1.
Resident Evil
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Resident Evil, known as Biohazard in Japan, is a survival horror video game-based media franchise created by Shinji Mikami and Tokuro Fujiwara and owned by the video game company Capcom. The eponymous first game in the series was released in 1996 as a horror video game. The series is a mix of action and horror film-inspired plotlines, exploration, as of January 27,2017, the video game series has sold 75 million units worldwide, and is Capcoms biggest franchise in terms of software sales. In Japan the games are known as Biohazard. Resident Evil made its debut on the PlayStation in 1996 and was ported to the Sega Saturn. A port of Resident Evil 2 was released for the Nintendo 64, in addition, ports of all three were released for Microsoft Windows. The fourth game in the series, Resident Evil – Code, Veronica, was developed for the Dreamcast and released in 2000, followed by ports of Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 3. Resident Evil Code, Veronica was later re-released for Dreamcast in Japan in a form as Code, Veronica Complete. This updated version was ported to the PlayStation 2 and GameCube under the title Code, Veronica X. Resident Evil 4 was later released for Windows, PlayStation 2. In addition, the GameCube received ports of the previous Resident Evil sequels, despite this exclusivity agreement between Capcom and Nintendo, Capcom released several Resident Evil titles for the PlayStation 2 that were not considered direct sequels. A trilogy of GunCon-compatible light gun known as the Gun Survivor series featured first person game play. The first, Resident Evil Survivor, was released in 2000 for the PlayStation and PC, the subsequent games, Resident Evil, Survivor 2 Code, Veronica and Resident Evil, Dead Aim, fared somewhat better. Dead Aim is the fourth Gun Survivor game in Japan, with Gun Survivor 3 being the Dino Crisis spin-off Dino Stalker, in a similar vein, the Chronicles series features first person game play, albeit on an on-rails path. Resident Evil, The Umbrella Chronicles was released in 2007 for the Wii, with a follow up, Resident Evil and it was the first in the series and the first survival horror title to feature cooperative gameplay and online multiplayer support. It was followed by a sequel, Resident Evil Outbreak File #2, the town served a critical junction for the series progression as one of the main catalysts to Umbrellas downfall as well as the entry point for some of the series most notable characters. Resident Evil Gaiden is a game for the Game Boy Color featuring an role-playing-style combat system. There have been several downloadable mobile games based on the Resident Evil series in Japan, some of these mobile games have been released in North America and Europe through T-Mobile. However, as of 2012, no announcements have been made
2.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
3.
Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
4.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
5.
Health
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Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt, other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. The definition of health has evolved over time, although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time it was set aside as an impractical ideal, just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, the 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, it is a concept, emphasizing social and personal resources. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults, since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health. Progress has been limited for many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches, a new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years. Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences, studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health. Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of importance for both his health status and quality of their life. The concept of the field, as distinct from medical care. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individuals health, the maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the health triangle. The WHOs 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. Health and illness can co-exist, as people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy
6.
Hazard symbol
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Hazard symbols or warning symbols are recognisable symbols designed to warn about hazardous materials, locations, or objects, including electric currents, poisons, and radioactivity. The use of symbols is often regulated by law and directed by standards organisations. Hazard symbols may appear different colors, backgrounds, borders and supplemental information in order to specify the type of hazard. Warning symbols are used in places in lieu of or addition to written warnings as they are quickly recognized. On roadside warning signs, a mark is often used to draw attention to a generic warning of danger, hazards. In Europe, this type of sign is used if there are no signs to denote a particular hazard. When used for signs, it is accompanied by a supplementary sign describing the hazard. This symbol has also more widely adopted for generic use in many other contexts not associated with road traffic. It often appears on hazardous equipment or in instruction manuals to draw attention to a precaution, the symbol, or some variation thereof, specifically with the bones below the skull, was also featured on the Jolly Roger, the traditional flag of European and American seagoing pirates. It is also part of the Canadian WHMIS home symbols placed on containers to warn that the contents are poisonous, the international radiation symbol first appeared in 1946, at the University of California, Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. At the time, it was rendered as magenta, and was set on a blue background, the trefoil is black in the international version, which is also acceptable in the US. The sign is commonly referred to as a radioactivity warning sign, ionizing radiation is a much broader category than radioactivity alone, as many non-radioactive sources also emit potentially dangerous levels of ionizing radiation. This includes x-ray apparatus, medical beam cannons and particle accelerators, non-ionizing radiation can also reach potentially dangerous levels, but this warning sign is different from the trefoil ionizing radiation warning symbol. The new symbol, to be used on sealed radiation sources, is aimed at alerting anyone, anywhere to the danger of being close to a strong source of ionizing radiation. It depicts, on a red background, a trefoil with waves of radiation streaming from it, along with a black skull and crossbones. The radiating trefoil suggests the presence of radiation, while the red background, the figure running away from the scene is meant to suggest taking action to avoid the labeled material. The biohazard symbol was developed by the Dow Chemical Company in 1966 for their containment products, in an article in Science in 1967, the symbol was presented as the new standard for all biological hazards. The chosen scored the best on nationwide testing for memorability and it is used in the labeling of biological materials that carry a significant health risk, including viral samples and used hypodermic needles
7.
Dow Chemical Company
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The Dow Chemical Co. commonly referred to as Dow, is an American multinational chemical corporation headquartered in Midland, Michigan, United States. As of 2007, it is the second-largest chemical manufacturer in the world by revenue and as of February 2009 and it ranked second in the world by chemical production in 2014. Dow manufactures plastics, chemicals, and agricultural products, with a presence in about 160 countries, it employs about 54,000 people worldwide. The company has seven different major operating segments, with a variety of products made by each one. Dows 2012 sales totaled approximately $57 billion, Dow has been called the chemical companies chemical company in that most of its sales are to other industries rather than end-users. Dow sells directly to end-users primarily in the human and animal health, Dow is a member of the American Chemistry Council. Dow is a producer of plastics, including polystyrene, polyurethane, polyethylene, polypropylene. It is also a producer of ethylene oxide, various acrylates, surfactants. It produces agricultural chemicals including the pesticide Lorsban and consumer products including Styrofoam, some Dow consumer products including Saran wrap, Ziploc bags and Scrubbing Bubbles were sold to S. C. Johnson & Son in 1997. Performance plastics make up 25 percent of Dows sales, with products designed for the automotive. The plastics include polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene, as well as used to produce Styrofoam insulating material. Dow manufactures epoxy resin intermediates including bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin, major product lines include nitroparaffins, such as nitromethane, used in the pharmaceutical industry and manufactured by ANGUS Chemical Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of The Dow Chemical Co. Important polymers include Dowex ion exchange resins, acrylic and polystyrene latex, specialty chemicals are used as starting materials for production of agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals. Dow Water and Process Solutions is a unit which manufactures Filmtec reverse osmosis membranes which are used to purify water for human use in the Middle East. The technology was used during the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2008 Summer Olympics, agricultural Sciences provides 7 percent of sales and is responsible for a range of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Genetically modified plant seeds are also an important, growing area, Dow AgroSciences sells seeds commercially under the following brands, Mycogen, Atlas, PhytoGen and Hyland Seeds in Canada. Basic plastics end up in everything from diaper liners to beverage bottles, products are based on the three major polyolefins – polystyrene, polyethylene and polypropylene. Basic chemicals are used internally by Dow as raw materials and are sold worldwide
8.
Hypodermic needle
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A hypodermic needle, also called a sharp, is a very thin, hollow tube with a sharp tip which contains a small opening at the pointed end. It is commonly used with a syringe, a device with a plunger. They are used to take samples from the body, for example taking blood from a vein in venipuncture. Large bore hypodermic intervention is useful in catastrophic blood loss or treating shock. A hypodermic needle is used for delivery of liquids, or when the injected substance cannot be ingested, either because it would not be absorbed. There are many routes for an injection, with the arm being a common location. The hypodermic needle also serves an important role in research environments where sterile conditions are required, the hypodermic needle significantly reduces contamination during inoculation of a sterile substrate. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew injection as a method of delivery from observations of snakebites. There are also references to anointing and inunction in the Old Testament as well as the works of Homer, christopher Wren performed the earliest confirmed experiments with crude hypodermic needles, performing intravenous injection into dogs in 1656. These experiments consisted of using animal bladders and goose quills to administer drugs such as opium intravenously to dogs, Wren and others’ main interest was to learn if medicines traditionally administered orally would be effective intravenously. Elsholtz of Berlin were the first to experiment with injections in humans and these early experiments were generally ineffective and in some cases fatal. Injection fell out of favor for two centuries, the 19th century saw the development of medicines that were effective in small doses, such as opiates and strychnine. This spurred a renewed interest in direct, controlled application of medicine, some controversy surrounds the question of priority in hypodermic medication. Dr. Francis Rynd is generally credited with the first successful injection in 1844, Dr. Alexander Wood’s main contribution was the all-glass syringe in 1851, which allowed the user to estimate dosage based on the levels of liquid observed through the glass. Wood used hypodermic needles and syringes primarily for the application of localized, subcutaneous injection, simultaneous to Wood’s work in Edinburgh, Dr. Charles Pravaz of Lyon also experimented with sub-dermal injections in sheep using a syringe of his own design. Pravaz designed a syringe measuring 3 cm long and 5 mm in diameter, Dr. Charles Hunter, a London surgeon, is credited with the coining of the term hypodermic to describe subcutaneous injection in 1858. The name originates from two Greek words, hypo, under, and derma, skin, Hunter and Wood were involved in lengthy legal disputes over not only the origin of the modern hypodermic needle, but also because of their disagreement to the medicine’s effect once administered. Dr. Wood can be credited with the popularization and acceptance of injection as a medical technique, as well as the widespread use
9.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
10.
Biosafety level
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A biosafety level is a set of biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. The levels of containment range from the lowest biosafety level 1 to the highest at level 4, in the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have specified these levels. In the European Union, the same biosafety levels are defined in a directive, facilities with these designations are also sometimes given as P1 through P4, as in the term P3 laboratory. At the lowest level of biosafety, precautions may consist of regular hand-washing, kaempf was tired of his MP duties at Detrick and was able to transfer to the sheet metal department working with the contractor, the H. K. Ferguson Co. On 18 April 1955, fourteen representatives met at Camp Detrick in Frederick, because of the potential implication of the work conducted at biological warfare laboratories, the conferences were restricted to top level security clearances. Beginning in 1957, these conferences were planned to include non-classified sessions as well as classified sessions to enable sharing of biological safety information. It was not until 1964, however, that conferences were held in a government installation not associated with a biological warfare program, over the next ten years, the biological safety conferences grew to include representatives from all federal agencies that sponsored or conducted research with pathogenic microorganisms. By 1966 it began to include representatives from universities, private laboratories, hospitals, throughout the 1970s, participation in the conferences continued to expand and by 1983 discussions began regarding the creation of a formal organization. The American Biological Safety Association was officially established in 1984 and a constitution, as of 2008, ABSA includes some 1,600 members in its professional association. Biosafety level 1 is suitable for work with well-characterized agents which do not cause disease in healthy humans, in general, these agents should pose minimal potential hazard to laboratory personnel and the environment. At this level, precautions are limited relative to other levels, Laboratory personnel must wash their hands upon entering and exiting the lab. Research with these agents may be performed on standard open laboratory benches without the use of special containment equipment, however, eating and drinking are generally prohibited in laboratory areas. Potentially infectious material must be decontaminated before disposal, either by adding an appropriate disinfectant, personal protective equipment is only required for circumstances where personnel might be exposed to hazardous material. BSL-1 laboratories must have a door which can be locked to limit access to the lab, due to the relative ease and safety of maintaining a BSL-1 laboratory, these are the types of laboratories generally used as teaching spaces for high schools and colleges. At this level, all used at Biosafety Level 1 are followed. BSL-2 differs from BSL-1 in that, Laboratory personnel have specific training in handling pathogenic agents and are directed by scientists with advanced training, access to the laboratory is limited when work is being conducted. Extreme precautions are taken with contaminated sharp items, certain procedures in which infectious aerosols or splashes may be created are conducted in biological safety cabinets or other physical containment equipment. Biosafety level 2 is suitable for work involving agents of moderate potential hazard to personnel and this includes various microbes that cause mild disease to humans, or are difficult to contract via aerosol in a lab setting
11.
Sharps waste
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Needle removers are devices that physically remove a needle from a syringe. These countries cannot afford needles with individual safety devices attached, so needle-removers must be used to remove the needle from the syringe and this lowers possible pathogen spread by preventing the reuse of the syringes, reducing incidents of accidental needle-sticks, and facilitating syringe disposal. In developing countries, most hospitals are lacking in needle safety, needle-stick injuries are further complicated by disease transmission, such as Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV. In Ghana, a study of 803 schoolchildren revealed that 61. 2% had at least one marker of hepatitis B virus, before needle safety regulations, health care workers were on their own to avoid accidental needle-sticks and safely disposal of needles. However, in the U. S. after the Needlestick Safety Act signed in 2000 and the 2001 Bloodborne Pathogens Standard, both of these regulations mandated the use of safety devices and needle-removers with any sharps or needles. As a result, there was a increase in research, development. In most hospital and medical settings in the U. S. needle safety regulations are maintained through individual needle safety devices, one of the most common causes of needle-stick injuries, which the Needlestick Act and Bloodborne Pathogens Standard were attempting to decrease, was two-handed recapping. As a result, a one-handed capping mechanism was added to insulin and tuberculin syringes, the cap is attached to the syringe via a hinge, which allows the cap to be snapped onto the needle using one hand. The disadvantage to the system is that the cap can get caught by jewelry and clothing, can get bumped when used. However, the rest of the world does not have similar needle and these autodisable features allow the syringes to only be used once, so they cannot be reused. These mechanisms could be teeth that interlock to prevent the plunger from being pulled back for use or a bag prefilled with the vaccine to stop reuse. For example, the SoloShot has a clip that locks the plunger down after one use. The BD Uniject is a prefilled vaccine syringe that uses a plastic bulb instead of a plunger and has a valve to prevent reuse. Still, over 90% of syringes worldwide do not have autodisable features, individual protection devices are expensive, and regular needles are much more prevalent. Consequently, many developing countries use needle-removers to reduce the risk of disease transmission via these exposed. Needle-removers minimize the occurrence of accidental needle-sticks because they allow immediate removal and containment of the needles, reuse of syringes is prevented because the needle-remover physically separates the needle from the syringe, making the syringe useless. Additionally, these devices are cost-efficient since one device can handle several hundred needles, a significant ethical issue for the project is whether or not the needle-remover will cause more harm than its potential benefits. Engineers are obliged to use their skills and knowledge to improve the safety, health, the main concern is for the operator of the device, no engineer should create a device that could injure the operator
12.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the leading national public health institute of the United States. The CDC is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services, headquartered near Atlanta and its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and internationally. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control, the Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1,1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations, the Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U. S, Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names before adopting the name Communicable Disease Center in 1946, Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. Among its 369 employees, the jobs at CDC were originally entomology. In CDCs initial years, more than six and a million homes were sprayed. In 1946, there were only seven officers on duty. Under Joseph Walter Mountin, the CDC continued to advocate for health issues. In 1947, the CDC made a payment of $10 to Emory University for 15 acres of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase, the benefactor behind the “gift” was Robert W. Woodruff, chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in control, which had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, the mission of CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U. S. Public Health Service was transferred to the CDC in 1957, shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1,1967, the organization was renamed the Center for Disease Control on June 24,1970, and Centers for Disease Control effective October 14,1980. An act of the United States Congress appended the words and Prevention to the name effective October 27,1992, however, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Currently the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness
13.
Bacillus subtilis
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Bacillus subtilis, known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants and humans. A member of the genus Bacillus, B. subtilis is rod-shaped, B. subtilis has historically been classified as an obligate aerobe, though evidence exists that it is a facultative aerobe. B. subtilis is considered the best studied Gram-positive bacterium and an organism to study bacterial chromosome replication. It is one of the champions in secreted enzyme production. Bacillus subtilis is a Gram-positive bacterium, rod-shaped and catalase-positive and it was originally named Vibrio subtilis by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, and renamed Bacillus subtilis by Ferdinand Cohn in 1872. B. subtilis cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 4-10 micrometers long and 0. 25–1.0 μm in diameter, as with other members of the genus Bacillus, it can form an endospore, to survive extreme environmental conditions of temperature and desiccation. B. subtilis is a facultative anaerobe and had considered as an obligate aerobe until 1998. B. subtilis is heavily flagellated, which gives it the ability to move quickly in liquids, in terms of popularity as a laboratory model organism, B. subtilis is often considered as the Gram-positive equivalent of Escherichia coli, an extensively studied Gram-negative bacterium. This species is found in the upper layers of the soil. A2009 study compared the density of spores found in soil to that found in human feces, the number of spores found in the human gut was too high to be attributed solely to consumption through food contamination. The endospore is formed at times of stress, allowing the organism to persist in the environment until conditions become favourable. Prior to the process of sporulation the cells might become motile by producing flagella, take up DNA from the environment, under stressful conditions, such as nutrient deprivation, B. subtilis undergoes the process of sporulation. This process has very well studied and has served as a model organism for studying sporulation. B. subtilis is a model used to study bacterial chromosome replication. Replication of the circular chromosome initiates at a single locus. Replication proceeds bidirectionally and two replication forks progress in clockwise and counterclockwise directions along the chromosome, chromosome replication is completed when the forks reach the terminus region, which is positioned opposite to the origin on the chromosome map. The terminus region contains several short DNA sequences that promote replication arrest, specific proteins mediate all the steps in DNA replication. Comparison between the involved in chromosomal DNA replication in B. subtilis and in Escherichia coli reveals similarities and differences
14.
Canidae
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The biological family Canidae /ˈkænᵻdiː/ is a lineage of carnivorans that includes domestic dogs, wolves, foxes, jackals, dingoes, and many other extant and extinct dog-like mammals. A member of family is called a canid. The cat-like feliforms and dog-like caniforms emerged within the Carnivoramorpha 43 million years before present, the caniforms included the fox-like Leptocyon genus whose various species existed from 34 million years before present before branching 11.9 million YBP into Vulpini and Canini. Canids are found on all continents except Antarctica, having arrived independently or accompanied human beings over extended periods of time, canids vary in size from the 2-m-long gray wolf to the 24-cm-long fennec fox. The body forms of canids are similar, typically having long muzzles, upright ears, teeth adapted for cracking bones and slicing flesh, long legs and they are mostly social animals, living together in family units or small groups and behaving cooperatively. Typically, only the dominant pair in a group breeds, canids communicate by scent signals and by vocalizations. One canid, the dog, long ago entered into a partnership with humans. In the history of the carnivores, the family Canidae is represented by the two extinct subfamilies designated as Hesperocyoninae and Borophaginae, and the extant subfamily Caninae and this subfamily includes all living canids and their most recent fossil relatives. The fox-like canids, which include the kit fox, red fox, Cape fox, Arctic fox, the South American canids, including the bush dog, hoary fox, crab-eating fox and maned wolf. Various monotypic taxa, including the bat-eared fox, gray fox, DNA analysis shows that the first three form monophyletic clades. The wolf-like canids and the South American canids together form the tribe Canini, molecular data imply a North American origin of living Canidae some ten million years ago and an African origin of wolf-like canines, with the jackals being the most basal of this group. The South American clade is rooted by the wolf and bush dog. The grey fox and island fox are basal to the other clades, the cladogram below is based on the phylogeny of Lindblad-Toh et al, modified to incorporate recent findings on Canis and Vulpes species. The Canidae today includes a group of some 34 species ranging in size from the maned wolf with its long limbs to the short-legged bush dog. Modern canids inhabit forests, tundra, savannahs and deserts throughout tropical, in some species, genetic divergence has been suppressed by the high level of gene flow between different populations and where the species have hybridized, large hybrid zones exist. Carnivorans evolved from miacoids about 55 million years ago during the late Paleocene, some five million years later, the carnivorans split into two main divisions, caniforms and feliforms. By 40 Mya, the first member of the dog family proper had arisen, called Prohesperocyon wilsoni, its fossilized remains have been found in what is now the southwestern part of Texas. The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the third molar
15.
Escherichia coli
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Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause food poisoning in their hosts. The harmless strains are part of the flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter, the bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards. E. coli and other facultative anaerobes constitute about 0. 1% of gut flora, cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them potential indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. A growing body of research, though, has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended periods outside of a host, the bacterium can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting, and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. E. coli is a chemoheterotroph whose chemically defined medium must include a source of carbon, under favorable conditions, it takes only 20 minutes to reproduce. E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and nonsporulating bacterium, cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 μm long and 0. 25–1.0 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0. 6–0.7 μm3. E. coli stains Gram-negative because its cell wall is composed of a peptidoglycan layer. During the staining process, E. coli picks up the color of the counterstain safranin, the outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such that E. coli is not damaged by penicillin. Strains that possess flagella are motile, the flagella have a peritrichous arrangement. E. coli can live on a variety of substrates and uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate. Optimum growth of E. coli occurs at 37 °C, and it uses oxygen when it is present and available. It can, however, continue to grow in the absence of oxygen using fermentation or anaerobic respiration, the ability to continue growing in the absence of oxygen is an advantage to bacteria because their survival is increased in environments where water predominates. The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages, the B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA, the D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of E. coli is higher when more nutrients are available, However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA
16.
Aerosol
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An aerosol is a colloid of fine solid particles or liquid droplets, in air or another gas. Aerosols can be natural or artificial, examples of natural aerosols are fog, forest exudates and geyser steam. Examples of artificial aerosols are haze, dust, particulate air pollutants, the liquid or solid particles have diameter mostly smaller than 1 μm or so, larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a suspension, but the distinction is not clear-cut. In general conversation, aerosol refers to an aerosol spray that delivers a consumer product from a can or similar container. Other technological applications of aerosols include dispersal of pesticides, medical treatment of respiratory illnesses, diseases can also spread by means of small droplets in the breath, also called aerosols. Aerosol science covers generation and removal of aerosols, technological application of aerosols, effects of aerosols on the environment and people, an aerosol is defined as a colloidal system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the gas, which is usually air. Frederick G. Donnan presumably first used the term aerosol during World War I to describe an aero-solution and this term developed analogously to the term hydrosol, a colloid system with water as the dispersing medium. Primary aerosols contain particles introduced directly into the gas, secondary aerosols form through gas-to-particle conversion, various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog. There are several measures of aerosol concentration, Environmental science and health often uses the mass concentration, defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume with units such as μg/m3. Also commonly used is the concentration, the number of particles per unit volume with units such as number/m3 or number/cm3. The size of particles has an influence on their properties. A monodisperse aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size, most aerosols, however, as polydisperse colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes. Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an equivalent diameter to characterize the properities of various shapes of solid particles, the equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle. The equivalent volume diameter is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the volume as that of the irregular particle. Also commonly used is the aerodynamic diameter, for a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated particle-size distributions describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol and this distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size. One approach to defining the size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample
17.
Salmonella
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Salmonella /ˌsælməˈnɛlə/ is a genus of rod-shaped gram-negative bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family. The two species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori, Salmonella enterica is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies that include over 2,500 serotypes. S. enterica subspecies are found worldwide in all warm-blooded animals, S. bongori is restricted to cold-blooded animals, particularly reptiles. Strains of Salmonella cause illnesses such as fever, paratyphoid fever. Salmonella species are nonspore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with cell diameters between about 0.7 and 1.5 µm, lengths from 2 to 5 µm and they are chemotrophs, obtaining their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions using organic sources. They are also facultative anaerobes, capable of surviving with or without oxygen, the genus Salmonella is part of the family of Enterobacteriaceae. Its taxonomy has been revised and has the potential to confuse, the taxonomic group contains more than 2500 serovars, defined on the basis of the somatic O and flagellar H antigens. The full name of a serovar is given as, for example, enterica serovar Typhimurium, but can be abbreviated to Salmonella Typhimurium. Historically, salmonellae have been categorized as invasive or noninvasive based on host preference. Salmonella was first visualized in 1880 by Karl Eberth in the Peyers patches, four years later in 1884 Georg Theodor Gaffky was able to successfully grow the pathogen in pure culture. A year after that, medical research scientist Theobald Smith discovered what would be known as Salmonella enterica. At the time, Smith was working as a laboratory assistant in the Veterinary Division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The department was under the administration of Daniel Elmer Salmon, a veterinary pathologist, initially, Salmonella Choleraesuis was thought to be the causative agent of hog cholera, so Salmon and Smith named it Hog-cholerabacillus. The name Salmonella was not used until 1900, when Joseph Leon Lignières proposed that the discovered by Daniel Salmons group be called Salmonella in his honor. Most subspecies of Salmonella produce hydrogen sulfide, which can readily be detected by growing them on media containing ferrous sulfate, most isolates exist in two phases, a motile phase I and a nonmotile phase II. Cultures that are nonmotile upon primary culture may be switched to the motile phase using a Craigie tube or ditch plate, Salmonella can also be detected and subtyped using multiplex or real-time polymerase chain reactions from extracted Salmonella DNA. Mathematical models of Salmonella growth kinetics have been developed for chicken, pork, tomatoes, Salmonella reproduce asexually with a cell division interval of 40 minutes. The bacteria are not destroyed by freezing, but UV light and they perish after being heated to 55 °C for 90 min, or to 60 °C for 12 min
18.
Scrapie
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Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats. It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, which are related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy, like other spongiform encephalopathies, scrapie is caused by a prion. Scrapie has been known since 1732, and does not appear to be transmissible to humans, the name scrapie is derived from one of the clinical signs of the condition, wherein affected animals will compulsively scrape off their fleeces against rocks, trees, or fences. The disease apparently causes a sensation in the animals. Other clinical signs include excessive lip smacking, altered gaits, Scrapie is infectious and transmissible among conspecifics, so one of the most common ways to contain it is to quarantine and destroy those affected. However, scrapie tends to persist in flocks and can also arise spontaneously in flocks that have not previously had cases of the disease. The mechanism of transmission between animals and other aspects of the biology of the disease are only poorly understood, recent studies suggest prions may be spread through urine and persist in the environment for decades. Scrapie usually affects sheep around three to five years of age, the potential for transmission at birth and from contact with placental tissues is apparent. No evidence indicates scrapie is infectious to humans, the protein enters through the intestines or through cuts in the skin. The prions cause normal proteins of the sheep to fold into the wrong shape and these proteins are gradually accumulated in the body, especially in nerve cells, which subsequently die. When the prions are absorbed through the intestines, they first appear in the lymph nodes, an experiment has shown lambs risk being infected through milk from infected ewes, but the lambs in the experiment also infected each other, making the risk of infection difficult to assess. The experiment did not continue long enough to show if the lambs developed symptoms, changes are mild at first, slight behavioural changes and an increase in chewing movements may occur. Ataxia and neurological signs develop, and affected sheep struggle to keep up with the flock. Some sheep scratch excessively and show patches of wool loss and lesions on the skin, scratching sheep over the rump area may lead to a nibbling reflex, which is characteristic for the condition. Signs of a systemic disease appear later, with weight loss, anorexia, lethargy. Post mortem examination is important for the diagnosis of scrapie, histology of tissues shows accumulation of prions in the central nervous system, and immunohistochemical staining and ELISA can also be used to demonstrate the protein. No treatment is available for affected sheep, a test performed by sampling a small amount of lymphatic tissue from the third eyelid is now available. In the United Kingdom, the government has put in place a National Scrapie Plan and this is intended to eventually reduce the incidence of the disease in the UK sheep population
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