1.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
2.
Bihar
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Bihar is a state in the eastern part of India. It is the 13th-largest state of India, with an area of 94,163 km2. The third-largest state of India by population, it is contiguous with Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the Bihar plain is split by the river Ganges which flows from west to east. On November 15,2000, southern Bihar was ceded to form the new state of Jharkhand, only 11. 3% of the population of Bihar lives in urban areas, which is lowest in India after Himachal Pradesh. Additionally, almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, the official languages of the state are Hindi and Urdu. Other languages commonly used within the state include Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi, Bajjika, in ancient and classical India, Bihar was considered a centre of power, learning, and culture. From Magadha arose Indias first empire, the Maurya empire, as well as one of the worlds most widely adhered-to religions, Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Another region of Bihar is Mithila which was a centre of Brahmanical learning. Since the late 1970s, Bihar has lagged far behind other Indian states in terms of social, the state government has, however, made significant strides in developing the state. The name Bihar is derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word, Vihara, the region roughly encompassing the present state was dotted with Buddhist vihara, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval periods. Medieval writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani records in the Tabakat-i-Nasiri that in 1198, Bakhtiyar Khalji committed a massacre in a town now known as Bihar Sharif, chirand, on the northern bank of the Ganga River, in Saran district, has an archaeological record from the Neolithic age. Regions of Bihar—such as Magadha, Mithila and Anga—are mentioned in religious texts, the power centre of ancient Bihar was in the region of modern-day southwestern Bihar called Magadha, which remained the centre of power, learning, and culture in India for 1000 years. The Haryanka dynasty, founded in 684 BC, ruled Magadha from the city of Rajgriha, the two well-known kings from this dynasty were Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned his father to ascend the throne. Ajatashatru founded the city of Pataliputra which later became the capital of Magadha and he declared war and conquered the Vajji of north Bihar, another powerful Mahajanapada north of Ganges with its capital at Vaishali. Vaishali was ruled by the Licchavi clan, who had a form of government where the king was elected from the number of rajas. The Haryanka dynasty was followed by the Shishunaga dynasty, later the Nanda Dynasty ruled a vast tract stretching from Bengal to Punjab. The Nanda dynasty was replaced by the Maurya Empire, Indias first empire, the Maurya Empire and the religion of Buddhism arose in the region that now makes up modern Bihar. The Mauryan Empire, which originated from Magadha in 325 BC, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya and it had its capital at Pataliputra
3.
South Asian ethnic groups
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The ethno-linguistic composition of the population of South Asia, that is the nations of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka is highly diverse. The majority of the fall within two large linguistic groups, Indo-Aryan and Dravidian. In todays India, the population is categorized in terms of the 1,652 mother tongues spoken and these groups are further subdivided into numerous sub-groups, castes and tribes. Indo-Aryans form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in Indo-Gangetic Plain, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, dravidians form the predominant ethno-linguistic group in southern India and the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka, and a small pocket in Pakistan. Dardic peoples form a minority among the Indo-Aryans and they are classified as belonging to the Indo-Aryan language group, though sometimes they are also classified as external to the Indo-Aryan branch. They are found in northern Pakistan and in Jammu and Kashmir, the people of the Hunza valley in Pakistan are another distinct population. They speak Burushaski, a language isolate and this is particularly true for many ethnic groups in the northeastern parts of South Asia who are ethnically related to peoples of the Far East. These groups are based solely on a basis and not on genetic basis. Labbay Arab traders who settled in South India Rowther Muslims of Tamil Nadu, boras Trace ancestors to Arab traders and Merchants
4.
Bhojpuri people
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A significant diaspora population of Bhojpuris can be found in the Caribbean, Fiji, South Africa, and Mauritius
5.
Maithils
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The Maithil homeland forms an important part of Hindu mythology as it is said to be the birthplace of Sita, the wife of Ram. Pure Maithil culture is said to be found in the villages of Madhubani district in Bihar, Mithila first gained prominence after being settled by Indo-Aryan peoples who established the Videha kingdom. During the late Vedic period, Videha became one of the political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru. The Kings of the Videha Kingdom where called Janakas, the Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajji confederacy which was based in Mithila. From the 11th century to the 20th century, Mithila was ruled by various indigenous dynasties, the first of these where the Karnatas who where of Parmar Rajput origin, the Oinwar dynasty who where Maithil Brahmins and the Khandavalas of Raj Darbhanga who where also Maithil Brahmins. It was during this period that the capital of Mithila was shifted to Darbhanga, Maithils are those who reside of North of the Ganges, based around Darbhanga and the rest of North Bihar. Maithili speaking districts that are inhabited by Maithils in India are Muzzafarpur, Sitamarhi, Darbhanga, Saharsa, Purnea, Madhepura, Supaul, Madhubani, Darbhanga in particular played an important role in the history of Mithila and is considered one of its core centers. It was the center of Raj Darbhanga who ruled most of the region, Madhubani was also where Madhubani paintings originated from which is a major part of Maithil culture. Sitamarhi is claimed by many to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita with Sitakund being a pilgrimage site. Most of the region from Jhapa to Parsa in Nepal form Nepalese Mithila and this area was part of the kingdom of Videha, with its capital at Janakpur. The kingdom appears in the Ramayana, according to it and other ancient texts, it is the birthplace of Janaka, many people claim Janakpur to be the birthplace of Goddess Sita also but this is disputed as many consider Sitamarhi as Her birthplace. Maithils in Nepal have been working towards a Free Maithil state, many ethnic groups and castes inhabit the Mithila region, these include Maithil Brahmins, Rajputs, Bhumihars, Karan Kayasthas, Ahirs, Kurmis, Koeris, Baniyas and many more. Maithil Brahmins are the Hindu Brahmin community of the Mithila region and they are one of the five Pancha-Gauda Brahmin communities. They are also noted for panjis, the genealogical records maintained for the last twenty-four generations. Rajputs are scattered throughout the region and are divided into various sub-clans with the most prominent being the Gandhawarias who ruled estates mainly in Saharsa, the Rajputs of Mithila maintain social and marital relations with Rajputs in other states. It is an ancient language, from which Nepali, Bengali, the script of the inscription is little different from modern Maithili script. However, during the 20th century most Maithili writers gradually adopted Devanagari script for Maithili, some traditional pandits still use Tirhutā or Mithilākshara script for pātā. Fonts for this script were developed in 2003, historically most Maithils never left their homeland – a life that kept them isolated in their own localities
6.
North India
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North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indus-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, other states sometimes included are Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat and West Bengal. North India has been the centre of the Mughal, Delhi Sultanate. The languages that have official status in one or more of the states and union territories located in North India are Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi, Kashmiri/Koshur, Dogri, different authorities and sources define North India differently. Rajasthan is also included in North Central Culture Zone as well as West Cultural Zone, the Northern Zonal Council is one of the advisory councils, created in 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act to foster inter-state cooperation. It differs from the North Cultural Zone in its inclusion of Delhi, in contrast, the Geological Survey of India included Uttar Pradesh and Delhi in its Northern Region, but excluded Rajasthan and Chandigarh, with a regional headquarters in Lucknow. The Hindu newspaper puts Bihar as well as Uttar Pradesh and Delhi related articles on its North pages, however according to the Government of Bihar official page as well as Indian Zonal Coucil, it is considered to be an Eastern Indian state instead. North Indian states which are entirely above the Tropic of Cancer are Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The term North Indian is sometimes used to people from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, often using the term bhaiya in a derogatory sense. In Punjab, people from the region are often referred to as Purabias. Some publications of the Government of Bihar place that state in the part of India. Within Uttar Pradesh itself, the divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas often being clubbed with Biharis in the perception of the westerners. One demarcation between northern and southern nations has been the Vindhya mountain range, in centuries past this sometimes formed a border during periods of imperial expansion, such as the one ruled by the Gupta emperor Samudragupta. The Vindhyas also find mention in the narrative of Rishi Agastya as a dividing feature between North and South India, the Manusmṛti also describes the southern limit of Aryavarta as being defined by the Vindhya range. North India lies mainly on continental India, north of peninsular India, towards its north are the Himalayas which define the boundary between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. To its west is the Thar desert, shared between North India and Pakistan and the Aravalli Range, beyond lies the state of Gujarat. The Vindhya mountains are, in some interpretations, taken to be the boundary of North India. The state of Madhya Pradesh has large areas under forest cover, as do Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, North India lies mainly in the north temperate zone of the Earth
7.
West Bengal
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West Bengal is an Indian state, located in East India on the Bay of Bengal. It is Indias fourth-most populous state, with over 91 million inhabitants and it has a total area of 34,267 sq mi, making it similar in size to Serbia. A part of the ethno-linguistic Bengal region, it borders Bangladesh in the east and Nepal and it also has borders five Indian states, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, the seventh-largest city in India, the geography of West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in its extreme north, the Ganges delta, the Rarh region and the coastal Sundarbans. The main ethnic group are the Bengali people, with Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority, Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas, including Vanga, Radha, Pundra and Suhma. In the 2nd century BC, the region was conquered by the emperor Ashoka, in the 4th century AD, it was absorbed into the Gupta Empire. From the 13th century onward, the region was ruled by sultans, powerful Hindu states and Baro-Bhuyan landlords. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Between 1977 and 2011, the state was administered by the worlds longest elected Communist government, a major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to Indias net domestic product. It is noted for its activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions. The states cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing football besides cricket. The origin of the name Bengal is unknown, one theory suggests that the word derives from Bang, a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC. The word might have derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga. Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name, the early history is obscure. At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west, the east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state. In 2011, the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the name of the state to Poschimbongo. This is the name of the state, literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language
8.
Assam
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Assam (English pronunciation, /əˈsæm/ listen is a state in northeastern India. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, along with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya, is one of the Seven Sister States. Geographically, Assam and these states are connected to the rest of India via a 22 kilometres strip of land in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or Chickens Neck. Assam shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh, and its culture, people. Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk, the first oil well in Asia was drilled here. The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger. It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant, the Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism, centred around Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park which are World Heritage Sites. Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, Assam receives more rainfall compared to most parts of India. This rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment, the precise etymology of Assam came from Ahom Dynasty. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, in medieval times the Mughals used Asham and Kamrup, and during British colonialism, the English used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama was the root, which has been rejected by Kakati, among possible origins are Tai and Bodo. Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1, 500–2,000 feet were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making. According to a text, Kalika Purana, the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna, narakas son Bhagadatta became the king, who fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Samudraguptas 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa and Davaka as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire, ruled by three dynasties Varmanas, Mlechchha dynasty and Kamarupa-Palas, from their capitals in present-day Guwahati, Tezpur and North Gauhati respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta, in the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman, the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels
9.
Maharashtra
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Four Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally
10.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
11.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
12.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
13.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
14.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
15.
East Bengal
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East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded to the modern state of Bangladesh. Both instances involved a violent partition of Bengal which made one half East Bengal or Bangladesh, the area compromises roughly two-thirds of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. The first instance of the name was during the British rule of India, British governance of large swathes of Indian territory began with Robert Clives victory over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The victory gave the British East India Company dominion over Bengal, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, the British government took direct control away from the East India Co. and established its imperial capital at Calcutta, the city founded by the Company. By 1900, the British province of Bengal constituted a huge territory, with the assumption of Lord Curzon to the office of Viceroy of India, British India was finally put under the charge of a man who considered himself an expert in Indian affairs. Curzon, seeing the logistical problems of administering such a large province, Bengal, henceforth, would encompass Calcutta and the western territories, roughly comprising modern West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Orissa. Eastern Bengal and Assam, the new province, would roughly encompass modern Bangladesh, the partition of Bengal, effected in July 1905, sparked a firestorm in the nationalist movement. In the now divided Bengal, East Bengal comprised an area of 196,540 square miles that included 18 million Muslims and 12 million Hindus, the Bengal area had 141,580 square miles with a majority of 42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims. Bengal was divided into two provinces on 3 July 1946 in preparation for the partition of India - the Muslim-majority East Bengal, the two provinces each had their own Chief Minister. In August 1947, West Bengal became part of India, tensions between East Bengal and the western wing of Pakistan led to the One Unit policy. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. This system lasted until 1971 when East Pakistan declared independence during the Liberation War of Bangladesh, after absorption into the Dominion of Pakistan, the province of East Pakistan was administered by a ceremonial Governor and an indirectly elected Chief Minister. During the year from May 1954 to August 1955, executive powers were exercised by the Governor, British India History of Pakistan History of Bangladesh Barak Valley East Bengal CFL2015 points table top
16.
East Pakistan
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Inter-religious violence during the partition drove Bengali Muslims and Hindus further apart, leading to political upheaval in Bengal. From 1947 until 1954, East Bengal was an independent administrative unit which was governed by the Pakistan Muslim League led by Nurul Amin. In 1955, the Bengali Prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra devolved the province of East Bengal, in the 1954 elections the Pakistan Muslim League were completely defeated by the United Front coalition of the Awami League, the Krishak Praja Party, the Democratic Party and Nizam-e-Islam. The Awami League gained the control of East Pakistan after appointing Huseyn Suhrawardy for the office of prime minister and this authoritarian period that existed from 1958 until 1971, is often regarded as period of mass repression, resentment, and political neglect and ignorance. Allying with the population of West Pakistan, the Easts population unanimously voted for Fatima Jinnah during the 1965 presidential elections against Ayub Khan. The elections were widely believed to be rigged in the favour of Ayub Khan using state patronage. The economic disparity, impression that West Pakistan, despite being less populated than East Pakistan, was ruling and prospering at its cost further popularize the Bengali nationalism. As response to this operation, the Awami League announced the declaration of independence of East Pakistan on 26 March 1971, East Pakistan had an area of 147,610 km2. India bordered it on three sides with the Bay of Bengal to the South, East Pakistan was one of the largest provincial states of Pakistan, with the largest population, the largest political representation, and the largest economy. Finally, on 16 December 1971, East Pakistan was officially disestablished and was succeeded by the independent state of Bangladesh, many notable Muslim Bengali figures were among the Founding fathers of present date, State of Pakistan. The country came into existence on 14 August 1947 confronted by seemingly insurmountable problems, until 1947, the East Wing of Pakistan, separated from the West Wing by 1,600 km of Indian territory, had been heavily dependent on Hindu management. Bengal was divided into two provinces on the midnight of 14 August 1947 following the Radcliffe Line, the two provinces each had their own chief ministers and governors. In August 1947, the West Bengal became part of India, throughout this time, the tensions between East Bengal and the West Pakistan led to the One-Unit policy by Bengali Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. In 1955, Bogra appointed communist leader Abu Hussain Sarkar as chief minister, the main objective of the new government was to end disruptive provincial politics and to provide the country with a new constitution. After a revision, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared that the Pakistan Constituent Assembly must be called, governor-General Ghulam Mohammad was unable to circumvent the order, and the new Constituent Assembly, elected by the provincial assemblies, met for the first time in July 1955. Bogra, who had support in the new assembly, fell in August and was replaced by Choudhry. Ghulam Mohammad, plagued by health, was succeeded as governor-general in September 1955 by Mirza
17.
Muhajir people
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Although some of them speak different languages at the native level, they are primarily identified as native Urdu speakers and hence are called Urdu-speaking people. The Urdu term muhājir comes from the Arabic muhājir, meaning an immigrant, after the independence of Pakistan, a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were out-migrated from territory that remained India. In the aftermath of partition, a population exchange occurred between the two newly formed states. In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab region, UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition, it was the largest mass migration in human history. Most of these settled in the towns and cities of Sindh, such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur. Many spoke Urdu, or dialects of the such as Dakhani, Khariboli, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Mewati, Sadri and Marwari and Haryanvi. Conversion was a combination, initially by violence, threat or other pressure against the person followed by a change of heart. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over a period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilization. That conversions occurred for reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite. The Hindustani-speaking Muslim people of Pakistan and India have diverse roots and this era saw conversion of part of native lower caste Hindu population to Islam. Conversion was a combination of factors such as violence, threat or other pressure by the foreign, Muslim ruling class on the natives. Conversions also happened as a process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of then dominant Muslim civilization. And for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite, Mughal Emperor Babur defeated the Lodi dynasty with Tajik, Turkic and Uzbek soldiers and nobility. These diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic Muslim groups of foreign and native origin, the Rohilla leader Daud Khan was awarded the Katehar region in the then northern India by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to suppress the Hindu Rajputs, who were earlier allied with the Mughals. Originally, some 20,000 soldiers from various Afghan Pashtun tribes were hired by Mughals to provide soldiers to the Mughal armies, due to the large settlement of Rohilla Afghans, the Katehar region gained fame as Rohilkhand. Bareilly was made the capital of the Rohilkhand state and it became Afghan majority city with Gali Nawaban as the main royal street, other important cities were Moradabad, Rampur, Shahjahanpur, Badaun, and others. These diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic Muslim groups of foreign and native origin, sub-groups also includes the Hyderabadi Muslims, Memon Muslims, Bihari Muslims etc. who keep many of their unique, pre-Islamic and Indic cultural traditions intact. Muslims from what are now the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh were themselves of heterogeneous origin, the Kayastha community has historically been involved in the occupations of land record keeping and accounting
18.
West Pakistan
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West Pakistan was one of the two exclaves created at the formation of the modern State of Pakistan following the 1947 Partition of India. The eastern wing of the new country – East Pakistan – formed the province of East Bengal. West Pakistan adopted the stance that West Pakistan was the true Pakistan, the western wing was politically dominant despite East Pakistan having over half of the population and a disproportionately small number of seats in the Constituent Assembly. This inequality of the two wings and the distance between them were believed to be delaying the adoption of a new constitution. During most of the Cold War, Pakistan was an ally of the United States, having an influential membership in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. President Field Marshal Ayub Khan, who remained in office from 1958 until 1969 and he not only secured membership in SEATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed CENTO. West Pakistan emerged as one of South Asias largest economies and military powers, Pakistans main export was jute and tea, which were only produced in East Pakistan. Before the 70s best quality jute of the world were only produced in East Pakistan, West Pakistans economy boomed and at its highest peak it was called the West Germany of East. Its economic progress was limited to the western side. In 1970, President General Yahya Khan enacted a series of territorial, constitutional and these established the provincial assemblies, state parliament, and the current provisional borders of Pakistans four provinces. On 1 July 1970, West Pakistan was devolved and renamed Pakistan under Legal Framework Order No,1970, which dissolved the One Unit and removed the term West, simply establishing the country as Pakistan. The order had no effect on East Pakistan, which retained the geographical position established in 1955, the next years civil war, however, resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. At the time of the establishment in 1947, the founding fathers of Pakistan participated in the Boundary Commission conference. Headed by Cyril Radcliffe, the Commission was tasked with negotiating the arrangement, area division, Pakistan was formed from two distinct areas, separated by a thousand miles and India. The eastern wing of the new country – East Pakistan – formed the province of East Bengal. West Pakistan experienced great problems related to the divisions, including ethnic and racial friction, lack of knowledge, East Pakistan, Balochistan, and the North-West Frontier Province experienced little difficulty, but Southern Pakistani Punjab faced considerable problems that had to be fixed. Former East Punjab was integrated with the Indian administration, and millions of Punjabi Muslims were expelled to be replaced by a Sikh and Hindu population, the communal violence spread to all over the Indian subcontinent. Economic rehabilitation efforts needing the attention of Pakistans founding fathers further escalated the problems, the division also divided the natural resources, industries, economic infrastructure, manpower, and military might, with India as the larger share owner
19.
Dhoti
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The dhoti, also known as vesti, dhuti, mardani, dhoteé, chaadra, dhotra, and pancha, is a traditional mens garment, worn in the Indian subcontinent mainly by Indian, Nepalese and Bangladeshi people. It is worn predominantly in the countries of India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and it is the national dress of the Madhesh region of southern Nepal, worn mainly by Nepalis of Madhesi, Tharu and Maithali ethnicity. It is a piece of unstitched cloth, usually around 4.5 metres long, wrapped around the waist. The word dhoti is derived from dhauti, meaning to cleanse or wash, in the context of clothing, it simply refers to the cleansed garment which was worn during shrauta sacrifices or religious sessions in general. They also wear a loose, unstitched cloth, shorter than the pancha, hare Krishna, known for its distinctive dress code, prompts Western adherents to wear pancha, usually of saffron or white cloth folded in a traditional style. Mahatma Gandhi invariably wore a pancha on public occasions but, as he was aware that it was considered indecent to do so in countries, was shocked when a friend wore one in London. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi was known for wearing a silk dhoti
20.
Angarkha
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The term angarkha, also called angrakha, refers to a traditional upper garment worn by men in the Indian Subcontinent which overlaps and is tied to the left or right shoulder. The angrakha was an outfit that a person could wrap around himself, offering flexible ease with the knots. It is worn particularly in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and in Pakistan much like the Achkan, the term angarkha is derived from the Sanskrit word aṅgarakṣaka, which means protection of the body. The angarkha was worn in parts of the Indian Subcontinent, but while the basic cut remained the same. Some styles of the angarkha can be short, however, the angarkha can also be a long coat, or it can be a long tunic which is tied to either the left or right shoulder. Sometimes, cotton jackets or tops are worn underneath the angarkha, another style of angarkha is a sort of shirt worn under the jama and tied in two places on each side of the body. The angarkha also refers to a short calico vest with sleeves which descends only to the haunches, instead of being fastened on both sides, is tied on one side only. The front opens at either shoulder and the bottom has a wide end which flares out. The Rajasthani angarkha falls just below the waist in loose vertical gathers, in Gujarat, men in parts of Kutch wear the angarkha, also called the jama, which has an asymmetric opening with the skirt flaring out to around the hips. However, some styles fall to below the knees, the prints on the Rajasthani garments include sanganer prints which are of local origin. The traditional dress of Bihari people is the mirjai which is a form of the flowing robe fastened on the right. The mirjai is a jacket with long loose sleeves and open cuffs. The kediyu is worn in Gujarat and it is a long sleeved upper garment, pleated at the chest and reaching to the waist. Some designs however flare out to the knees, the prints on the kediyu include bandhani designs which are local to Gujarat and Rajasthan. A garment worn by women in the Punjab region was the anga which is similar to a loose coat, the womens anga flowed to the ankles. The angarkha also forms part of the clothing in the Punjab region. Men still wear the angarkha in Haryana which fastens to the left or right shoulder, the Chamba angarkhi of Himachal Pradesh is sewn tight at the torso, but below the waist it has an open fall like the modern skirt. The angarkhi is tied at the waist with a sash, in Uttarakhand, men traditionally wear the kalidar angarkha which has many panels. A variation of the angarkha is worn in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, the Sindhi angerkho is fastened to the left shoulder and is knee length
21.
Kurta
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A kurta is an upper garment for men and women, originating in the Indian subcontinent, with regional variations of form. The word kurta is a borrowing from Urdu, Hindustani, originally from either Sanskrit kuratu/kurtaka or Persian and it was first used in English in the 20th century. A kurta worn by females is called a kurti, the kurta is traditionally worn in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India, and is also popular in Nepal and Sri Lanka. The kurta is worn with a dhoti, paijama, shalwar, the kurta is similar to the perahan worn in Afghanistan, the phiran of Kashmir, and the daura of Nepal. The straight-cut kurta is a loose shirt falling either just above or somewhere below the knees of the wearer, however, women do also wear the straight-cut kurta or its shorter version, the kurti. They were traditionally worn with loose-fitting paijama, loose-fitting shalwars, semi-tight churidars, or wrapped-around dhotis, kurtas are worn both as casual everyday wear and as formal dress. Imported straight-cut kurtas were fashionable in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, as an element of fashion, fell from favor briefly. South Asian women may wear this Western adaptation of South Asian fashion. Some styles button or are tied at the seam and have plackets rather than slits. The opening may be centered on the chest, or positioned off center, traditional forms of kurta do not have a collar. Modern variants may feature stand-up collars of the known to tailors. These are the sort of collars seen on achkans, sherwanis. A kali or kalidar kurta is similar to a frock and has many panels, the kalidar kurta is made up of several geometrical pieces. It has two central panels in the back and the front. The kali kurta is worn by men and women, the Bhopali kurta is a loose kurta with pleats at the waist, flowing like a skirt reaching midway between the knees and the ankles. It is worn with a straight pajama, the Bhopali kurta was popular with the local royal families and is believed to have been adopted from the dress of Turkey by Sultan Jehan Begum who reigned between 1901 and 1926 A. D. The Hyderabadi kurta is named after the royal state of Hyderabad and is a short top which sits around the waist. It was popular with the royal households
22.
Lehenga
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As well in Hindi speaking regions of Nepal. In Punjab it was worn with the kurti and salwar. It is an outfit of a Lehenga, tight Choli. A choli, is a blouse shell garment in the Indian and Nepalese sari costume worn in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh. The choli is cut to fit tightly to the body and has short sleeves, the choli is usually cropped, allowing exposure of the navel, the cropped design is particularly well-suited for wear in the hot South Asian summers. It is also worn with a dupatta or long shawl Lehenga, Chaniya, or Ghagra is a form of skirt which is long and it is worn as the bottom portion of a Gagra choli. It is secured at the waist or hips and leaves the lower back and this was one of the earliest forms of a clumsily stitched skirt. It was worn using drawstring or nada, the ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long the same length as original antariya. This style can still be worn by Jain nuns in India. Until the early 20th century, women irrespective of class largely wore gagras which reached down to ankles and this was largely due to jeweled toes showed marital status of women as both married and unmarried women observed Ghoonghat. Most commonly used dyes were Indigo, Lac and Haldi and this style can still be seen in rural areas of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh particularly during folk festivals. This reflects simplistic early style of unstitched gagras worn in ancient times, the Dupatta is a shawl or large scarf that is worn together with the lehenga and the choli. Until the early 21st century dupatta was the most decorative part of gagra choli, while rest of the garment was more simplistic, Dupatta is worn in many regional styles across India. While women who worked in the farms tucked both ends of dupatta into their choli and it is worn as a symbol of modesty. There is no way of wearing the dupatta, and as time evolves and fashion modernizes. The lehengas are made of a number of such as Silk, Cotton, Khadi, Georgette, Crape, Net, Satin, Brocade. Even though designers have used the various kinds of fabrics for making the lehenga. Apart from the fabric, decorative stitching patterns also play a role, lehengas come with a wide variety of decoration and embroidery work like Gota, Phulkari, Shisha, Chikankari, Zari, Zardozi, Nakshi, Kundan, etc
23.
Choli
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A choli is a midriff-baring blouse or upper garment in the Indian sari costume worn in India, southern Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and other countries where the sari is worn. It is also part of the ghagra choli costume of India, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta, it was part of three-piece attire worn during ancient period. The Antriya lower garment, Uttariya veil worn over shoulder or head and Stanapatta a chestband, rajatarangini, a tenth-century literary work by Kalhana, states that the Choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. Early cholis were front covering, tied at the back, Choli of this type are still common in state of Rajasthan. Pre-Christian era paintings of Maharashtra and Gujarat are considered the first recorded examples of choli, in parts of Hindi-belt, mostly in Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar pradesh women wore vest-like garment known as Kanchli over choli, this complete attire is known as Poshak. A lady of honour ideally covered her back and upper arms with a made of a thicker fabric. Of course, not every woman followed the norm, in the 1970s and 1980s, the blouses went knotty, criss-crossed with a deep cut, and even shone through the sheer saree. Anupama Raj, a boutique owner commented, There is a real need to re-invent the choli so that it can be worn with a variety of outfits. Just as we see the choli to be a form of the blouse. Only then, will it be acceptable internationally, bobby Malik, an exporter-turned-designer commented, The choli is the most sensuous of all garments created for women. It not only flatters the feminine form, but also brings out the romanticism in a woman, but where Indian designers have failed is at giving it an international look and making it still more beautiful. The late Khushwant Singh in his book Sex Scotch and Scholarship stated, A well-cut blouse worn with the saree elevates the bosom, today the entire approach towards the choli is adventurous. Their metamorphosis has taken cholis from being demure and sedate to daring, with tailoring and innovative necklines, such as halter, tubes. Designer Manish Malhotra said, Since most young people follow a healthy gym routine and are at ease with their bodies, they want to look different and they like to travel and carry a sense of Indianness around them. Designer Vikram Phadnis said, Its also to do with the fact that the new age woman is well-traveled, well-read, sonora Kabir, another Delhi-based designer commented, Normally, the choli is supposed to hover around the navel area. But if you crop the lower edges and combine it with a funky design — beads, cholis can be made from many fabrics. For everyday wear, cotton-based materials such as terry-cot and silk cotton are widely considered the most comfortable, chiffon, silk, crepe and satin are best suited for formal occasions. The ideal fabric for cholis in the summer is chiffon and georgette, sheer and other transparent fabrics are considered to add glamour, provided they come with an opaque lining in the right places
24.
Sari
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There are various styles of sari draping, the most common being the Nivi style, which originated in Andhra Pradesh. The sari is worn over a petticoat, with a fitted upper garment commonly called a blouse. The blouse has short sleeves and is cropped at the midriff. The sari is associated with grace and is regarded as a symbol of grace in cultures of the Indian subcontinent. The word sari described in Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of cloth and शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Pali, the word Sattika is mentioned as describing womens attire in ancient India in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to modern day Sari, the term for female bodice, the choli evolved from ancient Stanapatta. Rajatarangini, a literary work by Kalhana, states that the choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. In the history of Indian clothing the sari is traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, cotton was first cultivated and woven in Indian subcontinent around 5th millennium BC. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder, silk was woven around 2450 BC and 2000 BC. The earliest known depiction of the sari in the Indian subcontinent is the statue of an Indus Valley priest wearing a drape. The sari evolved from an ensemble comprising the Antariya, the lower garment, the Uttariya, a veil worn over the shoulder or the head, and the Stanapatta. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century B. C and this complete three-piece dress was known as Poshak, generic term for costume. Ancient Antariya closely resembled dothi wrap in the version which was passed through legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into a long. It further evolved into Bhairnivasani skirt, today known as ghagri, Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head, it evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoongat. Likewise, Stanapatta evolved into choli by 1st century A. D. Between 2nd century B. C to 1st century A. D, Antariya and Uttariya was merged to form a single garment known as sari mentioned in Pali literature, which served the purpose of two garments in one-piece. The ancient Sanskrit work, Kadambari by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the Silappadhikaram, in ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible. By which for some time the navel became a taboo
25.
Qamis
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Shalwar kameez, also spelled salwar kameez or shalwar qameez, is a traditional outfit originating in the Indian subcontinent. It is a term used to describe different styles of dress. The shalwar kameez can be worn by men and women, but styles differ by gender. The shalwar and the kameez are two garments which are combined to form the shalwar kameez, the shalwar, šalvār, sirwāl, salwar, selwar, shalvaar are a form of baggy trousers. Transliterations starting from Urdu, Lahnda, Persian, Pashto, Turkish languages use sh, Salwar is the spelling most commonly used in India. Transliterations starting from Punjabi often render the sibilant sound at the start of salwar/shalwar as an s, both spellings are found in common English usage. The shalwar spelling seems to be most common in Canada and the United Kingdom, the kameez or qamis is a shirt of varying length. Garments cut like the kameez are known in many cultures, 10th-century cotton shirts recovered from the Egyptian desert are cut much like the kameez or the contemporary Egyptian djellaba or jellabiya. The word kameez is originally an Arabic word and is also spelled with a Q. The shalwar are loose pajama-like trousers, the legs are wide at the top, and narrow at the ankle. The kameez is a shirt or tunic, often seen with a Western-style collar, however, for female apparel. The kameez might be worn with pajamas as well, either for fashion or comfort, some kameez styles have side seams, left open below the waist-line, giving the wearer greater freedom of movement. The kameez can be straight and flat, in an A shape design or flowing like a dress. Modern kameez styles are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves, if the tailors taste or skill is displayed, this will be seen in the shape of the neckline and the decoration of the kameez. The kameez may be cut with a deep neckline, sewn in diaphanous fabrics, there are many styles of shalwar, the Peshawari shalwar, Balochi shalwar, Sindhi choreno and Punjabi shalwar. The following are some of the styles of shalwar kameez, the shalwar kameez known as the Anarkali suit is named after the court dancer from Lahore. This suit has a style which has become very popular. It is made up of a long, frock-style top and features a fitted bottom
26.
Salwar
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The Punjabi Salwar is part of the Punjabi suit which is the traditional attire of the Punjab region. It is known for its lively hues, rich fabrics and embroidery, the suit features three items - a kameez, salwar and dupatta. The womens Punjabi salwar suit style has become popular all over the sub-continent and it is also the national dress for Pakistan, since the later 1960s with the Punjabi salwar being used in government offices. The outfit has been a part of Punjabi tradition for centuries whether as the suthan kurta/kurti ensemble or the salwar jhaga /kurta combination, the outfit includes the Patiala salwar and the Saraiki shalwar suits of the Punjab region. The term Punjabi suit refers to the three piece ensemble comprising the head scarf, kameez and the salwar, however, the term also encompasses the older variety of the Punjabi suthan suit which is made up of the head scard, kurta/kurti and Punjabi suthan. The word suthan is derived from the Sanskrit word svasthana, which means tight fitting trousers which in turn is derived from the Central Asian word Samstamni. The suthan are trousers cut straight and tight, as opposed to the salwar, the tight suthan is loose to the knees but the loose Punjabi suthan is loose to the lower legs and very tight at the ankles. The salwar ends in a band which is loose fitting, despite this difference, people use the word suthan and salwar interchangeably to describe loose suthans and salwars, with the loose suthan resembling the salwar. Prior to the use of the term pajama, the suthan was used. Therefore, the woollen pajamas of Gilgit are also referred to as suthan, however, these are not of the Punjabi variety. The churidar pajama was also referred to as the suthan, the word suthana was also used in Hindi, to describe pajammas. The use of the suthan in the Punjab region also called suthana in Punjabi is a survival of the ancient svasthana, svasthana referred to a lower garment which can be described as a type of trousers. The svasthana was in use amongst the rulers in the Mauryan times, evidence of the use of svasthana amongst the ruling classes has also been observed in North India during the Kushan Empire between the 1st and 3rd centuries C. E. It was noted in use during the Gupta Empire between 4th and 6th centuries C. E. and during King Harshas rule during the 7th century C. E. A version of the svasthana has been noted in ancient India which sticks to the calves with narrow circumferences of the lower opening and this is similar to the Punjabi ghuttana which is loose at the thighs and tightens at the knees and ends at the calves. This suggests that the use of the suthan is indigenous to the Punjab region. E, the wearing of the suthan and kurta continued to be prevalent during the Mughal period between 1526-1748 C. E. and has been in use in unbroken succession since ancient times. The National Review notes that the suthan was in use in the Punjab, generally in white washable cloth. The svasthana was worn with the tunic called varbana which was tight fitting and this is the same as the modern straight cut kurta which has side slits and worn by women in Punjab
27.
Maithili language
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Maithili is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Mithila region which is today mainly situated in northern Bihar of India and a few districts of the Nepal Terai. It is one of the largest languages in India and the second largest language in Nepal, less commonly, it was written with a Maithili variant of Kaithi, a script used to transcribe other neighboring languages such as Bhojpuri, Magahi, and Awadhi. In 2002, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which allows it to be used in education, government and it is recognized as one of the largest languages in India and is the second most widely used language in Nepal. In 2007, Maithili was included in the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063, Part 1, in the past, Maithili was written primarily in Mithilakshar, but today it is written in the Devanagari script. Native speakers are referred to as Maithils, Madhubani and Darbhanga constitute cultural and linguistic centers. Native speakers also reside in Delhi, Kolkata, Ranchi and Mumbai, in Nepal, Maithili is spoken mainly in the Outer Terai districts including Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa, Sunsari, Siraha and Saptari Districts. Janakpur is an important linguistic centre of Maithili, in the 19th century, linguistic scholars considered Maithili as a dialect of Eastern Hindi languages and grouped it with other languages spoken in Bihar. Hoernlé compared it with Gaudian languages and recognised that it shows similarities with Bengali languages than with Hindi. Grierson recognized it as a language and published the first grammar in 1881. Chatterji grouped Maithili with Magadhi Prakrit, the standard form of Maithili is spoken in Darbhanga and Madhubani districts in Bihar, India. Several geographic variations of Maithili dialects are spoken in India and Nepal, including Dehati, Some dialects such as Bantar, Barmeli, Musar and Tati are spoken only in Nepal, while the Kortha, Jolaha and Thetiya dialects are spoken in India. All the dialects are intelligible to native Maithili speakers, other dialects include, Thēthi is spoken between the western part of the Mahottari and the eastern part of the Sarlahi districts of Nepal, and in adjacent areas in Bihar. The Madhubani dialect spoken in north India is generally considered to be the standard form, central Maithili is also considered as the standard form. The Kulhaiya dialect is spoken in most of north-eastern Bihar, Maithili dates back to the 14th century. The Varna Ratnākara is the earliest known text, preserved from 1507. The name Maithili is derived from the word Mithila, an ancient kingdom of which King Janaka was the ruler, Maithili is also one of the names of Sita, the wife of King Rama and daughter of King Janaka. Scholars in Mithila used Sanskrit for their work and Maithili was the language of the common folk. In 1324, Ghyasuddin Tughluq, the emperor of Delhi invaded Mithila, defeated Harasimhadeva, entrusted Mithila to his family priest Kameshvar Jha, a Maithil Brahmin of the Oinwar dynasty
28.
Bhojpuri
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Bhojpuri is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand region of North India and in Terai region of Nepal. It is chiefly spoken in the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh, in the part of Bihar state. Bhojpuri is one of the national languages of Nepal and has official status in Fiji as Fiji Hindi. It is also a language in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname. Bhojpuri is also spoken in Pakistan, Jamaica, Belize, other parts of the Caribbean, more Indians in Suriname know Bhojpuri. In Mauritius a dialect of Bhojpuri remains in use, and it is locally called Bojpury, the day-to-day usage of the language in Mauritius is dropping and today, it is spoken by less than 5% of the population, according to latest census. Bhojpuri was historically written in Kaithi scripts, but since 1894, Government gazetteers report that Kaithi was used in a few districts of Bihar through the 1960s. By 1894, official texts in Bihar were written in Kaithi, at present almost all Bhojpuri texts are written in Devanagari even in the overseas islands where Bhojpuri is spoken. For example, in Mauritius, both Kaithi and Devanagari scripts have been in use since the arrival of Bhojpuri people from India, the Kathi script was considered informal in Mauritius, with the structure of Kaithi similar to Devanagari. In modern Mauritius, Bhojpuri script is Devanagari, Bhojpuri is, sociolinguistically, one of the seven Hindi languages. Of these seven, Bhojpuri has the most allophonic variations in vowels, robert Trammell has published the phonology of Bhojpuri. Bhojpuri has six vowel phonemes, and ten vocoids, the higher vowels are relatively tense, while lower vowels are relatively lax. The language has 31 consonant phonemes and 34 contoids, according to Trammell, the syllable system is peak type, every syllable has the vowel phoneme as the highest point of sonority. Codas may consist of one, two or three consonants, vowels occur as simple peaks or as peak nuclei in diphthongs. The intonation system involves four pitch levels and three terminal contours, the United Nations has published the universal declaration of human rights in Bhojpuri and Sarnámi, one of 154 languages of the world. Ohi djanne ke lage sab ke samadj-boedj aur hierdaai hai aur doesare se sab soemmat sè, article 1, All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood, Bhojpuri syntax and vocabulary reflect a three-tier system of politeness. Any verb can be conjugated as per these tiers, for example, the verb to come in Bhojpuri is aana and the verb to speak is bolna
29.
Magahi
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The Magahi language, also known as Magadhi, is a language spoken in parts of India and Nepal. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magahi, from which the name derives. Magahi has approximately 18 million speakers and it has a very rich and old tradition of folk songs and stories. It is spoken in eight districts in Bihar, three in Jharkhand, and has speakers in Malda, West Bengal. Though the number of speakers in Magahi is large, it has not been recognised in India. In Bihar Hindi is the used for educational and official matters. Magadhi was legally absorbed under Hindi in the 1961 Census, the ancestor of Magahi, Magadhi Prakrit, formed in the Indian subcontinent in a region spanning what is now India and Nepal. These regions were part of the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the core of which was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges, the name Magahi is directly derived from the word Magadhi, and educated speakers of Magahi prefer to call it Magadhi rather than Magahi. The development of the Magahi language into its current form is unknown and these different dialects differentiated themselves and took their own course of growth and development. But it is not certain when exactly it took place and it was probably such an unidentified period during which modern Indian languages begin to take modern shape. By the end of the 12th century, the development of Apabhramsa reached its climax, gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Maithili and other modern languages took definite shape in their literary writings in the beginning of the 14th century. The distinct shape of Magadhi can be seen in the Dohakosha written by Sarahapa and Kauhapa, Magahi had a setback due to the transition period of Magadha administration. Traditionally, strolling bards recite long poems in this dialect. Kaithi is the generally used for it. The pronunciation in Magahi is not as broad as in Maithili, historically, Magahi had no famous written literature. There are many songs throughout the area in which the language is spoken. In Magahi spoken area folk singers sing a number of ballads. Introduction of Urdu meant a setback to local languages as its Persian script was alien to local people, the first success for spreading Hindi occurred in Bihar in 1881, when Hindi displaced Urdu as the official language of the province
30.
Urdu
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Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
31.
Hindi
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Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
32.
Hindi Belt
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The Hindi Belt or Hindi Heartland is a loosely defined linguistic region in north-central India where varieties of Hindi in the broadest sense are widely spoken. Hindi, in the sense, is that part of the Indo-Aryan dialect continuum that lies within the cultural Hindi Belt in the northern plains of India. In the words of Masica, these are the regional languages of the Hindi area. Hindi in this sense is an ethnic rather than a linguistic concept. As defined in the 1991 census, Hindi has a broad, the name Hindi is thus ambiguous. This is an area bounded on the northwest by Punjabi, on the west by Sindhi, on the south by Gujarati, Marathi and Odia, on the east by Maithili and Bengali, and on the north by Nepali. Linguistically, the varieties of this area can be considered separate languages rather than dialects of a single language, in the narrow sense, the Hindi languages proper, Hindi can be equated with the Central Zone Indic languages. These are conventionally divided into Western Hindi and Eastern Hindi, an even narrower definition of Hindi is that of the official language, Modern Standard Hindi or Manak Hindi, a standardised register of Hindustani, one of the varieties of Western Hindi. Standardised Hindustani—including both Manak Hindi and Urdu—is historically based on the Khariboli dialect of 17th-century Delhi and these figures do not count 52 million Indians who considered their mother tongue to be Urdu. Much of the Hindi spoken outside of the subcontinent is quite distinct from the Indian standard language, most Pakistani speakers, and some Muslim Indian speakers, call their version of Hindustani Urdu rather than Hindi or Hindustani. Religious proponents both of Hindi and of Urdu often contend that they are two separate languages despite their mutual intelligibility, mauritian Hindi is spoken in Mauritius. It is based on Bhojpuri and influenced by French, sarnami is a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence. It spoken by Surinamese of Indian descent, fiji Hindi is a derived form of Awadhi, Bhojpuri and including many English and native Fijian words. It is spoken by Fijians of Indian descent, Trinidad Hindi is based on Bhojpuri and is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago by people of Indian descent. South African Hindi is based on Bhojpuri and is spoken in South Africa by people of Indian descent, the region has a predominantly subtropical climate, with cool winters, hot summers and moderate monsoons. The climate does vary with latitude somewhat, with winters getting cooler and it can vary significantly with altitude, especially in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. The Hindi Heartland supports about a third of Indias population and occupies about a quarter of its geographical area, the population is concentrated along the fertile Ganges plain in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. Over years political development in some of states are dominated by caste based politics
33.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
34.
Bhojpuri language
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Bhojpuri is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand region of North India and in Terai region of Nepal. It is chiefly spoken in the Purvanchal region of Uttar Pradesh, in the part of Bihar state. Bhojpuri is one of the national languages of Nepal and has official status in Fiji as Fiji Hindi. It is also a language in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname. Bhojpuri is also spoken in Pakistan, Jamaica, Belize, other parts of the Caribbean, more Indians in Suriname know Bhojpuri. In Mauritius a dialect of Bhojpuri remains in use, and it is locally called Bojpury, the day-to-day usage of the language in Mauritius is dropping and today, it is spoken by less than 5% of the population, according to latest census. Bhojpuri was historically written in Kaithi scripts, but since 1894, Government gazetteers report that Kaithi was used in a few districts of Bihar through the 1960s. By 1894, official texts in Bihar were written in Kaithi, at present almost all Bhojpuri texts are written in Devanagari even in the overseas islands where Bhojpuri is spoken. For example, in Mauritius, both Kaithi and Devanagari scripts have been in use since the arrival of Bhojpuri people from India, the Kathi script was considered informal in Mauritius, with the structure of Kaithi similar to Devanagari. In modern Mauritius, Bhojpuri script is Devanagari, Bhojpuri is, sociolinguistically, one of the seven Hindi languages. Of these seven, Bhojpuri has the most allophonic variations in vowels, robert Trammell has published the phonology of Bhojpuri. Bhojpuri has six vowel phonemes, and ten vocoids, the higher vowels are relatively tense, while lower vowels are relatively lax. The language has 31 consonant phonemes and 34 contoids, according to Trammell, the syllable system is peak type, every syllable has the vowel phoneme as the highest point of sonority. Codas may consist of one, two or three consonants, vowels occur as simple peaks or as peak nuclei in diphthongs. The intonation system involves four pitch levels and three terminal contours, the United Nations has published the universal declaration of human rights in Bhojpuri and Sarnámi, one of 154 languages of the world. Ohi djanne ke lage sab ke samadj-boedj aur hierdaai hai aur doesare se sab soemmat sè, article 1, All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood, Bhojpuri syntax and vocabulary reflect a three-tier system of politeness. Any verb can be conjugated as per these tiers, for example, the verb to come in Bhojpuri is aana and the verb to speak is bolna
35.
Magahi language
–
The Magahi language, also known as Magadhi, is a language spoken in parts of India and Nepal. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magahi, from which the name derives. Magahi has approximately 18 million speakers and it has a very rich and old tradition of folk songs and stories. It is spoken in eight districts in Bihar, three in Jharkhand, and has speakers in Malda, West Bengal. Though the number of speakers in Magahi is large, it has not been recognised in India. In Bihar Hindi is the used for educational and official matters. Magadhi was legally absorbed under Hindi in the 1961 Census, the ancestor of Magahi, Magadhi Prakrit, formed in the Indian subcontinent in a region spanning what is now India and Nepal. These regions were part of the ancient kingdom of Magadha, the core of which was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges, the name Magahi is directly derived from the word Magadhi, and educated speakers of Magahi prefer to call it Magadhi rather than Magahi. The development of the Magahi language into its current form is unknown and these different dialects differentiated themselves and took their own course of growth and development. But it is not certain when exactly it took place and it was probably such an unidentified period during which modern Indian languages begin to take modern shape. By the end of the 12th century, the development of Apabhramsa reached its climax, gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Maithili and other modern languages took definite shape in their literary writings in the beginning of the 14th century. The distinct shape of Magadhi can be seen in the Dohakosha written by Sarahapa and Kauhapa, Magahi had a setback due to the transition period of Magadha administration. Traditionally, strolling bards recite long poems in this dialect. Kaithi is the generally used for it. The pronunciation in Magahi is not as broad as in Maithili, historically, Magahi had no famous written literature. There are many songs throughout the area in which the language is spoken. In Magahi spoken area folk singers sing a number of ballads. Introduction of Urdu meant a setback to local languages as its Persian script was alien to local people, the first success for spreading Hindi occurred in Bihar in 1881, when Hindi displaced Urdu as the official language of the province
36.
Sulaiman Nadvi
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Sulaiman Nadvi was an eminent Indian historian, biographer, littérateur and scholar of Islam. He co-authored Sirat-un-Nabi and wrote Khutbat-e-Madras, Nadvi was born on November 22,1884 in the Desna, Bihar a village of Patna. His father, Hakeem Sayyed Abul Hasan was a Sufi and his first teachers were Khalifa Anwar Ali of Desna and Maqsood Ali of Ookhdi. Later he received his education both from his brother, Hakeem Sayyed Abu Habeeb and his father. His father was a physician at Islampur near Patna and was a respected person in the local community. In 1899, he went to Phulwari Sharif where he became a disciple of Maulana Mohiuddin, from there, he went to Darbhanga where he studied for a few months at Madrasa-e-Imdadia. In 1901, he was admitted into Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama at Lucknow and he studied for seven years at Nadva. He was also appointed sub-editor of the journal, An-Nadwa and his first article, Waqt was published in the monthly Urdu Journal Makhzan edited by Abdul Qadir. Maulana Shibli Nomani came to Lucknow and was appointed as Secretary of Nadva, Sulaiman Nadvi was highly influenced by Maulana Shibli Nomani at Lucknow. In 1906, he graduated from the Nadva, in 1908, Nadvi was appointed an instructor of Modern Arabic and Theology at Dar-ul-Uloom Nadva. His contemporary at Nadva was none other than Maulana Abul Kalam Azad who had come from Calcutta and it is interesting to note here that both Sulaiman Nadvi and Abul Kalam Azad were favorite pupils of Maulana Shibli Nomani. Maulana Sulaiman Nadvi was later destined to one of the great biographers of the Prophet of Islam. Aligarh Muslim University conferred on him the degree of Doctorate of Literature in 1941. In 1910, Shibli Nomani began writing Sirat-un-Nabi in Urdu, after Nomanis death in 1914, Nadvi left his position as a professor at Deccan College, Pune and traveled to Azamgarh. There he edited and published the two first volumes of Sirat-un-Nabi penned by Nomani, and completed the four volumes himself. The work was funded by Sultan Jehan Begum of Bhopal. In October and November 1925, Nadvi delivered a series of eight lectures on the life Muhammad at Madras and these lectures were later published as Khutbat-e-Madras. In 1933, he published one of his works, Khayyam
37.
Manazir Ahsan Gilani
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Manazir Ahsan Gilani was an Islamic scholar from the Deobandi school of thought, which is one of the major Islamic schools in Indian subcontinent. Maulana Manazir Ahsan Gilani is often referred as Muhaqiqe Islam, Sultanul Qalam and he was born on the 9th of Rabiul Awal 1310 H in a village called Gilaan in Bihar. His father’s name was Abul Khair and their Arab descendants reached the Indian subcontinent about three centuries ago via Iran and finally settled in a village which came to be known as Gilaan. His elementary education was at home and then he stayed in Tonk for six years studying under the revered Maulana Syed Hakeem Barakaat Ahmad. Thereafter, he was admitted in Darul Uloom Deoband and studied Bukhari and Tirmizhi from Shaikhul Hind Maulana Mehmood-ul-Hasan and he also studied Muslim from Maulana Anwar Shah Kashmiri. His other teachers at Darul Uloom Deoband include, Maulana Shabir Ahmad Usmani, Mufti Azizur Rahman Usmani, Maulana Habibur Rahman Usmani, while at Darul Uloom Deoband, he was noticed by his teachers to have special qualities which outshined him from the rest of the students. After graduating from Darul Uloom Deoband in 1332 AH, he stayed in Deoband until 1338 H working for the monthly organ “Al-Qasim” of the Darul Uloom. During this time his works such as “Savanih-e-Abu Zar Ghifari” and “Kynaat-e-Roohaani” made him famous amongst the academic. The next twenty-five years of Maulana Gilani’s life were spent in Hyderabad, during this time, thousands of people benefited from his precious personality and matchless knowledge. In 1368 AH, he retired from Osmania University and returned to his homeland of Gilaan, Maulana Gilani was a master of the Urdu language and a talented and prolific writer. He enlightened the hearts and minds of thousands with his style of writing. Maulan Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi says, “Maulana Gilani was an organization in himself. He was the scholar of scholars, writer of writers, historian of historians, jurist of jurists, Muhaddith of Muhadditheen, Mufassir of Mufassireen, and researcher of researchers. ”Maulana Syed Ataullah Shah Bukhari says about this book, “When I studied “Tadween-e-Hadith” of Maulana Manazir Ahsan Gilaani, condition of wajd and jazb came over me. When Hazrat Gilaani was writing this book, I thought as if all curtains between him and Rasulullah were lifted and as if he was writing the words of Rasulullah himself. “Tadween-e-Hadith” is the last complete and successful thing against the fitna of Inkar al-Hadith. ”Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi says about Maulana Gilaani, Deobandi school of thought Darul Uloom Deoband
38.
Abdul Qavi Desnavi
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Abdul Qavi Desnavi was an Indian Urdu language writer, critic, bibliographer, and linguist. He has written books on Urdu literature. His important work was about Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Mirza Ghalib and he was awarded with several awards for his literary work. Desnavi had two brothers, elder Prof. Syed Mohi Raza and younger Syed Abdul Wali Desnavi, many scholars, poets and teachers of today were his students in Bhopal, and several other students obtained PhD degree under his guidance. He died on 7 July 2011 in Bhopal, India, Desnavi got his primary education in Arrah town of Bihar state. He completed his Graduation and Post Graduation in First Division from St. Xaviers College and he joined Urdu department in Saifia Post Graduate College in February 1961. He became Professor and head of the Urdu department of Saifia College and he was a well known literary figure in India and in the Urdu world. List of Urdu language writers photos-of-abdul-qavi-desnavi. html A LEGEND, ABDUL QAVI DESNAVI National Library URDU AUTHORS, DATE LIST Bibliographic Detail
listen (help·info)) is a demonym given to the inhabitants of the Indian state of Bihar. Bihari people can be separated into three main ethnic groups, Bhojpuris, Maithils and Magahis.[1]
