received a convent education at St. Josephs Convent in Kalimpong, West Bengal, India and she joined Lawrence as a Class-XI student and chose to study English, history, geography, economics and painting. She completed her Higher Secondary education on 31 March 2008 and she then began her tertiary education by enrolling at Regents College in London, where she graduated international relations with psychology and art history as minor subjects. On 20 May 2011, during the opening of the Parliaments seventh session, after much thought I have decided that the wedding shall be later this year. Describing Jetsun Pema, he said Now, many will have their own idea of what a Queen should be like – that she should be beautiful, intelligent. I think with experience and time, one can grow into a person in any walk of life with the right effort. For the Queen, what is most important is that at all times, as an individual she must be a human being. As my queen, I have found such a person and her name is Jetsun Pema, while she is young, she is warm and kind in heart and character. These qualities together with the wisdom that will come with age, the couple married on 13 October 2011, at Punakha Dzong. The royal wedding ceremony was held first in Punakha, followed by a celebration in Thimphu. During the ceremony, the King bestowed the Crown of the Druk Gyaltsuen on her, the wedding was held in traditional style with the blessings of the guardian deities. Although Bhutan allows polygamy, the said that he would never marry another woman. For their wedding, the Netherlands sent the royal couple tulips, following her marriage to the King, Jetsun Pema has joined him on several visits abroad to, India, Singapore, Japan and the United Kingdom. Jetsun Pema accompanied Jigme Khesar on several of his Royal Visits to various parts of Bhutan before the Wedding, the Royal Visits on road through the country involves meeting and interacting with as many local people, students and public servants as possible
25.
Standard Catalog of World Coins
–
The Standard Catalog of World Coins is a series of numismatic catalogs, commonly known as the Krause catalogs. They are published by Krause Publications, a division of F+W Media, the by-century volumes list by date virtually every coin type, most of which are photographed, with mintage and other information, plus market valuations in up to 5 grades. Listings are by denomination rather than series, as in earlier World coin catalogs, the proprietary Krause-Mishler numbers are widely used, for just a few countries earlier systems such as Y and C numbers are given instead. The century format is considered inconvenient and expensive for those who collect geographically. Originally covering 1835 or so to date, the main catalog evolved into an annual 20th century-only work, plus separate 17th, 18th, beginning with the 34th ed, listings covering 2001 to date are included in a separate 21st Century catalog. Data from the volumes are collated together in special editions for Crowns, Gold, German. Fantasies and medallion issues, which do not appear in the catalogs, are covered in a publication called Unusual World Coins. There is also a publication called Collecting World Coins that includes only 20th-, list priced at $73 to $85 they are often discounted, and can be found in many public libraries. Older editions are steeply discounted even though revisions between editions in many areas are minimal, following the appearance of unlicensed DVD versions, DVDs were included with the 1601-1700 4th edition, the 1901-2000 36th edition, and possibly others, but are now sold as a separate product. George S. Cuhaj is the current editor, with Thomas Michael credited as market analyst, although Krause collate contributions from many collecting experts, coin catalog Standard Catalog of World Paper Money A Guide Book of United States Coins Piedfort Vcoins. com Krause Publications Numismaster. com
26.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
Bhutan (alongside Indian Rupee)
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