1.
Bindusara
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Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor of India. He was the son of the dynastys founder Chandragupta, and the father of its most famous ruler Ashoka. Bindusaras life is not documented as well as the lives of two kings, much of the information about him comes from legendary accounts written several hundred years after his death. Bindusara consolidated the empire created by his father, ancient and medieval sources have not documented Bindusaras life in detail. Much of the information about him comes from Jain legends focused on Chandragupta, the Jain legends, such as Hemachandras Parishishta-Parvan were written more than a thousand years after his death. Most of the Buddhist legends about Ashokas early life also appear to have composed by Buddhist writers who lived several hundred years after Ashokas death. While these legends can be used to make inferences about Bindusaras reign. Buddhist sources that provide information about Bindusara include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Vamsatthappakasini, Samantapasadika, the Jain sources include the 12th century Parishishta-Parvan by Hemachandra and the 19th century Rajavali-Katha by Devachandra. The Hindu Puranas also mention Bindusara in their genealogies of Mauryan rulers, some Greek sources also mention him by the name Amitrochates or its variations. Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire and this is attested by several sources, including the various Puranas and the Mahavamsa. The Dipavamsa, on the hand, names Bindusara as the son of the king Shushunaga. The prose version of Ashokavadana states that Bindusara was the son of Nanda, like Dipavamsa, it omits Chandraguptas name altogether. The metrical version of Ashokavadana contains a similar genealogy with some variations, Chandragupta had a marriage alliance with the Seleucids, which has led to speculation that Bindusaras mother might have been Greek or Macedonian. However, there is no evidence of this, according to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandras Parishishta-Parvan, the name of Bindusaras mother was Durdhara. Other Puranas name give different names for Chandraguptas successor, these appear to be clerical errors, for example, the various recensions of Bhagavata Purana mention him as Varisara or Varikara. The different versions of Vayu Purana call him Bhadrasara or Nandasara, the Mahabhashya names Chandraguptas son as Amitra-ghata. The Greek writers Strabo and Athenaeus call him Allitrochades and Amitrochates respectively, in addition, Bindusara was given the title Deva-nampriya, which was also applied to his successor Ashoka. The Jain work Rajavali-Katha states that his name was Simhasena
2.
Haryanka dynasty
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The Haryanka dynasty was the second ruling dynasty of Magadha, an ancient kingdom in India, which succeeded the Barhadratha dynasty. The reign of this dynasty probably began in the middle of 6th century BCE, later, it was shifted to Pataliputra, near the present day Patna in India. The founder of dynasty was either Bimbisara himself or his father Bhattiya. According to the Buddhist text, the Mahavamsa, Bimbisara was anointed king by his father at the age of fifteen and this dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty. The Haryanka king Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances, the land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. He is referred to as King Shrenik in Jain scriptures, estimates place the territory ruled by this early dynasty at 300 leagues in diameter, and encompassing 80,000 small settlements. In some sources, Bimbisara was imprisoned and killed by his son and successor, Ajatashatru, Ajatashatru was contemporary with Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Ajatashatru fought a war against Vajji, ruled by the Lichhavis, Ajatashatru followed policies of conquest and expansion. He defeated his neighbors including the king of Kosala, his brothers, when at odds with him, went to Kashi and this led to a war between Magadha and Kosala. Ajatashatru occupied Kashi and captured the smaller kingdoms, Magadha under Ajatashatru became the most powerful kingdom in North India. He is believed to have ruled for sixteen years, the kingdom had a particularly bloody succession. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination, and his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Shishunaga dynasty. Legendary kings of Magadha Pradyota dynasty Raychaudhuri, H. C, political History of Ancient India, Calcutta, University of Calcutta Bhargava, P. L
3.
Ajatashatru
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Ajatashatru was a king of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in North India. He was the son of King Bimbisara and was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha and he forcefully took over the kingdom of Magadha from his father and imprisoned him. He fought a war against Vajji, ruled by the Lichchhavis, Ajatashatru followed policies of conquest and expansion. He defeated his neighbours including the king of Kosala, his brothers, when at odds with him, went to Kashi and this led to a war between Magadha and Kosala. Ajatashatru occupied Kashi and captured the smaller kingdoms, Magadha under Ajatashatru became the most powerful kingdom in North India. Ajatashatru, also known as Kunika, was the son of Bimbisara, the ancient inscription in Government Museum, Mathura refers to him as vaidehi putra Ajatashatru Kunika Ajatashatru Kunika, the son of Vaidehi. The story of Ajatashatru is found in the Tripiṭaka of Buddhism, the account of Ajatashatrus birth is more or less similar in both the traditions. According to Jainism, Ajatashatru was born to King Bimbisara and Queen Chelna, Buddhist tradition records Ajatashatru being born to Bimbisara and it is worthwhile to note that both the queens were called Vaidehi in both the traditions. Thus Ajatashatru being called Vaidehiputra in the inscription at the Mathura museum does not clarify his mothers name, according to the Jain Nirayavalika Sutta, during her pregnancy Queen Chelna had the strong desire to eat fried flesh of her husbands heart and drink liquor. Meanwhile, the very intelligent Prince Abhayakumara, son of King Bimbisara and Queen Nanda, fried a wild fruit that resembled a heart, when the child was lying near the garbage dump, a cock bit his little finger. As the little finger of the child was sore, he was nicknamed Kunika Sore Finger, bimbisar was brutally murdered through poison by his son Ajatashatru, as Ajatashatru was tired of waiting for the throne. This touched Ajatashatrus heart and his affection for his father was aroused, at once he picked up his axe and hurried to the prison to free his father by breaking all the iron chains himself. But when Bimbisara saw him coming with an axe in his hand he thought, so, he is coming to kill me. It is better that I end my life with my own hands, at once he removed the Talaputa poison from his ring, closed his eyes and chanted Kevli pannato Dhammam saranam pavajyami and swallowed the poison and ended his life. Ajatashatru repented a lot but repentance was of no use, Ajatashatru then shifted his palace to Champa and made it his capital as the previous palace reminded him of his atrocious mistake. There are different versions existing in Buddhist Texts on the death of King Bimbisara, in one version, Ajatashatru allowed no one but Kosala Devi to meet Bimbisara in the smokey cell. Ajatashatru wanted to him to death, as Devadatta had said father cannot be killed by a weapon. When she was once again Ajatashatru prohibited Kosala devi from meeting the king
4.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
5.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
6.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
7.
Jain Agamas
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Agamas are original texts of Jainism based on the discourses of the tirthankara. The discourse delivered in a samavasarana is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas, the discourse is recorded by Ganadharas, and is composed of twelve angas. It is generally represented by a tree with twelve branches and this forms the basis of the Jaina Agamas or canons. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, the earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were composed in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language. Agama is a Sanskrit word which signifies the coming of a body of doctrine by means of transmission through a lineage of authoritative teachers and these scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of learning that one needs to know. According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had knowledge of the original canon. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira. Āchārya Dharasen, in first century CE, guided two Āchāryas, Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali, to put these teachings in the written form, the two Āchāryas wrote, on palm leaves, Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama- among the oldest known Digambara Jaina texts. This was about 683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira, the general consensus amongst western scholars, like Ian Whicher and David Carpenter is that the earliest portions of Jain siddhanta were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BC. However, with time, it became difficult to keep the entire Jain literature committed to memory, chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu, was the head of Jain community. Predicting a 12 year long famine, Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, during this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled, due to the twelve years of famine it was extremely difficult for the Jain ascetics to preserve the entire canonical literature. The Purvas or the ancient texts were already forgotten and lost after the famine, the existing Svetambara texts are based on the Vallabhi council texts. Digambaras reject the authority of the Agamas compiled at Valabhi, the knowledge of Shruta-Jnana, may be of things which are contained in the Angas or of things outside the Angas. The most authoritative Jain text accepted both by Digambara and Svetamberas is Tattvartha Sutra and it is the first Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language. Other Sanskrit Jain literature includes śrāvakācāras such as the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, Digambaras group texts into four literary categories called exposition. The Jain literature includes both religious texts and books on generally secular topics such as sciences, history, and grammar, the Jains have used several languages at different times and in different regions of India. The earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language, Prakrit Prakrit literature includes the Aagams, Aagam-tulya texts, and Siddhanta texts
8.
Magadha
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Magadha is a region in the Indian state of Bihar and formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges, its first capital was Rajagriha, Rajagriha was initially known as Girivrijja and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajatashatru. Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga, respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and it is also mentioned in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. A state of Magadha is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600 BCE, the earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda, where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism and these empires saw advancements in ancient Indias science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Golden Age of India. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara, villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions, the kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna, Jehanabad, Nalanda, Aurangabad, Nawadah and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by the river Ganges, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya Range and this region of Greater Magadha had a culture and religious beliefs of its own that predates Hinduism. Much of the second took place here from c.500 BCE onwards and it was here that Jainism became strong. The importance of Magadhas culture can be seen in that Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism adopted some of its features, most significantly a belief in rebirth, there is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas, based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c.600 BCE –413 BCE. Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom and he attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Hindu Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha, King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, King Pasenadi, king of neighbouring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, promptly retook the gift of the Kashi province. Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatrus war with the Licchavi and it appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganges River, Ajatashatru built a fort at the town of Pataliputra, torn by disagreements the Licchavis fought with Ajatashatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatashatru to defeat them, Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons, a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capital of Magadha after Ajatashatrus death, the Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty
9.
Anga
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Anga was a kingdom that flourished on the eastern Indian subcontinent from c. 12th to 6th century BCE until it was annexed by the kingdom of Magadha in the same century. Counted among the sixteen nations in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya. According to Mahabharata, Karna ruled the Kingdom during the period, some refer that the Angas were grouped with people of ‘mixed origin’, generally in the later ages. Mahabharata and Puranic literature attest that the name Anga had originated eponymously from the name of Prince Anga, according to some scriptures, a king Bali, the Vairocana and the son of Sutapa, had no sons. So, he requested the sage, Dirghatamas, to him with sons. The sage is said to have five sons through his wife. The princes were named Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Sumha, the princes later founded kingdoms named after themselves. The prince Vanga founded Vanga kingdom, in the current day region of southern Bangladesh, the prince Kalinga founded the kingdom of Kalinga, in the current day region of coastal Orissa, including the North Sircars. Also the price Pundra founded Pundra consisting of the regions of West Bengal. The prince Suhma founded Suhma Kingdom in the part of southern West Bengal. Ramayana narrates the origin of name Anga as the place where Kamadeva was burnt to death by Siva, the earliest mention occurs in the Atharava Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavatas, all apparently as a despised people. Puranic texts place the janapadas of the Angas, Kalingas, Vangas, Pundras, Vidarbhas, the Puranas also list several early kings of Anga. The Mahagovinda Suttanta refers to king Dhatarattha of Anga, Jain texts refer to Dhadhivahana, as a ruler of the Angas. Puranas and Harivamsa represent him as the son and immediate successor of Anga, Jain traditions place him at the beginning of sixth century BCE. Between the Vatsas and the realm of Anga, lived the Magadhas, a great struggle went on between the Angas and its eastern neighbors. The Vidhura Pandita Jataka describes Rajagriha as the city of Anga and this indicates that Anga had initially succeeded in annexing the Magadhas, and thus its borders extended to the kingdom of Matsya country. This success of Angas did not last long, about the middle of 6th century BCE, Bimbisara, the crown prince of Magadha had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga and seized Champa. Bimbisara made it as his headquarters and ruled over it as his fathers Viceroy, thenceforth, Anga became an integral part of growing Magadha empire
10.
Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
11.
Xuanzang
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602–664, was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang dynasty. Born in what is now Henan province around 602, from boyhood he took to reading books, including the Chinese classics. While residing in the city of Luoyang, Xuanzang was ordained as a śrāmaṇera at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan and he later travelled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Changan, then under the rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang. He knew about Faxians visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete, hsüan, Hüan, Huan and Chuang are also found. Another form of his style was Yuanzang, written 元奘. Tang Monk is also transliterated /Thang Seng/, another of Xuanzangs standard aliases is Sanzang Fashi, 法 being a Chinese translation for Sanskrit Dharma or Pali/Pakrit Dhamma, the implied meaning being Buddhism. Sanzang is the Chinese term for the Buddhist canon, or Tripiṭaka, in some sources Xuanzangs is said to have been born Chen Hui or Chen Yig. Xuanzang was born Chen Hui around 602 in Chenhe Village, Goushi Town, Luozhou and his family was noted for its erudition for generations, and Xuanzang was the youngest of four children. His ancestor was Chen Shi, a minister of the Eastern Han dynasty and his great-grandfather Chen Qin served as the prefect of Shangdang during the Eastern Wei, his grandfather Chen Kang was a professor in the Taixue during the Northern Qi. According to traditional biographies, Xuanzang displayed a superb intelligence and earnestness, although his household was essentially Confucian, at a young age, Xuanzang expressed interest in becoming a Buddhist monk like one of his elder brothers. After the death of his father in 611, he lived with his older brother Chén Sù for five years at Jingtu Monastery in Luoyang, during this time he studied Mahayana as well as various early Buddhist schools, preferring the former. In 618, the Sui Dynasty collapsed and Xuanzang and his brother fled to Changan, which had proclaimed as the capital of the Tang dynasty. Here the two spent two or three years in further study in the monastery of Kong Hui, including the Abhidharma-kośa Śāstra. When Xuanzang requested to take Buddhist orders at the age of thirteen, Xuanzang was fully ordained as a monk in 622, at the age of twenty. The myriad contradictions and discrepancies in the texts at that time prompted Xuanzang to decide to go to India and he subsequently left his brother and returned to Changan to study foreign languages and to continue his study of Buddhism. He began his mastery of Sanskrit in 626, and probably also studied Tocharian, during this time, Xuanzang also became interested in the metaphysical Yogacara school of Buddhism
12.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
13.
Rajgir
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Rajgir is a city and a notified area in Nalanda district in the Indian state of Bihar. The city of Rajgir was the first capital of the kingdom of Magadha and its date of origin is unknown, although ceramics dating to about 1000 BC have been found in the city. This area is notable in Jainism and Buddhism as one of the favorite places for Lord Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Rajgir is connected to Patna via Bakhtiarpur by rail and road, Bakhtiarpur lies midway between Patna and Mokameh. Road access is by NH 30A to Bakhtiarpur and NH31 towards south to reach Bihar Sharif, from Mokameh NH31 to Bihar Sharif. From there, NH82 will leads to Rajgir, Rajgir is around 100 KM from both Patna and Mokameh. It is located in a valley surrounded by rocky hills. A daily Indian Railways train Shramjeevi Express connects Rajgir with the Indian capital New Delhi, the name Rajgir came from Rājagṛiha house of the king or royal house, or the word rajgir might have its origin in its plain literal meaning, royal mountain. It was the ancient capital city of the Magadha kings until the 5th century BC when Udayin, son of Ajatshatru, in those days, it was called Rajgrih, which translates as the home of Royalty. Shishunaga founded Shishunaga dynasty in 413 BCE with Rajgir as its initial capital before it was moved to Pataliputra, Rajgir is also famous for its association with Mauryan dynasty Kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. Ajatashatru kept his father Bimbsara in captivity here, the sources do not agree which of the Buddhas royal contemporaries, Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, was responsible for its construction. Ajatashatru is also credited with moving the capital to Pataliputra, the epic Mahabharata calls it Girivraja and recount the story of its king, Jarasandha, and his battle with the Pandava brothers and their allies Krishna. Jarasandha who hailed from this place, had defeated by Krishna 17 times. The 18th time Krishna left the battlefield without fighting, because of this Krishna is also called ranachorh. Mahabharata recounts a wrestling match between Bhima and Jarasandha, the king of Magadha. Jarasandha was invincible as his body could rejoin any dismembered limbs, according to the legend, Bhim split Jarasandha into two and threw the two halves facing opposite to each other so that they could not join. There is a famous Jarasandhas Akhara and it is also mentioned in Jain and Buddhist scriptures, which give a series of place-names, but without geographical context. The attempt to locate these places is based largely on reference to them and to locations in the works of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, particularly Faxian
14.
Sanchi
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Sanchi the Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, is located on a hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is 46 km north-east of Bhopal, capital of Madhya Pradesh, the Great Stupa at Sanchi is the oldest stone structure in India and was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Its nucleus was a hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, the original construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka, whose wife Devi was the daughter of a merchant of nearby Vidisha. Sanchi was also her birthplace as well as the venue of her, in the 1st century BCE, four elaborately carved toranas and a balustrade encircling the entire structure were added. The sanchi stupa built during Mauryan period was made of bricks, the complex flourished until the 11th century. Sanchi is the center of a region with a number of stupas including Satdhara, Morel Khurd, Andher, Mawas, the Great Stupa at Sanchi is the oldest structure and was originally commissioned by the emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE. Its nucleus was a brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, the old stupa was later covered when it was expanded under the Shungas. A pillar of finely polished sandstone was also erected, the bottom part of the pillar still stands. The upper parts of the pillar are placed under a canopy nearby, the pillar has an Ashokan inscription and an inscription in the ornamental Sankha Lipi from the Gupta period. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, the original brick stupa was covered with stone during the Shunga period. During the later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size, the dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of the dharma, the dome was set on a high circular drum meant for circumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a balustrade with four monumental gateways facing the cardinal directions. The buildings which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Shungas are the Second and Third stupas, from the 1st century BCE, the gateways and the balustrade were built and colored, the work being apparently commissioned by the Satavahana. The gateways and toranas are generally dated to the 1st century CE, kharavela in his inscription mentions one Satakarni, who is identified as Satakarni II, who is also identical to the one who inscribed in Sanchi. If this is true, then the dating of Sanchi gateway, although made of stone, they were carved and constructed in the manner of wood and the gateways were covered with narrative sculptures
15.
Pataliputra
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Pataliputra, adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort near the Ganges river. Extensive archaeological excavations have been made in the vicinity of modern Patna, excavations early in the 20th century around Patna revealed clear evidence of large fortification walls, including reinforcing wooden trusses. The etymology of Pataliputra is unclear, putra means son, and pāţali is a species of rice or the plant Bignonia suaveolens. One traditional etymology holds that the city was named after the plant, another tradition says that Pāṭaliputra means the son of Pāṭali, who was the daughter of Raja Sudarshan. As it was known as Pāṭali-grāma originally, some believe that Pāṭaliputra is a transformation of Pāṭalipura. There is no mention of Pataliputra in written sources prior to the early Buddhist texts, in 303 BCE, Greek historian and ambassador Megasthenes mentioned Pataliputra as a city in his work Indika. The city of Pataliputra was formed by fortification of a village by Haryanka ruler Bimbisara and its central location in north eastern India led rulers of successive dynasties to base their administrative capital here, from the Nandas, Mauryans, Shungas and the Guptas down to the Palas. Situated at the confluence of the Ganges, Gandhaka and Son rivers, Pataliputra formed a water fort and its position helped it dominate the riverine trade of the Indo-Gangetic plains during Magadhas early imperial period. It was a centre of trade and commerce and attracted merchants and intellectuals, such as the famed Chanakya. Jain and Brahmanical sources identify Udayabhadra, son of Ajatashatru, as the king who first established Pataliputra as the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, it was one of the worlds largest cities, with a population of 150, 000–400,000. The city is estimated to have had a surface of 25.5 square kilometers, and a circumference of 33.8 kilometers, Pataliputra reached the pinnacle of prosperity when it was the capital of the great Mauryan Emperors, Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. Arrian, The Indica Strabo in his Geographia adds that the city walls were made of wood and these are thought to be the wooden palisades identified during the excavation of Patna. At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river is situated Palibothra, in length 80 and it is in the shape of a parallelogram, surrounded by a wooden wall pierced with openings through which arrows may be discharged. In front is a ditch, which serves the purpose of defence, in the parks, tame peacocks and pheasants are kept. Aelian, Characteristics of animals Ashokas Palace in Pataliputra and the monument columns everywhere in India were built to imitate the Achaemenid palaces, the architecture of Pataliputras enclosures and the monumental columns of Ashoka had been affected by Persian Achaemenid architecture. The design of the Pataliputra palace capital has been described as Perso-Iionic, with a strong late-archaic Greek stylistic influence, including volute, bead and reel, the city also became a flourishing Buddhist centre boasting a number of important monasteries. It remained the capital of the Gupta dynasty and the Pala Dynasty, the city was largely in ruins when visited by Xuanzang, and suffered further damage at the hands of Muslim raiders in the 12th century
16.
Ujjain
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Ujjain is the largest city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the centre of Ujjain district. An ancient city situated on the bank of the Kshipra River. It emerged as the centre of central India around 600 BCE. It was the capital of the ancient Avanti kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas and it remained an important political, commercial and cultural centre of central India until the early 19th century, when the British administrators decided to develop Indore as an alternative to it. Ujjain continues to be an important place of pilgrimage for Shaivites, Vaishnavites, Ujjain has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Excavations at Kayatha have revealed chalcolithic agricultural settlements dating to around 2000 BCE, chalcolithic sites have also been discovered at other areas around Ujjain, including Nagda, but excavations at Ujjain itself have not revealed any chalcolithic settlements. H. D. Sankalia theorized that the settlements at Ujjain were probably destroyed by the Iron Age settlers. According to Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, Avanti, whose capital was Ujjain, was one of the earliest outposts in central India, around 600 BCE, Ujjain emerged as the political, commercial and cultural centre of Malwa plateau. The ancient walled city of Ujjain was located around the Garh Kalika hill on the bank of river Kshipra and this city covered an irregular pentagonal area of 0.875 km2. It was surrounded by a 12 m high mud rampart, the archaeological investigations have also indicated the presence of a 45 m wide and 6.6 m deep moat around the city. According to F. R. Allchin and George Erdosy, these city defences were constructed between 6th and 4th centuries BCE, dieter Schlingloff believes that these were built before 600 BCE. This period is characterised by structures made of stone and burnt-brick, tools and weapons made of iron, according to the Puranic texts, a branch of the legendary Haihaya dynasty ruled over Ujjain. In the Mauryan period, Ujjain remained the centre of the region. From this period, Northern Black Polished Ware, copper coins, terracotta ring wells, during the reign of his father Bindusara, Ashoka served as the viceroy of Ujjain. Ujjain was subsequently controlled by a number of empires and dynasties, including the Shungas, the Western Satraps, the Satavahanas, the Guptas, the Paramaras shifted the regions capital from Ujjain to Dhar. Raja Bharthari wrote his epics, Virat Katha, Neeti Sataka. The writings of Bhasa are set in Ujjain, and he lived in the city
17.
Avanti (India)
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Avanti was an ancient Indian janapada, roughly corresponded to the present day Malwa region. According to the Buddhist text, the Anguttara Nikaya, Avanti was one of the solasa mahajanapadas of the 6th century BCE, the janapada was divided into two parts by the Vindhyas, the northern part had its capital at Ujjayini and the southern part had its centre at Mahishmati. The Avantis, the ancient people belonging to this realm were described as mahavala in the Udyoga Parva of the Mahabharata, according to the Puranic accounts, the Haihayas were the earliest rulers of Avanti, who captured the region from the Nagas. Later the whole janapada was divided into two parts with the capitals at Mahishmati and Ujjayini, the Haihayas were a confederation of five clans, the Vitihotras, the Bhojas, the Avantis, the Tundikeras and the Sharyatas. Later, the Haihayas were better known by their dominant clan - the Vitihotras, ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his amatya Pulika, who placed his son, Pradyota on the throne. Some accounts place Ujjayini as the capital of Avanti, the Mahagovindasuttanta of the Dighanikaya mentions about an Avanti king Vessabhu and his capital Mahissati. Probably he was a Vitihotra ruler, Pradyota was contemporary to Gautama Buddha. He was also known as Chandapradyota Mahasena, Pradyota captured the Vatsa king Udayana but later he married his daughter Vasavadatta to Udayana. The Mahavagga described him as cruel and according to the Majjhima Nikaya, Ajatashatru and he also waged war on Pushkarasarin, king of Takshashila Pradyota’s chief queen Gopalamata was a disciple of Buddhist monk Mahakatyayana and constructed a stupa in Ujjayini. Prodyota had two sons, Gopala and Palaka, according to Jaina accounts Palaka ascended to the throne on the day of passing away of Mahavira. In the Mricchakatika, Palaka was described as a tyrant who was overthrown by a popular revolt and this revolt placed Aryaka on the throne of Ujjayini. The Puranas place Nadivardhana or Vartivardhana after Aryaka, but these names are probably corruptions of Avantivardhana, the name of the son of Palaka according to the Kathasaritsagara or the son of Gopala according to the Nepali Brihatkatha. He was defeated by Shishunaga, the king of Magadha, Avanti was a part of the Magadha empire during the rule of the Shaishunaga and the Nanda dynasties. During the Mauryan dynasty rule, Avanti became the Avantirāṭṭha or the province of the empire. The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman I mentions Pushyagupta as the governor of the province during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. During the reign of the next ruler Bindusara, prince Ashoka was the provincial governor, after the fall of the Mauryas, at the time of Pushyamitra Shunga, his son Agnimitra was the Magadhan viceroy at Vidisha, but he ruled independent of Magadha for all practical purposes. The Malava kingdom is one among the kingdoms ruled by the Yadava kings in the central. Sometimes Avanti and Malava were described to be the same country and they were originally a western tribe, in Punjab province of Pakistan
18.
Gandhara
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Gandhara is also an ancient name for Kandahar, Afghanistan. Gandhāra was an ancient Indic kingdom situated in the region of Pakistan. It encompassed the Peshawar valley and later extended to both Jalalabad district of modern-day Afghanistan as well as Taxila, in Pakistan. During the Achaemenid period and Hellenistic period, its city was Charsadda. It is mentioned in the Zend Avesta as Vaēkərəta, the sixth most beautiful place on earth and it was known as the crown jewel of Bactria and also held sway over Takṣaśilā. Gandhara existed since the time of the Rigveda and formed part of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, after it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1001 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period, the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul, during Mughal times, it was an independent district which included the Kabul province. The name Gāndhāra occurs later in the classical Sanskrit of the epics and it is recorded in Avestan as Vaēkərəta. The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, the Atharvaveda, one proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandha, meaning perfume and referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they traded and with which they anointed themselves. Some authors have connected the modern name Kandahar to Gandhara, Herodotus records that those Iranic tribes, which were adjacent to the city of Caspatyrus and the district of Pactyïce, had customs similar to the Bactrians, and are the most warlike amongst them. These are also the people who obtain gold from the ant-hills of the adjoining desert, on the identity of Caspatyrus, there have been two opinions, one equating it with Kabul, the other with the name of Kashmir. The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history, sometimes the Peshawar Valley and Taxila were collectively referred to as Gandhara, sometimes the Swat Valley was also included. The heart of Gandhara, however, was always the Peshawar Valley, the kingdom was ruled from capitals at Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Taxila, Puruṣapura and in its final days from Udabhandapura on the River Indus. Evidence of the Stone Age human inhabitants of Gandhara, including stone tools, the artifacts are approximately 15,000 years old. More recent excavations point to 30,000 years before the present, the region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, and the nucleus of Vedic civilisation. This culture flourished from 1500 to 500 BC and its evidence has been discovered in the hilly regions of Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila. The name of the Gandhāris is attested in the Rigveda and in ancient inscriptions dating back to Achaemenid Persia, the Behistun inscription listing the 23 territories of King Darius I includes Gandāra along with Bactria and Sattagydia. In the book Histories by Herodotus, Gandhara is named as a source of tax collections for King Darius, the Gandhāris, along with the Balhika, Mūjavants, Angas, and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, as distant people
19.
Kosala
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Kosala was an ancient Indian kingdom, corresponding roughly in area with the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh. It emerged as a state during the late Vedic period. However, it was weakened by a series of wars with the neighbouring kingdom of Magadha and. The Kosala region had three cities, Ayodhya, Saket and Shravasti, and a number of minor towns as Setavya, Ukattha, Dandakappa, Nalakapana. According to the Puranas and the Ramayana epic, Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala during the reign of Ikshvaku, Shravasti is recorded as the capital of Kosala during the Mahajanapada period, but post-Maurya kings issued their coins from Ayodhya. The mention of Kosala is not found in the early Vedic literature and it is mentioned as a region in the later Vedic texts of the Satapatha Brahmana and the Kalpasutras. In the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas the ruling family of the Kosala kingdom was descended from king Ikshvaku, the Puranas give lists of kings of the Aikhsvaka dynasty from Ikshvaku to Presenajit Dhaka. According to the Ramayana, Rama ruled the Kosala kingdom from his capital, a Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan and Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. In the time of king Mahakosala, the neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom. Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Pasenadi and he was a follower of Buddha. During his absence from the capital, his minister Digha Charayana raised his son Vidudabha Virudhaka to the throne, not much later, the Kosala kingdom was absorbed into its expanding neighbor, the Magadha kingdom. The Ikshvakus were the clan of Kosala. They were defeated by Ajatashatru of the Haryanka dynasty and it is assumed that during the Mauryan reign, Kosala was administratively under the viceroy at Kaushambi. The Sohgaura copper plate inscription, probably issued during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya deals with a famine in Shravasti, the Yuga Purana section of the Garga Samhita mentions about the Yavana invasion and subsequent occupation of Saket during the reign of the last Maurya ruler Brihadratha. The names of a number of rulers of Kosala of the period are known from the square copper coins issued by them. The rulers are, Muladeva, Vayudeva, Vishakhadeva, Dhanadeva, there is no way to know whether king Muladeva of the coins is identifiable with Muladeva, murderer of the Shunga ruler Vasumitra or not. King Dhanadeva of the coins is identified with king Dhanadeva of Ayodhya inscription, in this Sanskrit inscription, King Kaushikiputra Dhanadeva mentions about setting a ketana in memory of his father, Phalgudeva. In this inscription he claimed himself as the sixth in descent from Pushyamitra Shunga, Dhanadeva issued both cast and die-struck coins and both the types have a bull on obverse
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Pasenadi
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Pasenadi was an Aikṣvāka dynasty ruler of Kosala. He succeeded his father Sanjaya Mahākosala and he was a prominent Upāsaka of Gautama Buddha, who built many Buddhist monasteries. Pasenadi studied in Taxila in his early life and he was the king of Kosala. His first queen was a Magadhan princess and his second queen was Vāsavakhattiyā, daughter of Mahānāma, a Sākya by a slave girl Nāgamundā. Though she was a slave girl not the original daughter of Mahanama. From this marriage, he had a son, Viḍūḍabha and a daughter Princess Vajira and his third and chief queen was Mallika, daughter of the chief of garland-makers. Once, while he was away from his capital Shravasti, his minister Dīgha Chārāyana placed his son Viḍūḍabha on the throne and he went to Magadha to seek help from Ajātasattu in order to regain his throne. But before being able to him, Pasenadi died of exposure outside the gates of Rājagaha. The Puranas instead of Viḍūḍabha mention the name of Kṣudraka as his successor, sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, ed. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0465-1
21.
Varanasi
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The spiritual capital of India, it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities in Hinduism and Jainism, and played an important role in the development of Buddhism. Varanasi lies along National Highway 2, which connects it to Kolkata, Kanpur, Agra, and Delhi, Varanasi is also one of 72 districts in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. At the time of the 2011 census, there were a total 8 blocks and 1329 villages in this district, Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre, famous for its muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture. Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon, The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma, at nearby Sarnath. The citys religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century, Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Ramas life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi. Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir, Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507, a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism. The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737, silk weaving, carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population, as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964, Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years, and is closely associated with the Ganges. Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation, making it a centre for pilgrimage. The city is known worldwide for its ghats, embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions. Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat, the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead. The Ramnagar Fort, near the bank of the Ganges, was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards. Among the estimated 23,000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva, the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, the Kashi Naresh is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi, and an essential part of all religious celebrations. One of Asias largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University, the Hindi-language nationalist newspaper, Aj, was first published in 1920. The old city is located on the shores of the Ganges, bounded by Varuna. The name was used by pilgrims dating from Buddhas days. Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi, such as Kāśikā, Avimukta, Ānandavana, according to legend, Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva. It is regarded as one of seven cities which can provide Moksha, Ayodhyā, Mathurā, Gayā, Kāśi, Kañchi, Avantikā
22.
Licchavi (clan)
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The Licchavis were the most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji mahajanapada of ancient India. Vaishali the capital and homeland of the Licchavis, was the capital of the Vajji mahajanapada also and it was later occupied by Ajatashatru, who annexed the Vajji territory into his kingdom. Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra, describes the Licchavis as a tribal confederation, a Buddhist text, the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta refers them as Kshatriyas and one of the claimants of the relics of Buddha. They have claimed Kshatriya status themselves, according to the Dīgha Nikāya, the Licchavis were of the Vasiṣṭha gotra. Buhler assumes that, in the Manusmriti, the Licchavis are placed in the category of the Vratya Kshatriyas, buddhaghośa in his Paramatthajotikā, traced the origin of the Licchavis to Benaras. The date of the establishment of the Licchavi domination over the area consisting of present-day north Bihar, by the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha this clan was already well settled in the area around their capital Vaiśālī. Buddhist tradition has preserved the names of a number of eminent Licchavis, the Kalpasūtra of Bhadravāhu refers to the nine Licchavi gaṇarājas who along with the nine Malla gaṇarājas and the eighteen Kāśī-Kośala gaṇarājas formed a league against Magadha. The leader of this alliance was Chetaka, whose sister Trishala was the mother of Mahavira, only scattered reports of the Licchavi government system survive. The introductory portions of the Cullakalinga Jātaka and the Ekapaṇṇa Jātaka mention the Licchavi as having 7,707 Rājās, the number is one of convention, and unlikely to have been exact. It does demonstrate that Licchavi, unlike most of its neighbours, was not an absolute monarchy, ultimate authority rested with the 7,707 raja who met each year to elect one of their member as ruler and a council of nine to assist him. It was far from a democracy as only a portion of the Licchavi population qualified to vote. Those with raja status were only the heads of households who belonged to the kshatriya varna. The seat of the Licchavi administration was in Vaiśālī, the capital of the Vajjiian confederacy, the Rājā was the highest executive and judicial authority. The introductory portion of the Bhaddasāla Jātaka mentions about a tank, the assembly hall where these Gaṇarājas met for discussion was known as the Santhāgāra. The Aṭṭhakathā mentions about the three chief functionaries of the Licchavi administration, the Rājā, the Uparājā and the Senāpati, the introductory portion of the Ekapaṇṇa Jātaka adds one more with it, the Bhāṇḍāgārika. According to the Aṭṭhakathā, an accused criminal had to pass through seven layers of judges and these judges were the Viniccaya Mahāmātta, the Vohārika, the Sūttadhāra, Aṭṭhakūlakā. Then the Senāpati and the Uparājā, the final judge was the Rājā, who could find him guilty, whereupon the convict received the punishment prescribed in the Paveṇipotthaka for the offence committed by him. In the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, he is described as the Licchavidauhitra and these probably suggest Licchavi occupation of Magadha immediately before the rise of the imperial Guptas, although there is no direct evidence to prove it
23.
Vaishali (ancient city)
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Vaishali was a city in Bihar, India, and is now an archeological site. It is a part of the Tirhut Division and it was the capital city of the Licchavi, considered one of the first example of a republic, in the Vajjian Confederacy mahajanapada, around the 6th century BCE. It was here in 599 BCE the 24th Jain Tirthankara, Bhagwan Mahavira was born and brought up in Kundalagrama in Vaiśālī republic and it contains one of the best-preserved of the Pillars of Ashoka, topped by a single Asiatic lion. At the time of the Buddha, Vaiśālī, which he visited on occasions, was a very large city, rich and prosperous, crowded with people. There were 7,707 pleasure grounds and an number of lotus ponds. Its courtesan, Amrapali, was famous for her beauty, the city had three walls, each one gāvuta away from the other, and at three places in the walls were gates with watch towers. Outside the town, leading uninterruptedly up to the Himalaya, was the Mahavana, nearby were other forests, such as Gosingalasāla. Vaishali derives its name from King Vishal of the Mahabharata age, the city was also called Visālā. Buddhaghosa, the a 5th-century Indian Theravadin Buddhist commentator and scholar says, even before the advent of Buddhism and Jainism, Vaiśālī was the capital of the vibrant republican Licchavi state. In that period, Vaiśālī was an ancient metropolis and the city of the republic of the Vaiśālī state. However, very little is known about the history of Vaiśālī. The last among the 34 was Sumati, who is considered a contemporary of Dasaratha, father of the Hindu god, in the republic of Vaiśālī, Lord Mahavira was born. Gautama Buddha delivered his last sermon at Vaiśālī and announced his Parinirvana there, Vaiśālī is also renowned as the land of Amrapali, the great Indian courtesan, who appears in many folktales, as well as in Buddhist literature. Ambapali became a disciple of Buddha. Manudev was a king of the illustrious Lichchavi clan of the confederacy. A kilometer away is Abhishek Pushkarini, the coronation tank, the sacred waters of the tank anointed the elected representatives of Vaiśālī. Next to it stands the Japanese temple and the Vishwa Shanti Stupa built by the Nipponzan Myohoji sect of Japan, a small part of the Buddhas relics found in Vaiśālī have been enshrined in the foundation and in the chhatra of the Stupa. Near the coronation tank is Stupa 1 or the Relic Stupa, here the Lichchavis reverentially encased one of the eight portions of the Masters relics, which they received after the Mahaparinirvana. After his last discourse the Awakened One set out for Kushinagar, Buddha gave them his alms bowl but they still refused to return
24.
Punjab
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The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
25.
Jain literature
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Jain literature comprises Jain Agamas and subsequent commentaries on them by various Jain asectics. Jain literature is divided between Digambara literature and Svetambara literature. Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu, the canonical texts of Jainism are called Agamas. These are said to be based on the discourse of the tirthankara and these discourses are termed as Śrutu Jnāna and comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas. According to the Jains, the canonical literature originated from the first tirthankara Rishabhanatha, the Digambara sect believes that there were 26 Agam‑sutras. However, they were gradually lost starting from one hundred fifty years after Lord Mahavirs nirvana, hence, they do not recognize the existing Agam-sutras as their authentic scriptures. In Digambara tradition, two texts, three commentaries on main texts, and four Anuyogas consisting of more than 20 texts are followed. These scriptures were written by great Acharyas from 100 to 1000 AD using the original Agama Sutras as the basis for their work. K. Jain, The prathmanuyoga contains the history, the karananuyoga contains works on cosmology. The Shatkhandagama is also known as Maha‑kammapayadi‑pahuda or Maha‑karma‑prabhrut, two Acharyas, Pushpadanta and Bhutabali wrote it around 160 AD. The second Purva‑agama named Agraya‑niya was used as the basis for this text, Acharya Virasena wrote two commentary texts, known as Dhaval‑tika on the first five volumes and Maha‑dhaval‑tika on the sixth volume of this scripture, around 780 AD. Acharya Gunadhara wrote the Kasay-pahud on the basis of the fifth Purva‑agama named Jnana‑pravad, Acharya Virasena and his disciple, Jinasena, wrote a commentary text known as Jaya‑dhaval‑tika around 780 AD. It is based on the major Jain text, Dhavala written by the Acharya Bhutabali and Acharya Pushpadanta. It is also called Pancha Sangraha, a collection of five topics, That which is bound, i. e. the Soul, That which is bound to the soul, That which binds, The varieties of bondage, bhadrabahu is considered by the jains as last sutra-kevali. He wrote various books known as niyukti, which are commentaries on those scriptures and he also wrote Samhita, a book dealing with legal cases. Umaswati wrote Tattvarthadhigama-sutra which briefly describes all the basic tennets of Jainism, haribhadra wrote the Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, a key Jain text on Yoga which compares the Yoga systems of Buddhists, Hindus and Jains. Siddhasena Divakara, a contemporary of Vikramaditya, wrote Nyayavatra a work on pure logic, Hemachandra wrote the Yogaśāstra, a textbook on yoga and Adhatma Upanishad. His minor work Vitragastuti gives outlines of the Jaina doctrine in form of hymns and this was later detailed by Mallisena in his work Syadavadamanjari
26.
Jain monasticism
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Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community. The term nirgrantha was used for Jain monks in the past, the monastic practices of two major sects vary greatly, but the major principles of both are identical. Digambaras use the word muṇi for male monastics and aryika for female monastics, Digambara monks are also called nirgrantha. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta, Nigaṇṭha means without knot, tie, or string, Jñātaputta refers to his clan of origin, Jñāta or Naya. Śvētāmbaras use the word sadhvis for female monastics, historians believe that a united Jain sangha existed before 367 BCE, about 160 years after the moksha of Mahavira. The community then gradually divided into two denominations, the Digambara and the Śvētāmbara, acharya Kundakunda is the most revered acharya of the Duḥṣamā period of the present avasarpiṇī era. Five mahāvratas, from Mahaviras teachings, are followed by all Jain ascetics, although Jain householders are also required to observe them, ascetics are bound more strictly. Digambara monks follow 28 vratas, five mahāvratas, five samitis, the control of the senses, six Şadāvaśyakas. A Śvētāmbara initiation involves a procession in which the initiate symbolically disposes of his material wealth and this is followed by another ritual in which the initiate receives an ogho from their mentor as a symbol of welcome into the monastic order. The initiate then puts on monastic clothing and pluck out hairs by hand, further rituals formally initiate them into the monastic order. The Śvētāmbara Terapanth sect requests written permission from a persons parents before initiating them into the ascetic order, the earliest known texts often ask for ascetics to be in complete solitude, identifying the isolation of soul and non-soul. However, soon after Mahaviras death ascetics organized themselves into groups, a few examples of ascetics living in complete solitude are found in the Digambara sect. Jain ascetics are detached from social and worldly activities, all activities are aimed at self-purification for self-realization and they follow established guidelines for daily worship and austerity. The monks daily routine is broadly structured by three ideological formulae, the five vows, the eight matrices of doctrine, and the six obligatory actions. The first two are restrictions, and the third is positively framed in what the monk is encouraged to do daily, ascetics do not have a home or possessions. They choose austerity, avoid services such as telephones and electricity, Monks engage in activities such as meditation, seeking knowledge and acquiring self-discipline. The Yati of the sect and the Bhattaraka of the Digambara Terapanth do not wander, they usually live in temples. The monks rise before dawn, most around 5,00 a. m. in observance of utsarg-samiti, defecation takes place in the open where feces not harm living creatures, urination is into a shallow pan, which is emptied onto a dry patch of ground
27.
Samavasarana
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In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana Refuge to All is a term for the divine preaching hall of the Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama meaning general and avasara meaning opportunity, a place where all have a common opportunity of acquiring the wisdom. The divine pavilion is built by heavenly beings after the tirthankara attain omniscience, the theme of Samavasaranas has been popular in Jain art. In samavasarana, the tirthankara sat on a throne without touching it, around the tirthankara sit the ganadharas. The total size of the hall varies depending upon the height of the people in that era, the size of Rishabhadevas samavasarana was 12 km2. In samavasarana, a tirthankara sits facing the east, but appears to be looking in all directions, Tirthankara sits on a soft cushion while preaching the Jain philosophy in plain terms. All humans and animals can understand the discourse, Jain scriptures say that all creatures who listen would become less violent and greed less. The speech of the tirthankara is distinctly heard by every one present, risabha Deva - The Founder of Jainism. Article with Picture of Samavasarana Samavasarana in Detail
28.
Mahavira
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Mahavira, also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara. Mahavira was born into a family in what is now Bihar, India. At the age of 30, he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, and abandoned worldly things, including his clothes, for the next twelve-and-a-half years, Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance, after which he became kevalī. For the next 30 years, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent to teach Jain philosophy, Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha is necessary to elevate the quality of life. He gave the principle of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada, the teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami and were called Jain Agamas. Most of these Agamas are not available today, jains believe Mahavira attained moksha at the age of 72. In Jainism, a Tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths, according to the Jain texts, twenty-four Tirthankaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpani, Samantabhadra, an illustrious Digambara monk, who lived in the 2nd century A. D. called the tīrtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya. Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors, in addition to that, Parshvanatha is accepted as a historical figure. According to Jain texts, Mahaviras childhood name was Vardhamāna, because of the prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth. He was called Mahavira because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood, Mahavira was given the title Jīnā, which later became synonymous with Tirthankara. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta, Nigaṇṭha means without knot, tie, or string and Jñātaputta, refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya. He is also known as Sramana, in the Gregorian calendar, this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti. Traditionally, Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace, in the present-day Sikandra Division of Jamui district, according to Jainism, after his birth, anointment and abhisheka —carried out by Indra on Mount Meru. Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama, now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar, Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B. C. to 527 B. C. Western historians date Mahavira as living from 480 BC to 408 BC, some Western scholars suggest Mahavira died around 425 BC. His height was seven cubits as per the description given in Aupapatika Sutra, as the son of a king, Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal. According to the chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra
29.
Ramayana
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The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa, the Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses, divided into seven Kandas, in Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story, it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The name Ramayana is a compound of the name Rāma and ayana. According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata, the definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmikis Ramayana is a poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a manuscript found in Nepal. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, the Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions, the northern and the southern, scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmikis Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are parts of the book, in spite of some style differences. Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the body of Ramayana. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons of Hindu chronology, Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters are all known in late Vedic literature, however, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana and this version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira
30.
Balabhadra
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In Jainism, Balabhadra or Baladeva are among the sixty-three illustrious beings called śalākāpuruṣas that are said to grace every half cycle of time. According to Jain cosmology, śalākāpuruṣa are born on earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. They comprise twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras, twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana and their life stories are said to be most inspiring. According to the Jain puranas, the Balabhadras lead an ideal Jain life
31.
Karma in Jainism
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Karma is the basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. Human moral actions form the basis of the transmigration of the soul, the soul is constrained to a cycle of rebirth, trapped within the temporal world, until it finally achieves liberation. Liberation is achieved by following a path of purification, Karma not only encompasses the causality of transmigration, but is also conceived of as an extremely subtle matter, which infiltrates the soul—obscuring its natural, transparent and pure qualities. Karma is thought of as a kind of pollution, that taints the soul with various colours, based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of karma, various types of karma are classified according to their effects on the potency of the soul. The Jain theory seeks to explain the process by specifying the various causes of karmic influx and bondage, placing equal emphasis on deeds themselves. The Jain karmic theory attaches great responsibility to individual actions, the Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities and purity of conduct. According to Jains, all souls are pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss. However, in experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time and this bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further, Jainism speaks of karmic dirt, as karma is thought to be manifest as very subtle and microscopically imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe. They are so small that one space-point—the smallest possible extent of space—contains an infinite number of karmic particles and it is these karmic particles that adhere to the soul and affect its natural potency. This material karma is called dravya karma, and the resultant emotions—pleasure, pain, love, hatred, the relationship between the material and psychic karma is that of cause and effect. The material karma gives rise to the feelings and emotions in worldly souls, which—in turn—give rise to psychic karma and these emotions, yet again, result in influx and bondage of fresh material karma. Jains hold that the matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are the carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world. When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in an interactive karmic field called kārmaṇa śarīra, thus, karma is a subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul
32.
Tirthankara
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In Jainism, a tirthankara is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the dharma. The word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which is a passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. According to Jains, a tirthankara is an individual who has conquered the saṃsāra. After understanding the nature of the Self or soul, the Tīrthaṅkara attains Kevala Jnana. Tirthankara provides a bridge for others to follow the new teacher from saṃsāra to moksha, according to Jain cosmology, in each half of the cosmic time cycle, exactly twenty-four tirthankaras grace this part of the universe. The first tirthankara was Rishabhanatha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously, the 24th and last tirthankara of present half-cycle was Mahavira. History records the existence of Mahavira and his predecessor, Parshvanatha, a tirthankara organises the sangha, a fourfold order of male and female monastics, srāvakas and śrāvikās. The tirthankaras teachings form the basis for the Jain canons, the inner knowledge of tirthankara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement, the higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required. While tirthankaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to all living beings, Tīrthaṅkaras are arihants who after attaining kevalajñāna preach the true dharma. An Arihant is also called Jina, that is one who has conquered inner enemies such as anger, attachment, pride and they dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they help others in attaining kevalajñana, the word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Tirthankaras are variously called Teaching Gods, Ford-Makers, Crossing Makers and Makers of the River-Crossing, Jain texts propound that a special type of karma, the tīrthaṅkara nama-karma, raises a soul to the supreme status of a Tīrthaṅkara. Five auspicious events called, Pañca kalyāṇaka marks the life of tirthankara, Gārbha kalyāṇaka. Janma kalyāṇaka, Birth of a tirthankara, indra performs a ceremonial bath on tirthankara on Mount Meru. Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara renounces all worldly possessions and become an ascetic, jñāna kalyāṇaka, The event when a tirthankara attains kevalajñāna. A samavasarana is erected from where he delivers sermons and restores sangha after that, nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara leaves his mortal body, it is known as nirvana
33.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
35.
Penguin Books
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Penguin Books is a British publishing house. It was founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane as a line of the publishers The Bodley Head, Penguins success demonstrated that large audiences existed for serious books. Penguin also had a significant impact on public debate in Britain, through its books on British culture, politics, the arts, and science. Penguin Books is now an imprint of the worldwide Penguin Random House and it is one of the largest English-language publishers, formerly known as the Big Six, now the Big Five. The first Penguin paperbacks were published in 1935, but at first only as an imprint of The Bodley Head with the books originally distributed from the crypt of Holy Trinity Church Marylebone, Penguin Books has its registered office in the City of Westminster, London, England. However the question of how publishers could reach a larger public had been the subject of a conference at Rippon Hall, inexpensive paperbacks did not initially appear viable to Bodley Head, since the deliberately low price of 6d. This helped Allen Lane purchase publication rights for some works more cheaply than he otherwise might have done since other publishers were convinced of the short term prospects of the business. By March 1936, ten months after the launch on 30 July 1935. It was Frost who in 1945 was entrusted with the reconstruction of Penguin Inc after the departure of its first managing director Ian Ballantine, from the outset, design was essential to the success of the Penguin brand. In the central panel, the author and title were printed in Gill Sans. The initial design was created by the then 21-year-old office junior Edward Young, series such as Penguin Specials and The Penguin Shakespeare had individual designs. Lane actively resisted the introduction of images for several years. Some recent publications of literature from that time have duplicated the original look, from 1937 and on, the headquarters of Penguin Books was at Harmondsworth west of London and so it remained until the 1990s when a merge with Viking involved the head office moving to London. Paper rationing was the problem of publishers during wartime, with the fall of France cutting off supply of esparto grass. This was particularly advantageous to Penguin who as a volume printer had enjoyed a successful year that year. Further in a deal with the Canadian Government, Penguin had agreed to publish editions for their armed forces for which they were paid in tons of paper. Penguin would receive 60 tons a month from Paper Supply in return for 10 titles a month in runs of 75,000 at 5d, however demand was exceeding supply on the home front leading Lane to seek a monopoly on army books made specifically for overseas distribution. This dominance over the paper supply put Penguin in a strong position after the war as rationing continued
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The Times of India
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The Times of India is an Indian English-language daily newspaper. It is the fourth-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest selling English-language daily in the according to Audit Bureau of Circulations. It is the oldest English-language newspaper in India still in circulation, in 1991, the BBC ranked The Times of India among the worlds six best newspapers. It is owned and published by Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. which is owned by the Sahu Jain family. In 2014 however, The Times of India was ranked 174th among Indias most trusted brands according to the Brand Trust Report 2014, the Times of India issued its first edition 3 November 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. In 1850, it began to publish daily editions, in 1860, editor Robert Knight bought the Indian shareholders interests, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started Indias first news agency. It wired Times dispatches to papers across the country and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service, in 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. In the 19th century, this company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India. In 1946, Bennett Coleman & Co, Ltd was sold to sugar magnate Ramkrishna Dalmia of the then-famous industrial family, the Dalmiyas, for Rs 20 million, as India was becoming independent and the British owners were leaving. In the court case followed, Ramkrishna Dalmia was sentenced to two years in Tihar Jail after having been convicted of embezzlement and fraud. But for most of the term he managed to spend in hospital. Upon his release, his son-in-law, Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain, to whom he had entrusted the running of Bennett, in the early 1960s, Shanti Prasad Jain was imprisoned on charges of selling newsprint on the black market. Based on the pleading, Justice directed the Government to assume control of the newspaper which resulted in replacing half of the directors, curiously, the court appointed D K Kunte as Chairman of the Board. Kunte had no business experience and was also an Opposition member of the Lok Sabha. In 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Government transferred ownership of the back to Ashok Kumar Jain. The move was a critique of Prime Minister Indira Gandhis 21-month state of emergency, in late 2006, Times Group acquired Vijayanand Printers Limited. VPL previously published two Kannada newspapers, Vijay Karnataka and Usha Kiran, and an English daily, Vijay Times, Vijay Karnataka was the leader in the Kannada newspaper segment then. The paper launched a Chennai edition,12 April 2008 and it launched a Kolhapur edition, February 2013
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Routledge
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Routledge is a British multinational publisher. The company publishes approximately 1,800 journals &5,000 new books each year, Routledge is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities and social sciences. Following the merger of Informa and T&F in 2004, Routledge become a publishing unit, the firm originated in 1836, when Camden bookseller George Routledge published an unsuccessful guidebook, The Beauties of Gilsand with his brother-in-law W H Warne as assistant. The company was restyled in 1858 as Routledge, Warne & Routledge when George Routledges son, Robert Warne Routledge, Frederick Warne eventually left the company after the death of his brother W. H. Warne in May 1859. Gaining rights to titles, he founded Frederick Warne & Co in 1865. In July 1865, his son Edmund Routledge became a partner, by 1902 the company was running close to bankruptcy. Following a successful restructuring, however, it was able to recover and began to acquire and merge with other publishing companies including J. C. In 1912 the company merged with Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. the descendant of companies founded by Charles Kegan Paul, Alexander Chenevix Trench, Nicholas Trübner and it was soon particularly known for its titles in the social sciences. In 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul joined with Associated Book Publishers, just two year later, Cinven and Routledges directors accepted a deal for Routledges acquisition by Taylor & Francis Group, with the Routledge name being retained as an imprint and subdivision. In 2004, T&F became a division within Informa plc after a merger, Routledge has grown considerably as a result of organic growth and acquisitions of other publishing companies and other publishers titles by its parent company. Humanities and social sciences acquired by T&F from other publishers are rebranded under the Routledge imprint. The famous English publisher Fredric Warburg was an editor at Routledge during the early 20th century. Novelist Nina Stibbe author of Love, Nina worked at the company as a Commissioning Editor in the 1990s, the republished works of these authors have appeared as part of the Routledge Classics and Routledge Great Minds series. Competitors to the series are Verso Books Radical Thinkers, Penguin Classics, Taylor and Francis closed down the Routledge print encyclopaedia division in 2006. Some of its publications were, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Edward Craig, in 10 volumes, Encyclopedia of Ethics, by Lawrence C. Reference Works by Europa Publications, published by Routledge, Europa World Year Book, many of Routledges reference works are published in print and electronic formats as Routledge Handbooks and have their own dedicated Web site, Routledge Handbooks Online. Records of Routledge & Kegan Paul - Correspondence files covering the period 1935 to 1990, as well as review files 1950s-1990s, Special Collections, archives of George Routledge & Company 1853-1902, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973. 6 reels of microfilm and printed index, archives of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Henry S. King 1858-1912, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973
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Motilal Banarsidass
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Motilal Banarsidass is a leading Indian publishing house on Sanskrit and Indology since 1903, located in Delhi, India. It has a turnover of approximately Rs 5–6 crore, roughly 75% coming from exports, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers was first established in Lahore in 1903 by Lala Motilal Jain, a descendant of the family of court jewellers to Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Amritsar. Motilal borrowed Rs.27 from his wifes savings that she had earned from her knitting work and he named it after his eldest son Motilal Banarsidass Jain, who later took charge of the publishing business. Soon he was joined by his young nephew Shantilal Jain, who had just finished school, soon a printing unit was also set up and the publishing house was established. In 1937, a branch was started in Patna at the suggestion of Rajendra Prasad, subsequently during the Partition of India a riot burnt down the Lahore shop. In 1992, Shantilal Jain was awarded the Padma Shri by Govt. of India, today Shantilals eldest son Narendra Prakash Jain, widely known as Prakashand his four brothers and their sons, along with their mother, Leela Jain, who is companys Chairperson, run the business. In 2003, the company celebrated its centenary at a function in Chennai, sharma. at function held at Bangalore, Governor of Karnataka, T. N. Chaturvedi, felicitated centenarian, Sudhakar Chaturvedi, S. M. S, chari, and B. K. Krishnamurthy of Hyderabad for their contribution to Indology, and eminent astrologer, B. V. Raman, was honoured posthumously. Its main shop in Delhi is on Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, in the University of Delhi North Campus area and it houses Indological literature of around 30,000 titles. Advaita Tradition Series by Shoun Hino & K. P, jog, Performing Arts Series edited by Farlay P. Richmond. Wisdom of Sankara Series by Som Raj Gupta, Kalamulasastra Series, bibliotheca Buddhica ed. Sergey Oldenburg, Fyodor Shcherbatskoy, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Motilal Banarsidass, Website Treasure trove of Indology at The Hindu Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi wikimapia
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Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
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