1.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
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Giovanni Alfonso Borelli was a Renaissance Italian physiologist, physicist, and mathematician. He contributed to the principle of scientific investigation by continuing Galileos practice of testing hypotheses against observation. Trained in mathematics, Borelli also made studies of Jupiters moons. He also used microscopy to investigate the movement of plants. During his career, he enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden, Giovanni Borelli was born on 28 January 1608 in the district of Castel Nuovo, in Naples. He was the son of Spanish infantryman Miguel Alonso and a woman named Laura Porello Borelli eventually traveled to Rome where he studied under Benedetto Castelli. Sometime before 1640 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at Messina, in the early 1640s, he met Galileo Galilei in Florence. While it is likely that they remained acquaintances, Galileo rejected considerations to nominate Borelli as head of Mathematics at the University of Pisa when he left the post himself, Borelli would attain this post in 1656. It was there that he first met the Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, Borelli and Malpighi were both founder-members of the short-lived Accademia del Cimento, an Italian scientific academy founded in 1657. It was here that Borelli, piqued by Malpighis own studies, began his first investigations into the science of animal movement and this began an interest that would continue for the rest of his life, eventually earning him the title of the Father of Biomechanics. Borellis involvement in the Accademia was temporary and the organization itself disbanded shortly after he left, Borelli returned to Messina in 1668 but was quickly forced into exile for suspected involvement in political conspiracies. Here he first became acquainted with ex-Queen Christina of Sweden who had also been exiled to Rome for converting to Catholicism, Borelli lived the rest of his years in poverty, teaching basic mathematics at the school of the convent where he had been allowed to live. He never saw the publication of his masterwork, De Motu Animalium as it was published posthumously, financed by Christina, borelli’s major scientific achievements are focused around his investigation into biomechanics. This work originated with his studies of animals and his publications, De Motu Animalium I and De Motu Animalium II, borrowing their title from the Aristotelian treatise, relate animals to machines and utilize mathematics to prove his theories. The anatomists of the 17th century were the first to suggest the movement of muscles. Borelli, however, first suggested that ‘muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting. ’ He was also the first to deny corpuscular influence on the movements of muscles. This was proven through his scientific experiments demonstrating that living muscle did not release corpuscles into water when cut, Borelli also recognized that forward motion entailed movement of a body’s center of gravity forward, which was then followed by the swinging of its limbs in order to maintain balance. His studies also extended beyond muscle and locomotion, in particular he likened the action of the heart to that of a piston
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Organism
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In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, protist, archaeon, or bacterium. All known types of organisms are capable of some degree of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development and homeostasis. An organism consists of one or more cells, when it has one cell it is known as an organism. Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic scale and are thus described as microorganisms. Humans are multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues. An organism may be either a prokaryote or a eukaryote, prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains—bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic organisms are characterized by the presence of a cell nucleus. Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms of organisms within the eukaryotes, estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been documented. More than 99% of all species, amounting to five billion species. In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all living organisms living was identified. The term organism first appeared in the English language in 1703 and it is directly related to the term organization. There is a tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings. An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using such as any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth. Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of organism may well not be adequate in biology. Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction and this controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival and live as obligatory intracellular parasites
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Organ (anatomy)
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In biology, an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs are composed of main tissue, parenchyma, and sporadic tissues, the main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ, such as the myocardium, the main tissue of the heart, while sporadic tissues include the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all biological organisms, in particular they are not restricted to animals. In single-cell organisms like bacteria, the analogue of an organ is called organelle. A hollow organ is an organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch, such as the stomach or intestine, or that includes a cavity. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, the functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via an organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system, the same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems and these specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy. Cardiovascular system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, digestive system, digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anus. Excretory system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in balance, electrolyte balance. Integumentary system, skin, hair and nails, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. Reproductive system, the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, respiratory system, the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, the organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla. The less-advanced taxa do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs, the study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy, as in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive, vegetative plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves
4.
Cell (biology)
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The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
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Cell organelle
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In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. Individual organelles are usually enclosed within their own lipid bilayers. The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are to cells what an organ is to the body, organelles are identified by microscopy, and can also be purified by cell fractionation. There are many types of organelles, particularly in eukaryotic cells, while prokaryotes do not possess organelles per se, some do contain protein-based bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to act as primitive organelles. In biology organs are defined as confined functional units within an organism, the analogy of bodily organs to microscopic cellular substructures is obvious, as from even early works, authors of respective textbooks rarely elaborate on the distinction between the two. In the 1830s, Félix Dujardin refuted Ehrenberg theory which said that microorganims have the organs of multicellular animals. Credited as the first to use a diminutive of organ for cellular structures was German zoologist Karl August Möbius, under this definition, there would only be two broad classes of organelles, mitochondria plastids. Other organelles are also suggested to have endosymbiotic origins, but do not contain their own DNA, under the more restricted definition of membrane-bound structures, some parts of the cell do not qualify as organelles. Nevertheless, the use of organelle to refer to non-membrane bound structures such as ribosomes is common and this has led some texts to delineate between membrane-bound and non-membrane bound organelles. The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are visible with the light microscope. They were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope, not all eukaryotic cells have each of the organelles listed below. Exceptional organisms have cells that do not include some organelles that might otherwise be considered universal to eukaryotes, there are also occasional exceptions to the number of membranes surrounding organelles, listed in the tables below. In addition, the number of organelles of each type found in a given cell varies depending upon the function of that cell. This idea is supported in the Endosymbiotic theory, in the past, they were often viewed as having little internal organization, but slowly, details are emerging about prokaryotic internal structures. However, more recent research has revealed that at least some prokaryotes have microcompartments such as carboxysomes and these subcellular compartments are 100–200 nm in diameter and are enclosed by a shell of proteins. The function of a protein is correlated with the organelle in which it resides. CoRR Hypothesis Ejectosome Endosymbiotic theory Organelle biogenesis Membrane vesicle trafficking Host-pathogen interface Tree of Life project, Eukaryotes
6.
Mechanics
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Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle, during the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of, historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newtons laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences, essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a definition of such quantities as displacement, time, velocity, acceleration, mass. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a different point of view. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall and this acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass, for objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory, for everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion. In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einsteins general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton, the differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated, the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything
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Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
8.
Engineering
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The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
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Biological system
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A biological system is a complex network of biologically relevant entities. On the micro to the scale, examples of biological systems are cells, organelles, macromolecular complexes. A biological system is not to be confused with a living system, for further information see e. g. definition of life or synthetic biology. These specific systems are studied in Human anatomy. Human systems are present in many other animals. Circulatory system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, integumentary system, skin, hair, fat, and nails. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, urinary system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine. Respiratory system, the used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, bronchi, lungs. The lymphatic system includes functions including immune responses and development of antibodies, muscular system, allows for manipulation of the environment, provides locomotion, maintains posture, and produces heat. Includes skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. The notion of system relies upon the concept of vital or organic function and this idea was already present in Antiquity, but the application of the term system is more reccent. Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual. In more differentiated organisms, the labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. Synthesis and Analysis of a Biological System, by Hiroyuki Kurata,1999
10.
Classical mechanics
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In physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, along with quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the influence of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology. Classical mechanics describes the motion of objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars. Within classical mechanics are fields of study that describe the behavior of solids, liquids and gases, Classical mechanics also provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of light. When both quantum and classical mechanics cannot apply, such as at the level with high speeds. Since these aspects of physics were developed long before the emergence of quantum physics and relativity, however, a number of modern sources do include relativistic mechanics, which in their view represents classical mechanics in its most developed and accurate form. Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and these advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially beyond Newtons work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. The following introduces the concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it often models real-world objects as point particles, the motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters, its position, mass, and the forces applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in turn, in reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the degrees of freedom. However, the results for point particles can be used to such objects by treating them as composite objects. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle, Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in space, non-relativistic mechanics also assumes that forces act instantaneously. The position of a point particle is defined with respect to a fixed reference point in space called the origin O, in space. A simple coordinate system might describe the position of a point P by means of a designated as r. In general, the point particle need not be stationary relative to O, such that r is a function of t, the time
11.
Materials science
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The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below
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Mechanical engineering
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Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics, and materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production and it is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of areas including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis. Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century, however, Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the field of physics. The field has evolved to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites, mechatronics. Mechanical engineers may work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology. Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient, in ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria created the first steam engine. In China, Zhang Heng improved a water clock and invented a seismometer, during the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206 and he is also considered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the crankshaft and camshaft. Newton was reluctant to publish his methods and laws for years, gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame. On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann founded the first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science. Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Spain, Portugal and most of South America, where neither B. Sc. nor B. Tech, programs have been adopted, the formal name for the degree is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based on five or six years of training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, in Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a Diploma Thesis, which upon completion a Diploma is awarded rather than a B. Sc. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering or similar nomenclature although there are a number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord, before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. Similar systems are present in South Africa and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South Africa
13.
Continuum mechanics
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Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such models in the 19th century, research in the area continues till today. Modeling an object as a continuum assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the space it occupies, Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of solids and fluids which are independent of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. These physical properties are represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects that have the required property of being independent of coordinate system. These tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems for computational convenience, Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed of molecules separated by space. On a microscopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities, a continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption hinges on the concepts of an elementary volume. This condition provides a link between an experimentalists and a viewpoint on constitutive equations as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure. The latter then provide a basis for stochastic finite elements. The levels of SVE and RVE link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics, the RVE may be assessed only in a limited way via experimental testing, when the constitutive response becomes spatially homogeneous. Specifically for fluids, the Knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the approximation of continuity can be made, consider car traffic on a highway---with just one lane for simplicity. Somewhat surprisingly, and in a tribute to its effectiveness, continuum mechanics effectively models the movement of cars via a differential equation for the density of cars. The familiarity of this situation empowers us to understand a little of the continuum-discrete dichotomy underlying continuum modelling in general. To start modelling define that, x measure distance along the highway, t is time, ρ is the density of cars on the highway, cars do not appear and disappear. Consider any group of cars, from the car at the back of the group located at x = a to the particular car at the front located at x = b. The total number of cars in this group N = ∫ a b ρ d x, since cars are conserved d N / d t =0. The only way an integral can be zero for all intervals is if the integrand is zero for all x, consequently, conservation derives the first order nonlinear conservation PDE ∂ ρ ∂ t + ∂ ∂ x =0 for all positions on the highway. This conservation PDE applies not only to car traffic but also to fluids, solids, crowds, animals, plants, bushfires, financial traders and this PDE is one equation with two unknowns, so another equation is needed to form a well posed problem
14.
Mechanism (engineering)
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A mechanism is a device designed to transform input forces and movement into a desired set of output forces and the movement. In this context, his use of machine is generally interpreted to mean mechanism, the combination of force and movement defines power, and a mechanism is designed to manage power in order to achieve a desired set of forces and movement. A mechanism is usually a piece of a process or mechanical system. Sometimes an entire machine may be referred to as a mechanism, examples are the steering mechanism in a car, or the winding mechanism of a wristwatch. From the time of Archimedes through the Renaissance, mechanisms were considered to be constructed from simple machines, such as the lever, pulley, screw, wheel and axle, wedge and inclined plane. It was Reuleaux who focussed on bodies, called links, in order to use geometry to study the movement of a mechanism, its links are modeled as rigid bodies. This means distances between points in a link are assumed to be unchanged as the moves, that is the link does not flex. Thus, the movement between points in two connected links is considered to result from the kinematic pair that joins them. A mechanism is modeled as an assembly of rigid links and kinematic pairs, Reuleaux called the ideal connections between links kinematic pairs. He distinguished between higher pairs which were said to have contact between the two links and lower pairs that have area contact between the links. J. Phillips shows that there are ways to construct pairs that do not fit this simple. Lower pair, A lower pair is a joint that has surface contact between the pair of elements. This imposes five constraints on the movement of the links. This imposes five constraints on the movement of the links. A cylindrical joint requires that a line in the body remain co-linear with a line in the fixed body. It is a combination of a joint and a sliding joint. This joint has two degrees of freedom, a spherical joint, or ball joint, requires that a point in the moving body maintain contact with a point in the fixed body. This joint has three degrees of freedom, a planar joint requires that a plane in the moving body maintain contact with a plane in fixed body
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Kinematics
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Kinematics as a field of study is often referred to as the geometry of motion and as such may be seen as a branch of mathematics. The study of the influence of forces acting on masses falls within the purview of kinetics, for further details, see analytical dynamics. Kinematics is used in astrophysics to describe the motion of celestial bodies, in mechanical engineering, robotics, and biomechanics kinematics is used to describe the motion of systems composed of joined parts such as an engine, a robotic arm or the human skeleton. Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the quantities used to describe motion. In addition, kinematics applies geometry to the study of the mechanical advantage of a mechanical system or mechanism. The term kinematic is the English version of A. M, ampères cinématique, which he constructed from the Greek κίνημα kinema, itself derived from κινεῖν kinein. Kinematic and cinématique are related to the French word cinéma, particle kinematics is the study of the trajectory of a particle. The position of a particle is defined to be the vector from the origin of a coordinate frame to the particle. If the tower is 50 m high, then the vector to the top of the tower is r=. In the most general case, a coordinate system is used to define the position of a particle. However, if the particle is constrained to move in a surface, all observations in physics are incomplete without those observations being described with respect to a reference frame. The position vector of a particle is a vector drawn from the origin of the frame to the particle. It expresses both the distance of the point from the origin and its direction from the origin, the magnitude of the position vector |P| gives the distance between the point P and the origin. | P | = x P2 + y P2 + z P2, the direction cosines of the position vector provide a quantitative measure of direction. It is important to note that the vector of a particle isnt unique. The position vector of a particle is different relative to different frames of reference. The velocity of a particle is a quantity that describes the direction of motion. More mathematically, the rate of change of the vector of a point
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Numerical methods
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Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation for the problems of mathematical analysis. Being able to compute the sides of a triangle is important, for instance, in astronomy, carpentry. Numerical analysis continues this tradition of practical mathematical calculations. Much like the Babylonian approximation of the root of 2, modern numerical analysis does not seek exact answers. Instead, much of numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining approximate solutions while maintaining reasonable bounds on errors, before the advent of modern computers numerical methods often depended on hand interpolation in large printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead and these same interpolation formulas nevertheless continue to be used as part of the software algorithms for solving differential equations. Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of differential equations. Car companies can improve the safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving differential equations numerically. Hedge funds use tools from all fields of analysis to attempt to calculate the value of stocks. Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments, historically, such algorithms were developed within the overlapping field of operations research. Insurance companies use programs for actuarial analysis. The rest of this section outlines several important themes of numerical analysis, the field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago, to facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. The function values are no very useful when a computer is available. The mechanical calculator was developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of analysis, since now longer
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Conceptual model
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A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the composition of concepts which are used to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. Some models are physical objects, for example, a toy model which may be assembled, the term conceptual model may be used to refer to models which are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process. Conceptual models are often abstractions of things in the world whether physical or social. Semantics studies are relevant to various stages of formation and use as Semantics is basically about concepts. The term conceptual model is normal and it could mean a model of concept or it could mean a model that is conceptual. A distinction can be made between what models are and what models are models of, with the exception of iconic models, such as a scale model of Winchester Cathedral, most models are concepts. But they are, mostly, intended to be models of world states of affairs. The value of a model is directly proportional to how well it corresponds to a past, present, future. A model of a concept is different because in order to be a good model it need not have this real world correspondence. Conceptual models also range in terms of the scope of the matter that they are taken to represent. A model may, for instance, represent a single thing, whole classes of things, the variety and scope of conceptual models is due to then variety of purposes had by the people using them. Conceptual modeling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of the physical and social world around us for the purposes of understanding, a conceptual models primary objective is to convey the fundamental principles and basic functionality of the system which it represents. Also, a model must be developed in such a way as to provide an easily understood system interpretation for the models users. A conceptual model, when implemented properly, should satisfy four fundamental objectives, figure 1 below, depicts the role of the conceptual model in a typical system development scheme. It is clear if the conceptual model is not fully developed. These failures do occur in the industry and have linked to, lack of user input, incomplete or unclear requirements. Those weak links in the design and development process can be traced to improper execution of the fundamental objectives of conceptual modeling. The importance of conceptual modeling is evident when such systemic failures are mitigated by thorough system development, as systems have become increasingly complex, the role of conceptual modeling has dramatically expanded
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Computer simulation
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Computer simulations reproduce the behavior of a system using a model. Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the systems model and it can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling, other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation, a 2. Because of the computational cost of simulation, computer experiments are used to perform such as uncertainty quantification. A computer model is the algorithms and equations used to capture the behavior of the system being modeled, by contrast, computer simulation is the actual running of the program that contains these equations or algorithms. Simulation, therefore, is the process of running a model, thus one would not build a simulation, instead, one would build a model, and then either run the model or equivalently run a simulation. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm, Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitute for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely, for some, the input might be just a few numbers, while others might require terabytes of information. Because of this variety, and because diverse simulation systems have common elements. Systems that accept data from external sources must be careful in knowing what they are receiving. While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files, often they are expressed as error bars, a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value lie. Even small errors in the data can accumulate into substantial error later in the simulation. While all computer analysis is subject to the GIGO restriction, this is true of digital simulation. Indeed, observation of this inherent, cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory, another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two classes, Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next-neighbor access are called stencil codes. Many CFD applications belong to this category, if the underlying graph is not a regular grid, the model may belong to the meshfree method class. Equations define the relationships between elements of the system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted
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Experiment
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An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated, experiments vary greatly in goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exists natural experimental studies, a child may carry out basic experiments to understand gravity, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of activities are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons, to highly controlled. Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences, experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements, scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all variables in an experiment are controlled and none are uncontrolled, in such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variable. In the scientific method, an experiment is a procedure that arbitrates between competing models or hypotheses. Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them, an experiment usually tests a hypothesis, which is an expectation about how a particular process or phenomenon works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a question, without a specific expectation about what the experiment reveals. If an experiment is conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis. According to some philosophies of science, an experiment can never prove a hypothesis, on the other hand, an experiment that provides a counterexample can disprove a theory or hypothesis. An experiment must also control the possible confounding factors—any factors that would mar the accuracy or repeatability of the experiment or the ability to interpret the results, confounding is commonly eliminated through scientific controls and/or, in randomized experiments, through random assignment. In engineering and the sciences, experiments are a primary component of the scientific method. They are used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes work under particular conditions, typically, experiments in these fields focus on replication of identical procedures in hopes of producing identical results in each replication. In medicine and the sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines. In contrast to norms in the sciences, the focus is typically on the average treatment effect or another test statistic produced by the experiment
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Soft-body dynamics
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Soft-body dynamics is a field of computer graphics that focuses on visually realistic physical simulations of the motion and properties of deformable objects. The applications are mostly in games and films. Unlike in simulation of rigid bodies, the shape of soft bodies can change, while the relative distances of points are not fixed, the body is expected to retain its shape to some degree. Several physics engines currently provide software for soft-body simulation, the simulation of volumetric solid soft bodies can be realised by using a variety of approaches. In this approach, the body is modeled as a set of point masses connected by ideal weightless elastic springs obeying some variant of Hookes law, additional springs between nodes can be added, or the force law of the springs modified, to achieve desired effects. Assuming all point masses equal to one can obtain the Stretched grid method aimed at several engineering problems solution relative to the elastic grid behavior. This is a physically accurate approach, which uses the widely used finite element method to solve the partial differential equations which govern the dynamics of an elastic material. The elements are typically tetrahedral, the nodes being the vertices of the tetrahedra, the strain is quantified by the strain tensor ϵ. The stress is quantified by the Cauchy stress tensor σ, given the current local strain, the local stress can be computed via the generalized form of Hookes law, σ = C ε, where C is the elasticity tensor which encodes the material properties. The equation of motion of the element nodes is obtained by integrating the stress field over each element and relating this, via Newtons second law, pixelux use a finite-element-based approach for their soft bodies, using a tetrahedral mesh and converting the stress tensor directly into node forces. Rendering is done via a form of free-form deformation and this approach is motivated by variational principles and the physics of surfaces, which dictate that a constrained surface will assume the shape which minimizes the total energy of deformation. In this scheme, penalty forces or constraints are applied to the model to drive it towards its original shape, to conserve momentum the rotation of the body must be estimated properly, for example via polar decomposition. To approximate finite element simulation, shape matching can be applied to three dimensional lattices and multiple shape matching constraints blended and this is the approach used for deformable objects in Havok Destruction. Via rendering effects, this can produce a visually plausible emulation of textiles and clothing, used in a variety of contexts in video games, animation and it can also be used to simulate two dimensional sheets of materials other than textiles, such as deformable metal panels or vegetation. In video games it is used to enhance the realism of clothed characters. Cloth simulators are based on mass-spring models, but a distinction must be made between force-based and position-based solvers. The mass-spring model determines the spring forces acting on the nodes at each timestep. Newtons second law gives equations of motion which can be solved via standard ODE solvers, to create high resolution cloth with a realistic stiffness is not possible however with simple explicit solvers, unless the timestep is made too small for interactive applications
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Kinesiology
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Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, biomechanical, and psychological mechanisms of movement, Kinesiology as described above should not be confused with applied kinesiology, a controversial medical diagnostic method. The word comes from the Greek κίνησις kínēsis, movement, and -λογία -logia, Kinesiology is the study of human and nonhuman animal-body movements, performance, and function by applying the sciences of biomechanics, anatomy, physiology, psychology, and neuroscience. Kinesiology is a field of study, and does not prepare individuals for clinical practice. A bachelors degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs, such as allied health. Many doctoral level faculty in North American kinesiology programs received their training in related disciplines, such as neuroscience, mechanical engineering, psychology. The worlds first kinesiology department was launched in 1967 at the University of Waterloo, adaptation through exercise is a key principle of kinesiology that relates to improved fitness in athletes as well as health and wellness in clinical populations. Therapeutic exercise has been shown to improve control and motor capabilities in both normal and pathological populations. There are many different types of interventions that can be applied in kinesiology to athletic, normal. Aerobic exercise interventions help to improve cardiovascular endurance, anaerobic strength training programs can increase muscular strength, power, and lean body mass. Decreased risk of falls and increased neuromuscular control can be attributed to balance intervention programs, flexibility programs can increase functional range of motion and reduce the risk of injury. As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of depression and risk of cardiovascular, additionally, they can help to improve quality of life, sleeping habits, immune system function, and body composition. The study of the responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology. Neuroplasticity is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement, the human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle, which includes both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes. Neuroplasticity is also the mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex. Maladaptive plasticity Maladaptive plasticity is defined as neuroplasticity with negative effects or detrimental consequences in behavior, movement abnormalities may occur among individuals with and without brain injuries due to abnormal remodeling in central nervous system. Learned non-use is a commonly seen among patients with brain damage
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Animal locomotion
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Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of movements or methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are self-propelled, e. g. running, swimming, jumping, flying, hopping, soaring and gliding. There are also many species that depend on their environment for transportation. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to food, a mate. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, natural selection has shaped the locomotion methods, the term locomotion is formed in English from Latin loco from a place + motio motion, a moving. Animals move through, or on, four types of environment, aquatic, terrestrial, fossorial, many animals—for example semi-aquatic animals, and diving birds—regularly move through more than one type of medium. In some cases, the surface they move on facilitates their method of locomotion, in water, staying afloat is possible using buoyancy. If an animals body is less dense water, it can stay afloat. This requires little energy to maintain a position, but requires more energy for locomotion in the horizontal plane compared to less buoyant animals. The drag encountered in water is greater than in air. Morphology is therefore important for efficient locomotion, which is in most cases essential for basic functions such as catching prey, a fusiform, torpedo-like body form is seen in many aquatic animals, though the mechanisms they use for locomotion are diverse. The primary means by which fish generate thrust is by oscillating the body from side-to-side, finer control, such as for slow movements, is often achieved with thrust from pectoral fins. Some fish, e. g. the spotted ratfish and batiform fish use their fins as the primary means of locomotion. Marine mammals oscillate their body in an up-and-down direction, other animals, e. g. penguins, diving ducks, move underwater in a manner which has been termed aquatic flying. Some fish propel themselves without a motion of the body, as in the slow-moving seahorses. Other animals, such as cephalopods, use jet propulsion to travel fast, other swimming animals may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Dolphins sometimes ride on the bow waves created by boats or surf on breaking waves. Benthic locomotion is movement by animals that live on, in, in the sea, many animals walk over the seabed
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Gait
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Gait is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals, including humans, during locomotion over a solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain, the need to maneuver, and energetic efficiency. Different animal species may use different gaits due to differences in anatomy that prevent use of certain gaits, while various gaits are given specific names, the complexity of biological systems and interacting with the environment make these distinctions fuzzy at best. Gaits are typically classified according to patterns, but recent studies often prefer definitions based on mechanics. The term typically does not refer to limb-based propulsion through fluid mediums such as water or air, due to the rapidity of animal movement, simple direct observation is rarely sufficient to give any insight into the pattern of limb movement. Milton Hildebrand pioneered the scientific analysis and the classification of gaits. The movement of each limb was partitioned into a phase, where the foot was in contact with the ground, and a swing phase. Each limb must complete a cycle in the length of time, otherwise one limbs relationship to the others can change with time. Thus, any gait can completely be described in terms of the beginning, gaits are generally classed as symmetrical and asymmetrical based on limb movement. It is important to note that these terms have nothing to do with left-right symmetry, in a symmetrical gait, the left and right limbs of a pair alternate, while in an asymmetrical gait, the limbs move together. Asymmetrical gaits are sometimes termed leaping gaits, due to the presence of a suspended phase, the key variables for gait are the duty factor and the forelimb-hindlimb phase relationship. Duty factor is simply the percent of the cycle which a given foot is on the ground. This value will usually be the same for forelimbs and hindlimbs unless the animal is moving with a specially trained gait or is accelerating or decelerating, duty factors over 50% are considered a walk, while those less than 50% are considered a run. Forelimb-hindlimb phase is the relationship between the limb pairs. If the same-side forelimbs and hindlimbs initiate stance phase at the same time, if the same-side forelimb contacts the ground half of the cycle later than the hindlimb, the phase is 50%. Gait choice can have effects beyond immediate changes in movement and speed. Thus, they move and breathe at the same time. Any given animal uses a restricted set of gaits
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Human musculoskeletal system
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The human musculoskeletal system is an organ system that gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body and it is made up of the bones of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal systems primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, the skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system. This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via connective tissue such as tendons, the bones provide stability to the body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones, to allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing directly onto each other, muscles contract to move the bone attached at the joint. There are, however, diseases and disorders that may affect the function. These diseases can be difficult to due to the close relation of the musculoskeletal system to other internal systems. The musculoskeletal system refers to the system having its muscles attached to a skeletal system and is necessary for humans to move to a more favorable position. Complex issues and injuries involving the musculoskeletal system are handled by a physiatrist or an orthopaedic surgeon. The skeletal system serves many important functions, it provides the shape and form for the body, support and protection, allows bodily movement, produces blood for the body, the number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic. Humans are born with over 300 bones, however, many bones fuse together between birth and maturity, as a result, an average adult skeleton consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the used to derive the count. While some consider certain structures to be a bone with multiple parts. There are five classifications of bones. These are long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, the human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It is a structure with two distinct divisions, the axial skeleton, which includes the vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. The skeletal system serves as a framework for tissues and organs to attach themselves to and this system acts as a protective structure for vital organs
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Human factors and ergonomics
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The field has seen some contributions from numerous disciplines, such as psychology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design, physiology, and anthropometry. In essence, it is the study of designing equipment, devices and processes that fit the human body, the two terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. HF&E is employed to fulfill the goals of health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines, proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. Human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the fit between the user, equipment and their environments and it takes account of the users capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information and the environment suit each user. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had engaged during. The expression human factors is a predominantly North American term which has adopted to emphasise the application of the same methods to non work-related situations. A human factor is a physical or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems, the terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research, Physical, cognitive and organisational ergonomics, there are many specializations within these broad categories. Specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics, specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability, human–computer interaction, and user experience engineering. New terms are being generated all the time, for instance, user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials. Physical ergonomic principles have been used in the design of both consumer and industrial products. Physical ergonomics is important in the field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be painful, or render a device unusable. Many ergonomically designed products are used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders. One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder, every year,1.8 million U. S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions, frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts, awkward work positions, or use of vibrating equipment
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Implant (medicine)
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An implant is a medical device manufactured to replace a missing biological structure, support a damaged biological structure, or enhance an existing biological structure. Medical implants are man-made devices, in contrast to a transplant, the surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone, or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases implants contain electronics e. g. artificial pacemaker, some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents. Implants can roughly be categorized into groups by application, sensory and neurological implants are used for disorders affecting the major senses and the brain, as well as other neurological disorders. Examples include the lens, intrastromal corneal ring segment, cochlear implant, tympanostomy tube. Cardiovascular medical devices are implanted in cases where the heart, its valves, and they are used to treatment conditions such as heart failure, cardiac arrhythmia, ventricular tachycardia, valvular heart disease, angina pectoris, and atherosclerosis. Examples include the heart, artificial heart valve, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, cardiac pacemaker. Orthopaedic implants help alleviate issues with the bones and joints of the body, theyre used to treat bone fractures, osteoarthritis, scoliosis, spinal stenosis, and chronic pain. Examples include a variety of pins, rods, screws. Metallic glasses based on magnesium with zinc and calcium addition are tested as the potential metallic biomaterials for medical implants. Contraceptive implants are used to prevent unintended pregnancy and treat conditions such as non-pathological forms of menorrhagia. Examples include copper- and hormone-based intrauterine devices, cosmetic implants — often prosthetics — attempt to bring some portion of the body back to an acceptable aesthetic norm. They are used as a follow-up to mastectomy due to breast cancer, for correcting some forms of disfigurement, examples include the breast implant, nose prosthesis, ocular prosthesis, and injectable filler. Other types of dysfunction can occur in the systems of the body, including the gastrointestinal, respiratory. Examples include the LINX, implantable gastric stimulator, diaphragmatic/phrenic nerve stimulator, neurostimulator, surgical mesh, Class I devices include simple devices such as arm slings and hand-held surgical instruments. Class II devices are considered to need more regulation than Class I devices and are required to undergo specific requirements before FDA approval, Class II devices include X-ray systems and physiological monitors. Class III devices require the most regulatory controls since the device supports or sustains human life or may not be well tested, Class III devices include replacement heart valves and implanted cerebellar stimulators. Many implants typically fall under Class II and Class III devices, under ideal conditions, implants should initiate the desired host response
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Orthotics
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Orthotics is a specialty within the medical field concerned with the design, manufacture and application of orthoses. An orthosis is an externally applied device used to modify the structural and functional characteristics of the neuromuscular, an orthotist is the primary medical clinician responsible for the prescription, manufacture and management of orthoses. Patients who benefit from an orthosis may have a such as spina bifida or cerebral palsy. Equally, orthoses are sometimes used prophylactically or to optimise performance in sport, orthoses were traditionally made by following a tracing of the extremity with measurements to assist in creating a well-fitted device. Subsequently, the advent of plastics as a material of choice for construction necessitated the idea of creating a plaster of Paris mould of the part in question. This method is extensively used throughout the industry. Currently, CAD/CAM, CNC machines and 3D printing are involved in orthotic manufacture, orthoses are made from various types of materials including thermoplastics, carbon fibre, metals, elastic, EVA, fabric or a combination of similar materials. Some designs may be purchased at a retailer, others are more specific and require a prescription from a physician. Over-the-counter braces are basic and available in multiple sizes and they are generally slid on or strapped on with Velcro, and are held tightly in place. One of the purposes of these braces is injury protection, under the International Standard terminology, orthoses are classified by an acronym describing the anatomical joints which they contain. For example, an ankle foot orthosis is applied to the foot and ankle and it is also useful to describe the function of the orthosis. Use of the International Standard is promoted to reduce the widespread variation in description of orthoses, in general, musculoskeletal problems that may be alleviated by the use of upper limb orthoses include those resulting from trauma or disease. They may also be beneficial in aiding individuals who have suffered a neurological impairment such as stroke, spinal cord injury, the term caliper or calipers remains in widespread use for lower-limb orthoses in the United Kingdom. Foot orthoses comprise a custom made insert or footbed fitted into a shoe, commonly referred to as orthotics these orthoses provide support for the foot by redistributing ground reaction forces as well as realigning foot joints while standing, walking or running. They are used by everyone from athletes to the elderly to accommodate biomechanical deformities and they may also be used in conjunction with properly fitted orthopaedic footwear in the prevention of foot ulcers in the at-risk diabetic foot. An ankle-foot orthosis is an orthosis or brace that encumbers the ankle, AFOs are externally applied and intended to control position and motion of the ankle, compensate for weakness, or correct deformities. AFOs can be used to support limbs, or to position a limb with contracted muscles into a more normal position. They are also used to immobilize the ankle and lower leg in the presence of arthritis or fracture, and to correct foot drop, ankle-foot orthoses are the most commonly used orthoses, making up about 26% of all orthoses provided in the United States
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Prosthesis
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In medicine, a prosthesis is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through trauma, disease, or congenital conditions. A persons prosthetics should be designed and assembled according to the patients appearance, for instance, a patient may need a transradial prosthesis, but need to choose between an aesthetic functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an activity specific device. The patients future goals and economical capabilities may help choose between one or more devices. Craniofacial prostheses include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses, extra-oral prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular, nasal, orbital and ocular. Intra-oral prostheses include dental prostheses such as dentures, obturators, limb prostheses include both upper- and lower-extremity prostheses. A transradial prosthesis is a limb that replaces an arm missing below the elbow. Two main types of prosthetics are available, cable operated limbs work by attaching a harness and cable around the opposite shoulder of the damaged arm. The other form of prosthetics available are myoelectric arms and these work by sensing, via electrodes, when the muscles in the upper arm move, causing an artificial hand to open or close. In the prosthetic industry a trans-radial prosthetic arm is referred to as a BE or below elbow prosthesis. Lower-extremity prostheses provide replacements at varying levels of amputation and these include hip disarticulation, transfemoral prosthesis, knee disarticulation, transtibial prosthesis, Symes amputation, foot, partial foot, and toe. The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial and trans-femoral, a transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing above the knee. Transfemoral amputees can have a difficult time regaining normal movement. In general, a transfemoral amputee must use approximately 80% more energy to walk than a person with two whole legs and this is due to the complexities in movement associated with the knee. In the prosthetic industry a trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as an AK or above the knee prosthesis, a transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below the knee. A transtibial amputee is usually able to regain normal movement more readily than someone with an amputation, due in large part to retaining the knee. Lower extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower, in the prosthetic industry a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a BK or below the knee prosthesis. Prosthetics have been mentioned throughout history, the earliest recorded mention is the warrior queen Vishpala in the Rigveda. The Egyptians were early pioneers of the idea, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from the New Kingdom, roman bronze crowns have also been found, but their use could have been more aesthetic than medical
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Allometry
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Other methods include measurement-error models and a particular kind of principal component analysis. Allometry often studies shape differences in terms of ratios of the objects dimensions, Two objects of different size, but common shape, will have their dimensions in the same ratio. Take, for example, an object that grows as it matures. Its size changes with age, but the shapes are similar, lizards often exhibit allometric changes during their ontogeny. In addition to studies that focus on growth, allometry also examines shape variation among individuals of a given age, comparisons of species are used to examine interspecific or evolutionary allometry. Isometric scaling happens when proportional relationships are preserved as size changes during growth or over evolutionary time, an example is found in frogs — aside from a brief period during the few weeks after metamorphosis, frogs grow isometrically. Therefore, a frog whose legs are as long as its body will retain that relationship throughout its life, isometric scaling is governed by the square-cube law. An organism which doubles in length isometrically will find that the area available to it will increase fourfold, while its volume. This can present problems for organisms, therefore, this hypothetical organism would experience twice the bone and muscle loads of its smaller version. This mismatch can be avoided either by being overbuilt when small or by changing proportions during growth, isometric scaling is often used as a null hypothesis in scaling studies, with deviations from isometry considered evidence of physiological factors forcing allometric growth. Allometric scaling is any change that deviates from isometry, a classic example discussed by Galileo in his Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences is the skeleton of mammals. The skeletal structure become much stronger and robust relative to the size of the body as the body size increases. Allometry is often expressed in terms of a scaling exponent based on body mass, conversely, if a surface area based property scales to mass to the 0.8 power, the values are higher than predicted by isometry and the organism is said to show positive allometry. One example of positive allometry occurs among species of monitor lizards, the same is true for some fishes, e. g. the muskellunge, whose weight grows with about the power of 3.325 of its length. A 30-inch muskellunge will weigh about 8 pounds, while a 40-inch muskellunge will weigh about 18 lb, to determine whether isometry or allometry is present, an expected relationship between variables needs to be determined to compare data to. This is important in determining if the relationship in a dataset deviates from an expected relationship. The use of such as dimensional analysis is very helpful in determining expected slope. This ‘expected’ slope, as it is known, is essential for detecting allometry because scaling variables are comparisons to other things
30.
Sports injury
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Sports injuries are injuries that occur in athletic activities or exercising. In the United States there are about 30 million teenagers and children alone participate in some form of organized sport. About 3 million avid sports competitors 14 years of age and under experience sports injuries annually, the leading cause of death involving sports-related injuries, although rare, is brain injuries. When injured the two main systems affected are the nervous and vascular systems, the origins in the body where numbness and tingling occurs upon sports injuries are usually the first signs of the body telling you that the body was impacted. Prevention helps reduce potential sport injuries and it is important to establish participation in warm-ups, stretching, and exercises that focus on main muscle groups commonly used in the sport of interest. Also, creating an injury prevention program as a team, which includes education on rehydration, nutrition, monitoring team members “at risk”, monitoring behavior, skills, season analysis reviews and preseason screenings are also beneficial reviews for preventing player sport injuries. One technique used in the process of screening is the functional movement screen. The functional movement screen can assess movement patterns in athletes in order to find the at risk players, following various researches about sport injuries shows that levels of anxiety, stress, and depression are elevated. Collisions with the ground, objects, and other players are common, nearly two million people every year suffer sports-related injuries and receive treatment in emergency departments. Fatigue is a factor that results in many sport injuries. Traumatic injuries can include, Contusion or bruise - damage to blood vessels which causes bleeding within the tissues. It is most pronounced in football, and a related ailment afflicts boxers, but is seen in other sports. Often, it is has been reported post-mortem, controversy has arisen at times when teams have made decisions that could threaten a players long-term health for short term gain. Sports medicine is the study and research of injuries in sport in order to prevent or reduce the severity of the injury, when soft tissue experiences trauma, the dead and damaged cells release chemicals, which initiate an inflammatory response. Inflammation is characterized by pain, localized swelling, heat, redness, small blood vessels are damaged and opened up, producing bleeding within the tissue. In the bodys normal reaction, a blood clot is formed in order to stop this bleeding. The inflammatory stage is therefore the first phase of healing, however, too much of an inflammatory response in the early stage can mean that the healing process takes longer and a return to activity is delayed. Sports injury treatments are intended to minimize the inflammatory phase of an injury, intrinsic and extrinsic factors are determinant for the healing process
31.
Strain gauge
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A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C, ruge in 1938, the most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, as the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor, a strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its dependence on the conductors geometry. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, from the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of induced stress may be inferred. The gauge factor G F is defined as, G F = Δ R / R G ϵ where Δ R is the change in resistance caused by strain, R G is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and ϵ is strain. For common metallic foil gauges, the factor is usually a little over 2. Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 2–10 mm² in size, with careful installation, the correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured. An excitation voltage is applied to input leads of the network. Typical input voltages are 5 V or 12 V and typical output readings are in millivolts, foil strain gauges are used in many situations. Different applications place different requirements on the gauge, in most cases the orientation of the strain gauge is significant. Strain gauges are attached to the substrate with a special glue, the type of glue depends on the required lifetime of the measurement system. For short term measurements cyanoacrylate glue is appropriate, for long lasting installation epoxy glue is required, usually epoxy glue requires high temperature curing. The preparation of the surface where the gauge is to be glued is of the utmost importance. If these steps are not followed the strain gauge binding to the surface may be unreliable and unpredictable measurement errors may be generated, strain gauge based technology is utilized commonly in the manufacture of pressure sensors. The gauges used in pressure sensors themselves are made from silicon, polysilicon, metal film, thick film. Variations in temperature will cause a multitude of effects, the object will change in size by thermal expansion, which will be detected as a strain by the gauge. Resistance of the gauge will change, and resistance of the wires will change
32.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
33.
Digital filter
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In signal processing, a digital filter is a system that performs mathematical operations on a sampled, discrete-time signal to reduce or enhance certain aspects of that signal. This is in contrast to the major type of electronic filter, the analog filter. Finally a digital-to-analog converter to complete the output stage, program Instructions running on the microprocessor implement the digital filter by performing the necessary mathematical operations on the numbers received from the ADC. Digital filters may be more expensive than an equivalent analog filter due to their increased complexity, Digital filters are commonplace and an essential element of everyday electronics such as radios, cellphones, and AV receivers. A digital filter is characterized by its function, or equivalently. Mathematical analysis of the function can describe how it will respond to any input. As such, designing a filter consists of developing specifications appropriate to the problem, see Z-transforms LCCD equation for further discussion of this transfer function. A variety of techniques may be employed to analyze the behaviour of a given digital filter. Many of these techniques may also be employed in designs. Typically, one characterizes filters by calculating how they respond to a simple input such as an impulse. One can then extend this information to compute the filters response to more complex signals, the impulse response, often denoted h or h k, is a measurement of how a filter will respond to the Kronecker delta function. For example, given an equation, one would set x 0 =1 and x k =0 for k ≠0. The impulse response is a characterization of the filters behaviour, Digital filters are typically considered in two categories, infinite impulse response and finite impulse response. In discrete-time systems, the filter is often implemented by converting the transfer function to a linear constant-coefficient difference equation via the Z-transform. The discrete frequency-domain transfer function is written as the ratio of two polynomials, applying the filter to an input in this form is equivalent to a Direct Form I or II realization, depending on the exact order of evaluation. The design of filters is a deceptively complex topic. Although filters are easily understood and calculated, the challenges of their design. There are two categories of digital filter, the filter and the nonrecursive filter
34.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
35.
Gait analysis
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Gait analysis is used to assess, plan, and treat individuals with conditions affecting their ability to walk. It is also used in sports biomechanics to help athletes run more efficiently. The study encompasses quantification, as well as interpretation, i. e. drawing various conclusions about the animal from its gait pattern, the pioneers of scientific gait analysis were Aristotle in De Motu Animalium and much later in 1680, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli also called De Motu Animalium. In the 1890s, the German anatomist Christian Wilhelm Braune and Otto Fischer published a series of papers on the biomechanics of human gait under loaded and unloaded conditions, eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey were pioneers of these developments in the early 1900s. For example, serial photography first revealed the sequence of the horse gallop. The development of treatment regimes, often involving orthopaedic surgery, based on gait analysis results, many leading orthopaedic hospitals worldwide now have gait labs that are routinely used to design treatment plans and for follow-up monitoring. Commercial development soon followed with the emergence of television and later infrared camera systems in the mid-1980s. A typical gait analysis laboratory has several cameras placed around a walkway or a treadmill, the patient has markers located at various points of reference of the body, or groups of markers applied to half of the body segments. The patient walks down the catwalk or the treadmill and the computer calculates the trajectory of each marker in three dimensions, a model is applied to calculate the movement of the underlying bones. This gives a breakdown of the movement of each joint. One common method is to use Helen Hayes Hospital marker set, the 15 marker motions are analyzed analytically, and it provides angular motion of each joint. The spatial distribution of forces can be measured with pedobarography equipment, the computational method for this is known as inverse dynamics. This use of kinetics, however, does not result in information for individual muscles but muscle groups, to detect the activity and contribution of individual muscles to movement, it is necessary to investigate the electrical activity of muscles. Many labs also use surface electrodes attached to the skin to detect the activity or electromyogram of, for example. In this way it is possible to investigate the activation times of muscles and, to some degree, the factors can be of various types, Extrinsic, such as terrain, footwear, clothing, cargo Intrinsic, sex, weight, height, age, etc. Physical, such as weight, height, physique Psychological, personality type, emotions Physiological, anthropometric characteristics, the analysis is the measurement of the following, It consists in the calculation of speed, the length of the rhythm, pitch, and so on. These measurements are carried out through, Stopwatch and marks on the ground, range laser sensors scanning a plane a few centimeters above the floor. Inertial sensors and software to interpret 3D gyroscopes and 3D accelerometric data, chronophotography is the most basic method for recording of movement
36.
Force platform
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Most common areas of application are medicine and sports. The simplest force platform is a plate with a single pedestal, better designs have a pair of rectangular plates, although triangular can also work, one over another with load cells or triaxial force transducers between them at the corners. The simplest force plates measure only the component of the force in the geometric center of the platform. Cylindrical force plates have also constructed for studying arboreal locomotion. Single pedestal models, sometimes called load cells, are suitable for forces that are applied over a small area, for studies of movements, such as gait analysis, force platforms with at least three pedestals and usually four are used to permit forces that migrate across the plate. For example, during walking ground reaction forces start at the heel, force platforms should be distinguished from pressure measuring systems that, although they too quantify centre of pressure, do not directly measure the applied force vector. Pressure measuring plates are useful for quantifying the pressure patterns under a foot over time, the measurements from a force platform can be either studied in isolation, or combined with other data, such as limb kinematics to understand the principles of locomotion. If an organism makes a jump from a force plate, the data from the plate alone is sufficient to calculate acceleration, work, power output, jump angle. Simultaneous video measurements of leg joint angles and force plate output can allow the determination of torque, work, advancements in technology have allowed force platforms to take on a new role within the kinetics field. Traditional laboratory-grade force plates cost have made them impractical for the everyday clinician. However, Nintendo introduced the Wii Balance Board in 2007 and changed the structure of what a plate can be. More so, this has been verified in both healthy and clinical populations and this is possible due to the four force transducers found in the corners of the WBB
37.
Clinical neurophysiology
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Clinical neurophysiology is a medical specialty that studies the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. It encompasses both research regarding the pathophysiology along with clinical methods used to diagnose diseases involving both central and peripheral nervous systems, examinations in the clinical neurophysiology field are not limited to tests conducted in a laboratory. It is thought of as an extension of a neurologic consultation, tests that are conducted are concerned with measuring the electrical functions of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves in the limbs and muscles. It can give the definition of site, the type and degree of the lesion. Due to these abilities, clinical neurophysiology is used to help diagnose diseases rather than treat them. In some countries it is a part of neurology or psychiatry, for example the United States, in other countries it is an autonomous specialty, such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, the United Kingdom, Finland, Sweden and Norway. Hospitals that have neurologists and neurosurgeons tend to house clinical neurophysiology departments, usually these tend to be larger hospitals that are able to employ more specialized staff units. Records electrical activity of the muscles and the passage of them along nerves in the limbs, most nerve-muscle disorders that occur fall into one of two types of categories, morphologic or physiologic, which can be seen within the motor unit. These disorders can either be acute, or have a slow developing nature, an online tool that allows the interactive exploration of these neurophysiological methods and of symptoms to which they are related can be found here. Electroencephalography, Diagnostic test of thalamocortical rhythms, useful in evaluating seizures and this is done by hooking up electrodes on the surface of the scalp to record currents from the cerebral cortex. Evoked potentials, Diagnostic test evaluating specific tracts of the central and peripheral nervous system, may include visual, auditory, or somatosensory evoked potentials. These record the electrical responses of the brain and spinal cord to the stimulation of the senses. S, includes completing an undergraduate degree, medical school, and postgraduate medical education, usually in neurology. Following the completion of a residency program, clinicians may choose to enter a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology. Programs may expose their fellows to the spectrum of electrodiagnostic neurophysiologic studies. Clinical neurophysiology fellowships are generally 1–2 years in duration and may lead to certification in one or more subspecialty areas. There are two healthcare professionals who typically perform neurophysiological investigations in the UK and these are medical staff trained in clinical neurophysiology, and clinical physiologists who undertake four years of practical training whilst undertaking an honours degree. Physiologists perform the majority of EEGs, evoked potentials and a portion of the nerve conduction studies and they are then clinically reported either by the physiology staff or the medical staff. Electrodiagnostic medicine is a subset of clinical neurophysiology, Electrodiagnostic medicine focuses only on the peripheral nervous system and not the central nervous system
38.
Biomaterial
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A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic or a diagnostic one. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old, the study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products, biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Note that a biomaterial is different from a material, such as bone. Additionally, care should be exercised in defining a biomaterial as biocompatible, a biomaterial that is biocompatible or suitable for one application may not be biocompatible in another. Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic components, polymers. They are often used and/or adapted for an application, and thus comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments. Such functions may be passive, like being used for a heart valve. Biomaterials are also used every day in applications, surgery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, a biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material. Biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues, such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is a widespread phenomenon, all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals. Examples include silicates in algae and diatoms, carbonates in invertebrates and these minerals often form structural features such as sea shells and the bone in mammals and birds. Organisms have been producing mineralised skeletons for the past 550 million years, other examples include copper, iron and gold deposits involving bacteria. Biologically-formed minerals often have special uses such as sensors in magnetotactic bacteria, gravity sensing devices and iron storage. Self-assembly is the most common term in use in the scientific community to describe the spontaneous aggregation of particles without the influence of any external forces. The fundamental difference in structure is in the spatial scale of the unit cell in each particular case. Molecular self-assembly is found widely in biological systems and provides the basis of a variety of complex biological structures
39.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
40.
Molecular
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A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge, however, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions. In the kinetic theory of gases, the molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules. A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one element, as with oxygen, or it may be heteronuclear. Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are not considered single molecules. Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances and they also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals and covalent crystals, the theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses, atoms may also be together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule. The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, in practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a system composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i. e, according to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word molecule derives from the Latin moles or small unit of mass. Molecule – extremely minute particle, from French molécule, from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles mass, a vague meaning at first, the vogue for the word can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased, earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. Molecules are held together by covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment, for example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements, a covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
41.
Tissue (biology)
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In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an ensemble of similar cells from the origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the grouping together of multiple tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, the classical tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in microscopy, immunofluorescence. With these tools, the appearances of tissues can be examined in health and disease. Animal tissues are grouped into four types, connective, muscle, nervous. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs, while all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions. This tissue covers all surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina and they are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid, for example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bones matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place, blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying tissues is to divide them into three types, fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Cells comprising the nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous tissue
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