1.
Citation
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Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source. Generally the combination of both the citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation. References to single, machine-readable assertions in electronic scientific articles are known as nanopublications, each of these citation systems has its advantages and disadvantages. Editors often specify the system to use. A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, citations should supply detail to identify the item uniquely. Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation, legal citation, prior art, the arts, and the humanities. Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include, Book, author, book title, publisher, date of publication, Journal, author, article title, journal title, date of publication, and page number. Newspaper, author, article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number if desired, web site, author, article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and a date when the site was accessed. Play, inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, for example, In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married. Poem, spaced slashes are used to indicate separate lines of a poem. For example, For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give, interview, name of interviewer, interview descriptor and date of interview. Along with information such as author, date of publication, title and page numbers, citations of books may include an International Standard Book Number. Specific volumes, articles or other parts of a periodical, may have an associated Serial Item. Electronic documents may have an object identifier. Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier, broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems. However, the Council of Science Editors adds a third, the citation-name system, the Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both. The numbers refer to either footnotes or endnotes that provide source detail, the notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying 45–60, in a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like,1
2.
University of Graz Library
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The University Library of Graz, in the Austrian city of Graz, is the largest scientific and public library in Styria and the third largest in Austria. It holds the right of legal deposit and it is part of the Karl Franzens University of Graz and consists of the main library, two faculty libraries and several branch libraries and is open to the public. The UB Graz owes its origin to the Counter-Reformation, since 1571 the Jesuits had been pushing the re-catholization in the predominantly Protestant city of Graz according to the wishes of the Archduke Charles II of Austria. For that reason a Jesuit college with a school and a library were founded next to the cathedral in 1573, in 1585 this school was confirmed by Pope Gregory XIII as a Jesuit University, thus the library came into the status of a university library. It grew rapidly because many books got transferred from monasteries to Graz and because of donations, the university was more or less a theological faculty, and the librarys main focus in purchasing books was also theology – but not necessarily Catholic theology. Natural sciences were well represented due to the influence of the mathematician Paul Guldin, when the Jesuit order was abolished in 1773 the university became a state university. In 1775 the university was founded again by a decree and was put under national control together with its library. However, most of the officials who administrated the university as well as the library were former Jesuits. In 1781 the library was re-opened after several adjustments of its new premises, unfortunately, the 28 volume library catalogue was untraceable, it might have been taken away or destroyed by some glowering Jesuits and has never been detected until today. The considerable increase of books from monasteries aggravated the chaos, as well as several other universities the University of Graz was downgraded to the status of lyceum in 1782 by the emperor Josef II. April 1827, after 45 years, the old rights were re-confirmed by the emperor Francis I of Austria, since then the university mentions both founders in its name Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. Adjunctive to the re-installation was a requirement, the university must not cause any additional costs to the state, therefore, it stayed dependent on donations and bequests. Only when the number of personnel was raised from 3 to 6 and the endowment from 830 to 4000 guilder in 1870, due to the limited space at the city centre, a new complex of buildings was erected in the periphery in 1891. The various buildings were opened at different times, between 9 and 22 September 1895 the library moved 135.000 volumes to the main building of the new university. Its further development in stock increase and administration suffered heavy setbacks in both world wars,60.000 volumes were evacuated to save them from air raids in 1944. On 22 October 1945 the library was re-opened,4.500 volumes had been destroyed during World War II. The second half of the 20th century is characterized by constructional changes. In 1950 both stacks situated edgeways behind the room got an annex in the south-east
3.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
4.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
5.
Library science
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Rather than classifying information based on nature-oriented elements, as was previously done in his Bavarian library, Schrettinger organized books in alphabetical order. The first American school for science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in 1887. It is an aspect of the field of librarianship. Historically, library science has also included archival science, LIS should not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information. Library and information science can also be seen as an integration of the two fields of science and information science, which were separate at one point. Library philosophy has been contrasted with science as the study of the aims. The earliest text on library operations, Advice on Establishing a Library was published in 1627 by French librarian, Naudé wrote prolifically, producing works on many subjects including politics, religion, history, and the supernatural. He put into all the ideas put forth in Advice when given the opportunity to build. Martin Schrettinger wrote the textbook on the subject from 1808 to 1829. The Jefferson collection provided the start of what became the Library of Congress, the term library economy was common in the U. S. until 1942, with the library science predominant through much of the 20th century. Later, the term was used in the title of S. R. Ranganathans The Five Laws of Library Science, published in 1931, and in the title of Lee Pierce Butlers 1933 book, An introduction to library science. S. R. Ranganathan conceived the five laws of science and the development of the first major analytico-synthetic classification system. In India, he is considered to be the father of science, documentation. He was one of the first faculty at the University of Chicago Graduate Library School and this research agenda went against the more procedure-based approach of library economy, which was mostly confined to practical problems in the administration of libraries. While Ranganathans approach was philosophical it was tied more to the day-to-day business of running a library. A reworking of Ranganathans laws was published in 1995 which removes the constant references to books, in more recent years, with the growth of digital technology, the field has been greatly influenced by information science concepts. This university was the first in Asia to begin teaching library science, the Punjab Library Primer was the first textbook on library science published in English anywhere in the world. The first textbook in the United States was the Manual of Library Economy and this report had a significant impact on library science training and education
6.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
7.
Paul Otlet
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Otlet created the Universal Decimal Classification, one of the most prominent examples of faceted classification. Otlet was responsible for the adoption in Europe of the standard American 3x5 inch index card used until recently in most library catalogs around the world. Otlet wrote numerous essays on how to collect and organize the worlds knowledge and they also created a great international center called at first Palais Mondial, later, the Mundaneum to house the collections and activities of their various organizations and institutes. Otlet and La Fontaine were peace activists who endorsed the internationalist politics of the League of Nations, Otlet and La Fontaine witnessed an unprecedented proliferation of information, resulting in the creation of new kinds of international organization. They saw in this organization an emerging global polity, and wished to help solidify it, La Fontaine won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1913. Otlet was born in Brussels, Belgium on 23 August 1868 and his father, Édouard, was a wealthy businessman who made his fortune selling trams around the world. His mother died in 1871 at the age of 24, when Otlet was three, through his mother, he was related to the Van Mons family, a prosperous family, and to the Verhaeren family, of which Emile Verhaeren was one of the most important Belgian poets. His father kept him out of school, hiring tutors instead, until he was 11, Otlet, as a child, had few friends, and played regularly only with his younger brother Maurice. He soon developed a love of reading and books, at the age of 6, a temporary decline in his fathers wealth caused the family to move to Paris. At the age of 11, Paul went to school for the first time, a Jesuit school in Paris, the family then returned to Brussels, and Paul studied at the prestigious Collège Saint-Michel in Brussels. In 1894, his became an senator in the Belgian Senate for the Catholic Party. His father remarried to Valerie Linden, daughter of famed botanist Jean Jules Linden, the family travelled often during this time, going on holidays and business trips to Italy, France and Russia. Otlet was educated at the Catholic University of Leuven and at the Université Libre de Bruxelles and he married his step-cousin, Fernande Gloner, soon afterward, on 9 December 1890. He then clerked with famed lawyer Edmond Picard, a friend of his fathers, Otlet soon became dissatisfied with his legal career, and began to take an interest in bibliography. His first published work on the subject was the essay Something about bibliography, a better storage system, Otlet wrote in his essay, would be cards containing individual chunks of information, that would allow all the manipulations of classification and continuous interfiling. In addition would be needed a very detailed outline of knowledge that could allow classification of all of these chunks of data. In 1891, Otlet met Henri La Fontaine, a lawyer with shared interests in bibliography and international relations. They were commissioned in 1892 by Belgiums Societé des Sciences sociales et politiques to create bibliographies for various of the social sciences, in 1895, they discovered the Universal Decimal Classification, a library classification system that had been invented in 1876
8.
Publication
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To publish is to make content available to the general public. While specific use of the term may vary among countries, it is applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content on any traditional medium. The word publication means the act of publishing, and also refers to any printed copies, publication is a technical term in legal contexts and especially important in copyright legislation. An author of a work generally is the owner of the copyright on the work. One of the granted to the author of a work is the exclusive right to publish the work. In the United States, publication is defined as, the distribution of copies or phonorecords of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute copies or phonorecords to a group of people for purposes of distribution, public performance, or public display. A public performance or display of a work not of itself constitute publication. Many countries around the world follow this definition, although some make some exceptions for particular kinds of works, in Germany, §6 of the Urheberrechtsgesetz additionally considers works of the visual arts published if they have been made permanently accessible by the general public. Australia and the UK do not have this exception and generally require the distribution of copies necessary for publication, in the case of sculptures, the copies must be even three-dimensional. In biological classification, the publication of the description of a taxon has to comply with some rules, the definition of the publication is defined in nomenclature codes. Traditionally there were the rules, The publication must be generally available. The date of publication is the date the published material became generally available, electronic publication with some restrictions is permitted for publication of scientific names of fungi since 1 January 2013. There is a variety of material types of publication, some of which are, Book. Bulletin, Information written in short on a flyer or inside another publication for public viewing, bulletins are also brief messages or announcements broadcast to a wide audience by way of TV, radio, or internet. Booklet, Leaflet of more than one sheet of paper, usually attached in the style of a book, broadside, A large single sheet of paper printed on one side, designed to be plastered onto walls. Produced from 16th - 19th cent, became obsolete with the development of newspapers and cheap novels. Flyer or handbill, A small sheet of printed on one side, designed to be handed out free Leaflet
9.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
10.
Library catalog
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A library catalog or library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. The card catalog was a sight to library users for generations. Some still refer to the catalog as a card catalog. Some libraries with OPAC access still have card catalogs on site, many libraries that retain their physical card catalog will post a sign advising the last year that the card catalog was updated. Some libraries have eliminated their card catalog in favour of the OPAC for the purpose of saving space for other use, the largest library catalog in the world is the WorldCat. org union catalog managed by the non-profit library cooperative OCLC, based in Dublin, Ohio. In January 2016, WorldCat. org had over 360,000,000 catalog records, charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement regarding the objectives of a bibliographic system in his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalog in 1876. 1960/61 Cutters objectives were revised by Lubetzky and the Conference on Cataloging Principles in Paris, a catalog also serves as an inventory or bookkeeping of the librarys contents. If an item is not found in the catalog, the user may continue her search at another library, Library thieves, who may be staff or regular visitors of the library, risk discovery if an item listed in the catalog is missing from the shelves. To reduce this risk, a thief may also steal the catalog card describing the item, a catalog card is an individual entry in a library catalog containing bibliographic information, including author’s name, book title, and even approximate location. The first cards used may have been French playing cards, which, in November of 1789, the French began collecting all books from religious houses and decided to use these books to build a system of public libraries, including creating an inventory of all books. The backs of the cards contained the bibliographic information for each book. English inventor Francis Ronalds began using a catalog of cards to manage his growing book collection around 1815, in the mid-1800s, Natale Battezzati, an Italian publisher, developed a card system for booksellers in which cards represented authors, titles and subjects. Very shortly afterward, Melvil Dewey and other American librarians began to champion the card catalog because of its great expandability, in some libraries books were catalogued based on the size of the book while other libraries organized based only on the author’s name. This made finding a book difficult, Dewey and others devised a new system. Books were organized by subject then those would be organized based on the author’s name. Each book was assigned a “call number” which identified the subject, the decimal points divided different sections of the call number. The call number on the card matched a number written on the spine of each book and he published his findings in the Annual Report of the Library for 1863 and were adopted by many American libraries. Work on the began in 1862 and within the first year 35,762 catalog cards had been created
11.
National library
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A national library is a library specifically established by the government of a country to serve as the preeminent repository of information for that country. Unlike public libraries, these rarely allow citizens to borrow books, often, they include numerous rare, valuable, or significant works. A National Library is that library which has the duty of collecting and preserving the literature of the nation within, thus, National Libraries are those libraries whose community is the nation at large. Examples include The British Library, and The Bibliothèque Nationale In Paris, there are wider definitions of a national library, putting less emphasis to the repository character. National libraries are usually notable for their size, compared to that of other libraries in the same country. Some states which are not independent, but who wish to preserve their culture, have established a national library with all the attributes of such institutions. National libraries of Europe participate in The European Library and this is a service of The Conference of European National Librarians. The first national libraries had their origins in the collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the state. In England, Sir Richard Bentleys Proposal for Building a Royal Library published in 1694 stimulated renewed interest in the subject. Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, an antiquarian, amassed the richest private collection of manuscripts in the world at the time. Sir Roberts genius was in finding, purchasing and preserving these ancient documents, after his death his grandson donated the library to the nation as its first national library. This transfer established the formation of the British Library, the first true national library was founded in 1753 as part of the British Museum. This new institution was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection included some 40,000 printed books and 7,000 manuscripts, as well as prints and drawings. The British Museum Act 1753 also incorporated the Cotton library and the Harleian library and these were joined in 1757 by the Royal Library, assembled by various British monarchs. Anthony Panizzi became the Principal Librarian at the British Museum in 1856, during his tenure, the Librarys holdings increased from 235,000 to 540,000 volumes, making it the largest library in the world at the time. Its famous circular Reading Room was opened in 1857, Panizzi undertook the creation of a new catalogue, based on the Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules which he devised with his assistants. These rules served as the basis for all subsequent catalogue rules of the 19th and 20th centuries, in France, the first national library was the Bibliothèque Mazarine, which evolved from its origin as a royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. At the death of Charles VI, this first collection was bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford
12.
Bookbinding
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Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from an ordered stack of paper sheets that are folded together into sections or sometimes left as a stack of individual sheets. The stack is then bound together along one edge by either sewing with thread through the folds or by a layer of flexible adhesive, for protection, the bound stack is either wrapped in a flexible cover or attached to stiff boards. Finally, a cover is adhered to the boards and a label with identifying information is attached to the covers along with additional decoration. Bookbinding is a trade that relies on basic operations of measuring, cutting. A finished book depends on a minimum of two dozen operations to complete but sometimes more than double that according to the specific style. All operations have an order and each one relies on accurate completion of the previous step with little room for back tracking. An extremely durable binding can be achieved by using the best hand techniques, Bookbinding combines skills from other trades such as paper and fabric crafts, leather work, model making, and graphic arts. It requires knowledge about numerous varieties of book structures along with all the internal and external details of assembly, a working knowledge of the materials involved is required. Bookbinding is a craft of great antiquity, and at the same time. The division between craft and industry is not so wide as might at first be imagined and it is interesting to observe that the main problems faced by the mass-production bookbinder are the same as those that confronted the medieval craftsman or the modern hand binder. Before the computer age, the bookbinding trade involved two divisions, second was Letterpress binding which deals with making new books intended to be read from and includes fine binding, library binding, edition binding, and publishers bindings. A result of the new bindings is a third division dealing with the repair, restoration, with the digital age, personal computers have replaced the pen and paper based accounting that used to drive most of the work in the stationery binding industry. There is a grey area between the two divisions. There are cases where the printing and binding jobs are combined in one shop, a step up to the next level of mechanization is determined by economics of scale until you reach production runs of ten thousand copies or more in a factory employing a dozen or more workers. The craft of bookbinding probably originated in India, where religious sutras were copied on to palm leaves with a metal stylus, the leaf was then dried and rubbed with ink, which would form a stain in the wound. The finished leaves were given numbers, and two long twines were threaded through each end through wooden boards, making a palm-leaf book, when the book was closed, the excess twine would be wrapped around the boards to protect the manuscript leaves. Buddhist monks took the idea through Afghanistan to China in the first century BC, similar techniques can also be found in ancient Egypt where priestly texts were compiled on scrolls and books of papyrus. Another version of bookmaking can be seen through the ancient Mayan codex, writers in the Hellenistic-Roman culture wrote longer texts as scrolls, these were stored in boxes or shelving with small cubbyholes, similar to a modern winerack
13.
Mundaneum
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The Mundaneum was created in 1910, following an initiative begun in 1895 by Belgian lawyers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine, as part of their work on documentation science. Otlet first called it the Palais Mondial, meaning world palace in English, and it occupied the wing of the Palais du Cinquantenaire. It aimed to gather all the worlds knowledge and classify it according to a system they developed called the Universal Decimal Classification. Otlet and La Fontaine organized an International Conference of International Associations which was the origin of the Union of International Associations, the Mundaneum has been identified as a milestone in the history of data collection and management, and as a precursor to the internet. Otlet regarded the project as the centrepiece of a new world city—a centrepiece which eventually became an archive with more than 12 million index cards and documents. Some consider it a forerunner of the Internet and Otlet himself had dreams that one day, somehow, an English pamphlet published in 1914 described it, The International Centre organises collections of world-wide importance. These collections are the International Museum, the International Library, the International Bibliographic Catalogue, established according to standardised methods, they are formed by assembling cooperative everything that the participating associations may gather or classify. The Mundaneum was originally housed at the Palais du Cinquantenaire in Brussels, Otlet commissioned architect Le Corbusier to design a Mundaneum project to be built in Geneva, Switzerland in 1929. Although never built, the project triggered The Mundaneum Affair, an argument between Corbusier and Czech critic and architect Karel Teige. In 1936 the Mundaneum Institute launched the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, when Nazi Germany invaded Belgium in 1940, the Mundaneum was replaced with an exhibit of Third Reich art, and some material was lost. The Mundaneum was reconstituted in a large but decrepit building in Leopold Park and it remained there until it was forced to move again in 1972. The Mundaneum has since relocated to a converted 1930s department store in Mons. The Web that time forgot Alex Wright, The New York Times, architectures of Global Knowledge, The Mundaneum and the World Wide Web Charles van den Heuvel, Destination Library 15,2008. Long Before the Internet, The Mundaneum, Cerebral Boinkfest website, January 19,2011, retrieved from cerebralboinkfest. blogspot. ca on October 23,2012, a weblog page outlining the Mundaneums history
14.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
15.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
16.
URL
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A Uniform Resource Locator, commonly informally termed a web address is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a type of Uniform Resource Identifier, although many people use the two terms interchangeably. A URL implies the means to access a resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism. Thus http, //www. example. com is an URL, URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages, but are also used for file transfer, email, database access, and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar, a typical URL could have the form http, //www. example. com/index. html, which indicates a protocol, a hostname, and a file name. The format combines the pre-existing system of names with file path syntax. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. Although schemes are case-insensitive, the form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. It is followed by a colon, examples of popular schemes include http, ftp, mailto, file, data, and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, two slashes, This is required by some schemes and not required by some others. When the authority component is absent, the path component cannot begin with two slashes, iPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets. An optional port number, separated from the hostname by a colon A path, which contains data, usually organized in hierarchical form, such a sequence may resemble or map exactly to a file system path, but does not always imply a relation to one. The path must begin with a single slash if an authority part was present, and may also if one was not, but must not begin with a double slash. The path is defined, though the defined path may be empty An optional query, separated from the preceding part by a question mark. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter, an optional fragment, separated from the preceding part by a hash. The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, when the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view. A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses will be made over a secure connection to the website. Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a variety of languages and alphabets
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Arachne
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In Greco-Roman mythology, Arachne is a talented mortal weaver who challenged Athena, goddess of wisdom and crafts, into a weaving contest, this hubris resulted in her being transformed into a spider. There are many versions of the storys weaving contest, with saying that one or the other won. Arachne lent her name to the taxonomic class Arachnida, which includes spiders, one version appears in the Metamorphoses of the Roman poet Ovid. In this version, Arachne was a daughter who began weaving at an early age. She became a weaver, boasted that her skill was greater than that of Athena. Athena took offense and set up a contest between them, presenting herself as an old lady, she approached the boasting girl and warned, You can never compare to any of the gods. Plead for forgiveness and Athena might spare your soul, I only speak the truth and if Athena thinks otherwise then let her come down and challenge me herself, Arachne replied. Athena removed her disguise and appeared in shimmering glory, clad in a white chiton. The two began weaving straight away, Athenas weaving represented four separate contests between mortals and the gods in which the gods punished mortals for setting themselves as equals of the gods. Arachnes weaving depicted ways that the gods had misled and abused mortals, particularly Zeus, when Athena saw that Arachne had not only insulted the gods, but done so with a work far more beautiful than Athenas own, she was enraged. She ripped Arachnes work into shreds, and hit her on the three times. Then Athena said Live on then, and yet hang, condemned one, but, lest you are careless in future, after saying this she sprinkled her with the juice of Hecates herb, and immediately at the touch of this dark poison, Arachnes hair fell out. With it went her nose and ears, her head shrank to the smallest size and her slender fingers stuck to her sides as legs, the rest is belly, from which she still spins a thread, and, as a spider, weaves her ancient web. This showed how goddesses punished those who were mortal, in this version, someone asks Arachne how she learned to weave so well and suggested that Athena taught her and she didnt know it. Arachne dismissed this and boasted that she could teach Athena a thing or two in weaving, Athena then appeared in the doorway, wrapped in a long cloak, and asked if she really didnt believe that Athena had taught her to weave. Arachne repeated her boast and Athena challenged her to a contest in which Zeus was to be the judge, whoever lost must promise never to touch spindle or loom again. Arachne wove a web thin yet strong with many colours and this was no match for Athenas weaving, made up of the gods and their glory, shining with their beauty. Arachne acknowledged Athenas triumph, but despaired at the loss of her craft, Athena saw that Arachne could not live if she could not weave, so she touched Arachne with the tip of her spear, turning her into a spider so she could weave without spindle or loom
18.
History of the book
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The history of the book is an academic discipline that studies the production, transmission, circulation and dissemination of text from antiquity to the present day. Its scope includes the history of ideas, history of religion, bibliography, the history of the book came into existence in the latter half of the 16th century. It was fostered by both Henri-Jean Martin and Lucien Febvres Lapparition du livre in 1958 as well as Marshall McLuhans Gutenberg Galaxy
19.
Ibid.
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Ibid. is the term used to provide an endnote or footnote citation or reference for a source that was cited in the preceding endnote or footnote. This is similar in meaning to idem, abbreviated Id. which is used in legal citation. To find the ibid. source, one must look at the reference preceding it, Ibid. may also be used in the Harvard system for in-text references where there has been a close previous citation from the same source material. The previous reference should be visible, e. g. within the same paragraph or page. Many academic publishers now prefer that ibid. should not be given in italics, notice that ibid. is an abbreviation where the last two letters of the word are not present, thus, it commonly takes a period in both American and British usage. E. Vijh, Latin for Dummies,23, reference 2 is the same as reference 1, E. Vijh, Latin for Dummies on page 23, whereas reference 3 refers to the same work but at a different location, namely page 29. Intervening entries require a reference to the citation in the form Ibid. <citation #>, as in reference 5, Ibid. is used in the 1960s play Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf. by Edward Albee. Albee uses an unabbreviated ibid in his directions to tell an actor to use the same tone as the previous line. In the 1989 book Pyramids by Terry Pratchett, one of the Ephebian philosophers is called Ibid, style guide Supra List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin phrases List of legal Latin terms Ibid. on Dictionary. com Introduction to bibliographies and citation styles
20.
ISO 690
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ISO690 is an ISO standard for bibliographic referencing in documents of all sorts. It includes electronic documents, and specifies the elements to be included in references to published documents, punctuation and style are not part of the standard, it is a standard for content more than for presentation. Thus, it influences a users XML and XSL, although not necessarily the CSS, ISO690 covers references to published material in both print and non-print form. It does not apply to references to manuscripts or other unpublished material, until 2010, ISO690 appeared in two ISO documents, ISO690,1987, ISO 690-2,1997 Actual status of standard is ISO690,2010. The material is copyrighted and not free for distribution, basically, the application of older version of ISO standard is not a fault. 1st ed. Oxford, Pergamon Press,1981,206 p. International series in natural philosophy. Translation of, Ciklotronnye volny v plazme, parts of a monograph Parker, TJ. and Haswell, WD. Section 12, Phyllum Mollusca, pp. 663-782, contributions in a monograph Wringley, EA. London, Society of Genealogists,1968, vol, manufacturing a Primary Industries Division, Statistics Canada. Articles in a serial Weaver, William
21.
Style guide
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A style guide is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization, or field. A style guide establishes and enforces style to improve communication, to do that, it ensures consistency within a document and across multiple documents and enforces best practice in usage and in language composition, visual composition, orthography and typography. For academic and technical documents, a guide may also enforce the best practice in ethics, pedagogy, Style guides vary widely in scope and size. This variety in scope and length is enabled by the cascading of one style over another, in a way analogous to how styles cascade in web development, a short style guide is often called a style sheet. A comprehensive guide tends to be long and is called a style manual or manual of style. Most house styles, in turn, cascade over an industry-wide or profession-wide style manual that is more comprehensive. This, of course, may be subject to national variety such as the different varieties of American English and British English, some style guides focus on specific topic areas such as graphic design, including typography. Website style guides cover a publications visual and technical aspects along with text, Style guides that cover usage may suggest ways of describing people that avoid racism, sexism, and homophobia. Guides in specific scientific and technical fields cover nomenclature, which specifies names or classifying labels that are preferred because they are clear, standardized, most style guides are revised periodically to accommodate changes in conventions and usage. The frequency of updating and the control are determined by the subject matter. For style manuals in reference work format, new editions typically appear every 1 to 20 years, for example, the AP Stylebook is revised annually, and the Chicago, APA, and ASA manuals are in their 16th, 6th, and 4th editions, respectively. Many house styles and individual project styles change more frequently, especially for new projects, several basic style guides for technical and scientific communication have been defined by international standards organizations. One example is ISO215 Documentation — Presentation of contributions to periodicals, the European Union publishes an Interinstitutional style guide—encompassing 24 languages across the European Union. This manual is obligatory for all those employed by the institutions of the EU who are involved in preparing EU documents, Style Manual, For Authors, Editors and Printers by Snooks & Co for the Department of Finance and Administration. CP Stylebook, Guide to newspaper style in Canada maintained by the Canadian Press, 4th ed. Oxford University Press,2015. Based on Fowlers Modern English Usage, by Henry Watson Fowler, the Kings English, by Henry Watson Fowler and Francis George Fowler. The Complete Plain Words, by Sir Ernest Gowers, Usage and Abusage, by Eric Partridge. The BBC News Style Guide, by the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Economist Style Guide, by The Economist
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
