1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
2.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
3.
Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
4.
Royal Highness
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Royal Highness is a style used to address or refer to some members of royal families, usually princes other than monarchs and their female consorts. When used as a form of address, spoken or written. When used as a reference, it is gender-specific and, in plural. Holders of the style Royal Highness generally rank below holders of the style Imperial Highness, by the 17th century, all local rulers in Italy adopted the style Highness, that was once used by kings and emperors only. Thus, the first use of the style Royal Highness was recorded in 1633, gaston, Duke of Orléans, younger son of King Henry IV of France, encountered the style in Brussels and assumed it himself. His children later used the style, considering it their prerogative as grandchildren of France, by the 18th century, Royal Highness had become the prevalent style for members of a continental reigning dynasty whose head bore the hereditary title of king or queen. The titles of members of non-hereditary rulers were less clear. Even in the cases of the titles, they usually only exist as courtesies. The chiefly appellation Kabiyesi is likewise used as the equivalent of the HRH, the title of Archduke or Archduchess of Austria was known to be complemented with the style of Royal Highness to all of the members of the House of Habsburg and later the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The title of Prince/Princess of the Netherlands with the style of H. R. H. is or may be granted by law to the following classes of persons. The heir apparent to the throne, the spouse of the heir apparent. The children of the monarch, other than the heir apparent, the children of the heir apparent. A Prince/Princess of Orange-Nassau who is not also a Prince/Princess of the Netherlands is addressed as His/Her Highness without the predicate royal and that is the case for example of the children of Princess Margriet, younger daughter of the late Queen Juliana. In the British monarchy the style of Royal Highness is associated with the rank of prince or princess and this is especially important when a prince has another title such as Duke by which he or she would usually be addressed. In the United Kingdom, letters patent dated 21 August 1996 stated that the wife of a member of the Royal Family loses the right to the style of HRH in the event of their divorce. It was for this reason that when the Prince and Princess of Wales divorced, she ceased to be Royal Highness, and was styled Diana, Princess of Wales. Almost a year before, according to the claim of writer Tina Brown. The Princess of Wales is said to have replied, My title is a lot older than yours and she noted that the Spencer family, the family she was born to, is older than the House of Windsor
5.
Anne, Princess Royal
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Anne, Princess Royal, KG KT GCVO GCStJ QSO GCL CD is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At the time of her birth, she was third in the line of succession, behind her mother – then Princess Elizabeth – and elder brother and she rose to second after her mothers accession, but is currently 12th in line. Anne is known for her work, and is patron of over 200 organisations. Princess Anne has held the title of Princess Royal since 1987 and is its seventh holder, Anne was married to Captain Mark Phillips in 1973, they divorced in 1992. They have two children and three grandchildren, in 1992, within months of her divorce, Anne married Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, whom she had met while he served as her mothers equerry between 1986 and 1989. Anne was born at Clarence House on 15 August 1950 at 11,50 am, as the child and only daughter of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. She was the grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Anne was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950, by Archbishop of York, after the death of George VI, Annes mother ascended the throne as Queen Elizabeth II. Given her young age at the time, she did not attend the coronation, the Company was active until 1963, when Anne went to boarding school. Anne enrolled at Benenden School in 1963, in 1968 she left school with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels. In the next couple of years, Anne started dating, in 1970 her first boyfriend was Andrew Parker Bowles, who later became the first husband of Camilla Shand. Following the wedding, Anne and her husband lived at Gatcombe Park and he was made acting captain by the start of 1974 when he was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II. By 1989, however, Princess Anne and Mark Phillips announced their intention to separate, the couple divorced on 23 April 1992. The Queen had offered Phillips an earldom on his wedding day, the couple had two children, Peter Phillips and Zara Phillips. As female-line descendants of royalty, the children have no title despite being the grandchildren of a monarch, Anne became a grandmother on 29 December 2010 when Peter and his wife Autumn had a daughter, Savannah. On 29 March 2012, the couple had daughter, Isla. Annes third granddaughter, Mia Grace, was born on 17 January 2014 to Zara and her husband Mike Tindall. As Princess Anne and Mark Phillips were returning to Buckingham Palace on 20 March 1974, from a charity event on Pall Mall, the driver of the Escort, Ian Ball, jumped out and began firing a pistol
6.
Joan Bakewell
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Joan Dawson Bakewell, Baroness Bakewell, DBE is an English journalist, television presenter and Labour Party Peer. Baroness Bakewell is President of Birkbeck, University of London, Bakewell was born Joan Dawson Rowlands on 16 April 1933 in Heaton Moor, Stockport, Cheshire, England, and moved to Hazel Grove before she was three. The Rowlands family stemmed from the mining villages of the Ystwyth valley. Her great-grandfather moved to Salford, where he was a preacher in the Church Army, on the maternal side, the family were coopers, and settled in the Gorton district of Manchester. She was educated at Stockport High School for Girls, a school in local authority control. She won a scholarship and attended the University of Cambridge, where she studied Economics, from 1962 to 1969, she had an affair with Harold Pinter while she was married to Michael Bakewell. Joan Bakewell first became known as one of the presenters of an early BBC Two programme. Frank Muir dubbed her the thinking mans crumpet during this period, in 1968 she took the role of narrator of the BBC TV production of Cold Comfort Farm, a three-part serial, and played a TV interviewer in the cult swinging 60s film The Touchables. Bakewell co-presented Reports Action, a Sunday teatime programme which encouraged the public to donate their services to various good causes, for Granada Television during 1976–78. Subsequently, she returned to the BBC, and co-presented a short-lived late night television arts programme, briefly worked on the BBC Radio 4 PM programme, and was Newsnights arts correspondent. Later, Bakewell came to the fore as the presenter of the documentary and discussion series Heart of the Matter. In 2001 Bakewell wrote and presented a series for the BBC called Taboo. The programme dealt frankly with sex and nudity and in some cases pushed the boundaries of what is permissible on mainstream television, Bakewell used frank language and four-letter words to describe pornography and sex toys. She watched a couple having sex while they were making a pornographic film, Taboo was broadcast between 9. 50pm and 10. 30pm on BBC2. Taboo was referred to the Director of Public Prosecutions by the National Viewers and Listeners Association, after its first publication in 1976, Denis Lemon, the editor of Gay News, was given a nine-month suspended jail sentence and was told he had come close to serving it. On 26 May 2008 Bakewell introduced an evening on BBC Parliament called Permissive Night. The programme examined the liberalising legislation passed by Parliament in the late 1960s, Permissive Night concluded with a special one-off edition of Late Night Line-Up which discussed the themes raised in the programmes over the course of the evening. In 2009 she won Journalist of the Year at the annual Stonewall Awards, bakewells autobiography, The Centre of the Bed, was published in 2004
7.
Adrian Smith (statistician)
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Sir Adrian Frederick Melhuish Smith, FRS is a distinguished British statistician and was Principal of Queen Mary, University of London from 1998 to 2008. From 1977–1990 he was Professor of Statistics and Head of Department of Mathematics at the University of Nottingham and he was previously at Imperial College, London, where he was head of the mathematics department. Smith is a former Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University of London, Smith is a member of the governing body of the London Business School. He is a former President of the Royal Statistical Society and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2001. His FRS citation included his contributions to Bayesian statistics. His monographs are the most comprehensive available and his work has had a impact on the development of monitoring tools for clinicians. In statistical theory, Smith is a proponent of Bayesian statistics, with Antonio Machi, he translated Bruno de Finettis Theory of Probability into English. He wrote a paper in 1990 along with Alan E. Gelfand. He was also co-author of the paper on the particle filter. Smith was educated at Selwyn College, Cambridge, and University College London where his PhD supervisor was Dennis Lindley, in mathematics and statistics education, Smith led the team which produced the Smith Report on secondary mathematics education in the United Kingdom. In April 2008, Smith was appointed as Director General of Science and Research at the Department for Innovation, Universities and he took up his post in September 2008. His annual remuneration for this role is £160,000, Smith was knighted in the 2011 New Year Honours. In 2011 Smith was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Plymouth University and in 2015, Gelfand, A. E. Smith, A. F. M. Sampling-Based Approaches to Calculating Marginal Densities. Journal of the American Statistical Association, novel Approach to Nonlinear/Non-Gaussian Bayesian State Estimation. Making Mathematics Count, The Report of Professor Adrian Smiths Inquiry into Post-14 Mathematics Education, list of Vice-Chancellors of the University of London Making Mathematics Count There is a photograph at Adrian F M Smith on the Portraits of Statisticians page
8.
David Latchman
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David Seymour Latchman CBE is a British geneticist and university administrator. Since 2003 he has been Master of Birkbeck, University of London and he worked in the Medical Molecular Biology Unit at UCL, and Middlesex School of Medicine. He has been Professor of Molecular Pathology and Director of the Windeyer Institute of Medical Science at UCL and was Dean of the Institute for Child Health, as Master of Birkbeck, he has voiced protest at UK government proposals to cut funding for second degrees. Latchman was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2010 Birthday Honours for services to higher education, in 2015 he was cleared of academic misconduct. In early 2017 it was announced he was facing a further investigation, publishers bio Works by or about David Latchman in libraries Latchmans recent scientific papers Inaugural lecture
9.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
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Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
11.
Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
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The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art is a drama school in London, England. It is one of the oldest drama schools in the United Kingdom, RADA is an affiliate school of the Conservatoire for Dance and Drama. Its higher education awards are validated by Kings College London and its students graduate alongside members of the departments which form the Kings Faculty of Arts & Humanities and it is based in the Bloomsbury area of Central London, close to the Senate House complex of the University of London. Undergraduate students are eligible for government student loan through the Conservatoire for Dance, RADA also has a significant scholarships and bursaries scheme, offering financial assistance to many students at the Academy. The current director of the academy is Edward Kemp, the president is Sir Kenneth Branagh, the chairman is Sir Stephen Waley-Cohen and its vice-chairman was Alan Rickman until his death in 2016. RADA was founded in 1904 by Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, an actor manager, in 1905, RADA moved to 52 Gower Street, and a managing council was set up to oversee the school. Its members included George Bernard Shaw, who donated his royalties from his play Pygmalion to RADA. In 1920, RADA was granted a Royal Charter, and in 1921, the Prince of Wales opened the theatre. The Gower Street buildings were torn down in 1927, and replaced with a new building, financed by George Bernard Shaw, in 1923, John Gielgud studied at RADA for a year. He later became President of the academy, and its first honorary fellow, a number of famous actors took on leading roles at RADA, such as Richard Attenborough, Oliver Neville, Nicholas Barter, and Alan Rickman. Other 1924 saw RADAs first government subsidy, a grant of £500, in 2001, RADA joined forces with the London Contemporary dance School to create the UKs first Conservatoire for Dance and Drama. The Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance joined this Conservatoire in 2005, in 2000 the Academy founded RADA Enterprises Ltd, which includes RADA in Business, providing training in communications and teambuilding that uses drama training techniques in a business context. The profits are fed back into the Academy to fund students training, RADA is based in the Bloomsbury area of Central London. The main RADA building is on Gower Street, with a second premises nearby in Chenies Street, the Goodge Street and Euston Square underground stations are both within walking distance. RADA has five theatres and a cinema, there is also a 150-seat cinema. In January 2012, RADA acquired the lease to the adjacent Drill Hall venue in Chenies Street, the Drill Hall is a Grade II listed building with a long performing arts history, and was where Nijinsky rehearsed with Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes in 1911. This venue has a 200-seat space, the Studio Theatre, and a 50-seat space, the RADA library contains around 30,000 items. The collection was started in 1904 with donations from actors and writers of the such as Sir Squire Bancroft, William Archer, Arthur Wing Pinero
12.
Research university
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Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
13.
Bloomsbury
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Bloomsbury is an area of the London Borough of Camden, between Euston Road and Holborn. It was developed by the Russell family in the 17th and 18th centuries into a residential area. It is notable for its garden squares, literary connections, and numerous cultural, educational, Bloomsbury Square was laid out in 1660 by Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton. Much of the district was planned and built by James Burton and it is also home to the University of Law and New College of the Humanities. London Contemporary Dance School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and are located in the area. Bloomsbury is in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. The western half of the district comprises Bloomsbury ward, which three councillors to Camden Borough Council. The earliest record of what would become Bloomsbury is in the 1086 Domesday Book, but it is not until 1201 that the name Bloomsbury is first noted, when William de Blemond, a Norman landowner, acquired the land. The name Bloomsbury is a development from Blemondisberi – the bury, or manor, at the end of the 14th century, Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks of the London Charterhouse, who kept the area mostly rural. In the 16th century with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Henry VIII took the back into the possession of the Crown and granted it to Thomas Wriothesley. In the early 1660s, the Earl of Southampton constructed what eventually became Bloomsbury Square, the Yorkshire Grey public house on the corner of Grays Inn Road and Theobalds Road dates from 1676. The area was laid out mainly in the 18th century, largely by landowners such as Wriothesley Russell, 3rd Duke of Bedford, who built Bloomsbury Market, William de Blemond in the 13th century, a Norman, was the first landowner. Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks who governed it until Henry VIII granted it to the Earl of Southampton, the Russell family became landowners in the 18th century. The area lay within the parishes of St Giles in the Fields and St Georges, Bloomsbury and it is now controlled by the London Borough of Camden and part of the district is contained within the Bloomsbury ward. The district is situated in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. Bloomsbury merges gradually with Holborn in the south, with St Pancras and Kings Cross in the north-east, the road runs from Euston and Somers Town in the north to Holborn in the south. East of Southampton Row/Woburn Place are the Grade II listed Brunswick Centre, a residential and shopping centre, the area west of Southampton Row/Woburn Place is notable for its concentration of academic establishments, museums, and formal squares. Bloomsbury contains some of Londons finest parks and buildings, and is known for its formal squares
14.
Collegiate university
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A collegiate university is a university in which governing authority and functions are divided between a central administration and a number of constituent colleges. Often, but not always, colleges within collegiate universities have their own students unions. Some colleges are part of loose federations that allow them to nearly complete self-governance. In the United Kingdom, the colleges of the University of London perform almost all the duties of a university with the exception of the awarding of degrees. In the United States, many state university systems consist of campuses that are almost independent, the University of the Philippines started as one campus but is now a similar system of constituent universities. The four constituent universities of the National University of Ireland are, for all essential purposes, over time, loosely federated schools may formally end their relations with the parent university to become degree-awarding universities. Examples include Cardiff University and Imperial College London, the University of Dundee and the University of Newcastle upon Tyne were colleges of the University of St Andrews and the University of Durham, respectively, before they became independent. A number of universities in South Africa were formerly colleges of the University of South Africa. At some universities the colleges enjoy a significant degree of independence, often the binding conditions of federation, affiliation or incorporation outline fixed responsibilities of individual colleges and the university. In some cases the university may own a share of the controlling entity. Independent colleges vary in the level of teaching that they provide and they also tend to play a large role in deciding admissions. Students become members of the University through membership in their college, and matriculation is often done through, or at the behest of. At the undergraduate level, independent colleges provide most, if not all accommodation. They often have their own halls for meals, libraries, sports teams and this fosters loyalty to the college among its students—an undergraduate might state the name of his or her college before the name of the university when asked where he or she studied. This spirit is often maintained through college-based alumni organizations, the two ancient universities of the Kingdom of England, Oxford and Cambridge, are federations of autonomous colleges. The University of Oxford has 38 colleges and 6 Permanent Private Halls, the university requires all teaching staff and students to be members of one of these institutions. The University of Cambridge has 31 colleges, which have a significant role in providing independent supplementary tuition and are governed autonomously, irelands only ancient university is the University of Dublin. Created during the reign of Elizabeth I, it is modelled on the universities of Cambridge
15.
George Birkbeck
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Sir George Birkbeck was a British physician, academic, philanthropist, pioneer in adult education and a professor of natural philosophy at the University of Strathclyde. He is the founder of Birkbeck, University of London and was head of the Chemical Society and he is one of the creators of the earliest chemistry laboratory for undergraduates at University College London. He is of the same Birkbeck family as early 19th-century Illinois pioneer, social reformer, author, publicist, after mechanics started asking questions about the apparatus he used in his lectures, he had the idea of holding free, public lectures on the mechanical arts. These Saturday evening events proved very popular and continued after his departure to London, working as a doctor in London in 1823, Birkbeck, along with Jeremy Bentham and MPs John Hobhouse and Henry Brougham came together to discuss the education for the working men of London. To achieve this they established the London Mechanics Institute in November 1823 - of which Birkbeck was the first president and he died in 1841 and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, London. A monument is also to be found in St Akeldas church in Giggleswick, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Media related to George Birkbeck at Wikimedia Commons
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Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
17.
John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton
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John Cam Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton, GCB PC FRS, known as Sir John Hobhouse, Bt, from 1831 to 1851, was a British politician and diarist. Born at Redland near Bristol, Broughton was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, 1st Baronet and he was educated at Westminster School and at Trinity College, Cambridge. At Trinity College Hobhouse became friends with Lord Byron, and accompanied him in his journeys in the Peninsula, Greece and Turkey, and acted as his best man. In 1816 he was with Byron after his separation from his wife, and contributed notes to the fourth canto of Childe Harold, which was dedicated to him. On his return he threw himself into politics with great energy as an advanced Radical, and wrote various pamphlets, for one of which he was in 1819 imprisoned in Newgate. Also in that year, he spoke the words, I am a man chosen for the people, by the people. In 1820, he entered Parliament, sitting for Westminster, Hobhouse is credited with the invention of the phrase His Majestys Opposition made in 1826 during a speech in the House of Commons. He was later President of the Board of Control under Lord Melbourne between 1835 and 1841 and under Lord John Russell between 1846 and 1852. He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1832 and raised to the peerage as Baron Broughton, of Broughton-de-Gyfford in the County of Wiltshire, in 1852 he was also made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. Lord Broughton married Lady Julia, daughter of George Hay, 7th Marquess of Tweeddale, Lady Julia died from tuberculosis in April 1835. Lord Broughton survived her by over 30 years and died in June 1869 and he is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, London. The large and distinctive monument lies on the pathway to the central chapel. His barony died with him, as he had no heirs, whilst the baronetcy created for his father passed to Broughtons nephew. He published Journey through Albania, Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold, and Recollections of a Long Life, for private circulation, and he left in MS. Diaries, Correspondence, and Memoranda, etc. not to be opened till 1900, extracts from which were published by his daughter, Lady Dorchester, also under the title of Recollections from a Long Life. Italy, Remarks Made in Several Visits, from the Year 1816 to 1854, Murray, reissued by Cambridge University Press,2009,1859, ISBN 978-1-108-00398-8. John Cam Hobhouse, Lord Broughton, Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. Vol. IV, New York, Charles Scribners Sons,1878, pp. 381–382. John Cam Hobhouse, Baron Broughton, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. Vol. IV, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1911 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Cousin, John William
18.
Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux
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Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux PC QC FRS, was a British statesman who became Lord Chancellor of Great Britain. As a young lawyer in Scotland, Brougham helped to found the Edinburgh Review in 1802 and he went to London, and was called to the English bar in 1808. In 1810 he entered the House of Commons as a Whig, Brougham took up the fight against the slave trade and opposed restrictions on trade with continental Europe. In 1820, he won renown as chief attorney to Queen Caroline. He not only proposed educational reforms in Parliament but also was one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1825, as Lord Chancellor from 1830 to 1834 he effected many legal reforms to speed procedure and established the Central Criminal Court. In later years he spent much of his time in Cannes, Brougham was born and grew up in Edinburgh, the eldest son of Henry Brougham, of Brougham Hall in Westmorland, and Eleanora, daughter of Reverend James Syme. The Broughams had been an influential Cumberland family for centuries, Brougham was educated at the Royal High School and the University of Edinburgh, where he chiefly studied natural science and mathematics, but also law. He published several scientific papers through the Royal Society, notably on light and colours and on prisms, however, Brougham chose law as his profession, and was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1800. He practised little in Scotland, and instead entered Lincolns Inn in 1803, five years later he was called to the Bar. Not a wealthy man, Brougham turned to journalism as a means of supporting himself financially through these years, another example of Lord Broughams scientific incompetence is his attack against Sir William Herschel. The story is described by Pustiĺnik and Din, Herschel, as Royal Astronomer, found a correlation between the observed number of sunspots and wheat prices. This met with strong and widespread rejection, even ridicule – as a grand absurdity – by Lord Brougham, Herschel had to cancel his next publications of these results. 70 years later, the English economist W. S. Jevons discovered 10-to-11-year intervals between high prices – in agreement with the 11-year cycle of solar activity, discovered at those times. Pustiĺnik and Din believe they have found a direct evidence of the connection between wheat price bursts and solar activity. The success of the Edinburgh Review made Brougham a man of mark from his first arrival in London and he quickly became a fixture in London society and gained the friendship of Lord Grey and other leading Whig politicians. The aim of the mission was to counteract the anticipated French invasion of Portugal, during these years he became a close supporter of the movement for the abolition of slavery, a cause to which he was to be passionately devoted for the rest of his life. Despite being a well-known and popular figure, Brougham had to wait before being offered a seat to contest. However, in 1810 he was elected for Camelford, a rotten borough controlled by the Duke of Bedford
19.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
20.
London Borough of Camden
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The London Borough of Camden /ˈkæmdən/ is a borough in north west London, and forms part of Inner London. The southern reaches of Camden form part of central London, the local authority is Camden London Borough Council. The borough was created in 1965 from the area of the metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead, Holborn, and St Pancras. The borough was named after Camden Town, which had gained its name from Charles Pratt, the transcribed diaries of William Copeland Astbury, recently made available, describe Camden and the surrounding areas in great detail from 1829–1848. There are 162 English Heritage blue plaques in the borough of Camden representing the diverse personalities that have lived there. The area is in the part of the city, reaching from Holborn. Neighbouring areas are the City of Westminster and the City of London to the south, Brent to the west, Barnet and Haringey to the north and Islington to the east. It covers all or part of the N1, N6, N7, N19, NW1, NW2, NW3, NW5, NW6, NW8, EC1, WC1, WC2, W1 and it contains parts of central London. Camden Town Hall is located in Judd Street in St Pancras, Camden London Borough Council was controlled by the Labour Party continuously from 1971 until the 2006 election, when the Liberal Democrats became the largest party. In 2006, two Green Cllrs, Maya de Souza and Adrian Oliver, were elected and were the first Green Party councillors in Camden, Camden was the fourth to last council to drop out of the campaign, doing so in the early hours of 6 June. Borough councillors are elected every four years, between 2006 and 2010 Labour lost two seats to the Liberal Democrats through by-elections, in Kentish Town and Haverstock wards. A Labour Councillor in Haverstock ward also defected to the Liberal Democrats in February 2009, at the local elections on 6 May 2010 the Labour party regained full control of Camden council. The new council is made up of 30 Labour,13 Liberal Democrats,10 Conservatives, at the Councils AGM, Labours Nasim Ali took office as Camdens first leader from the Bengali community. Labour Councillor Jonathan Simpson was elected the Mayor of the Borough, the organisations staff are led by the Chief Executive who is currently Mike Cooke. Each directorate is divided into a number of divisions headed by an assistant director and they in turn are divided into groups which are themselves divided into services. This is a model to most local government in London. Pancras in the south, represented by Labours Keir Starmer, in 1801, the civil parishes that form the modern borough were already developed and had a total population of 96,795. This continued to rise throughout the 19th century as the district became built up
21.
University of East London
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The universitys roots can be traced back to 1892 when the West Ham Technical Institute was established. It gained university status in 1992, as of October 2015 it has more than 19,000 students from 120 countries. UEL can trace its roots back to 1892 when the newly formed County Borough of West Ham decided to establish a West Ham Technical Institute to serve the local community. The Institute was to be a university in the words of John Passmore Edwards. The college provided courses in science, engineering and art, and also established its own degree courses in science and engineering. In addition, it had a Womens Department, as demand for technical education grew throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Essex County Council created two further colleges at Walthamstow and Dagenham. In 1970 these three colleges were combined as a merger of higher education colleges, to create the North East London Polytechnic, campuses were modernised and revitalised by buildings such as the Arthur Edwards building on the Stratford campus, completed in 1982. In 1988 the North East London Polytechnic became an education institution. In 1992 the Polytechnic of East London became the University of East London, the UELs succession of founding institutions exemplify the developments that took place in British further and higher education policy throughout the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The University of East London consisted of the Barking Campus and the Stratford Campus, in 1999 the Docklands Campus was opened, the first new university campus built in London for over 50 years. In 2012, following previous opposition, UEL adopted the full increased tuition rates of £9,000 permitted by legislation enacted in 2010, the university is a lead academic sponsor of Hackney University Technical College which opened in 2012, one of the first university technical colleges in England. In April 2013 the university was granted armorial bearings by the College of Arms, UEL has three campuses, at Stratford and Docklands, the newest of which, University Square Stratford, opened in September 2013. The Barking campus was closed in 2006, UEL delivers programmes and short courses at the Barking Learning Centre in a nearby borough. Off campus, there are registered on programmes with UK and non-UK academic partners. The Stratford Campus is close to the 2012 Olympic Park and it is centred around University House, a 19th-century listed building. The campus is home to the Cass School of Education and Communities, the School of Health Sport and Bioscience, the Centre for Clinical Education was opened in January 2008. Operating in partnership with the National Health Service, the centre is Londons only provider of podiatric education, in 2011 UEL appointed Make Architects to lead the design of a replacement library at the Stratford Campus. The project had a budget of £13 million and the library opened in June 2013, London City Airport is across the dock from the campus
22.
Stratford, London
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Stratford is a district in the London Borough of Newham, in East London, England. Historically an agrarian settlement in the county of Essex, it was transformed into an industrial suburb following the introduction of the railway in 1839, Stratford is now East London’s primary retail, cultural and leisure centre. It has also become the second most significant business location in the east of the capital, stratford’s early significance was as the point where the originally Roman road from Aldgate in the City, to Romford, Chelmsford and Colchester, crossed the River Lea. At that time the branches of the river were tidal and unchannelised. The Lea valley formed a boundary between Essex on the eastern bank and Middlesex on the west, and was a formidable obstacle to overland trade. The name is first recorded in 1067 as Strætforda and means ford on a Roman road and it is formed from Old English stræt and ford. The former crossing lay at a location north of Stratford High Street. And Stretford Langthorne after a distinctive thorn tree which was mentioned in a charter of 958 AD, the western Stratford then become suffixed by “-atte-Bow”, eventually becoming known simply as Bow, while over time the eastern Stratford lost its “Langthorne” suffix. The Bridge was repaired and upgraded many times over the centuries until eventually demolished and replaced in the 19th Century, in 1135 the Cistercian Order founded Stratford Langthorne Abbey, also known as West Ham Abbey. This became one of the largest and most wealthy monasteries in England, the Abbey lay between the Channelsea River and Marsh Lane. Nothing visible remains on the site, as after it dissolution by Henry VIII in 1538, local landowners took away much of the stone for their own buildings and the land was subsequently urbanised. A stone window and a carving featuring skulls – thought to have been over the door to the charnel house – remain in All Saints Church, the Great Gate of the abbey survived in Bakers Row until 1825. The coat of arms of the Abbey can be seen over the doorway to the Old Court House, in Tramway Avenue. The chevrons from this device, originally from the arms of the Mountfitchet family, the same arms were adopted by the new London Borough of Newham in 1965. The industrialisation of Stratford started slowly and accelerated rapidly in the early Victorian era, Stratford was originally an agricultural community, whose proximity to London provided a ready market for its produce. By the 18th century, the area around Stratford was noted for potato growing, Stratford also became a desirable country retreat for wealthy merchants and financiers, within an easy ride of the City. When Daniel Defoe visited Stratford in 1722, he reported that it had. increased in buildings to a strange degree and he continues that. this increase is, generally speaking, of hansom large houses. An early industrial undertaking at Stratford was the Bow porcelain factory, the site of the factory was to the north of Stratford High Street near the modern Bow Flyover, it was the subject of archaeological excavations in 1921 and 1969
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Theatre Royal Stratford East
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The Theatre Royal Stratford East is a large community theatre in Stratford in the London Borough of Newham. Since 1953, it has been the home of the Theatre Workshop company, the theatre was designed by architect James George Buckle, who was commissioned by the actor-manager Charles Dillon in 1884. It is the only surviving work, built on the site of a wheelwrights shop on Salway Road. It opened on 17 December 1884 with a revival of Richelieu by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, two years later, Dillon sold it to Albert OLeary Fredericks, his sisters brother-in-law and one of the original backers of the scheme. In 1887 the theatre was renamed Theatre Royal and Palace of Varieties, the stage was enlarged in 1891, by the original architect. In 1902, Frank Matcham undertook minor improvements to the entrance, the Theatre reverted to its Theatre Royal Stratford East name in 1914. A fire on the stage on August Bank Holiday Monday of 1921 did considerable damage to the rear of the theatre, thankfully the fire happenned at midnight, with the safety curtain lowered, saving the auditorium which retains many of its original features to this day. The theatre was closed until January 1922, the Fredericks family continued to manage the theatre until 1932, although after the World War I, the theatre fell into financial difficulties, opening only irregularly after 1926. Theatre superstition has it that should the letters ever be removed, TRSE closed in 1938 and remained closed until 1943. Revues were then tried, but failed, and again the theatre was closed until October 1946. The theatre closed again in December 1949, in late 1950, a touring company presented the Christmas pantomime, Alice in Wonderland. Highly experimental, its success was by no means guaranteed or uniform throughout the tour, theyll lynch us, recalls Sven Stahl. I still have nightmares about Alice in Wonderland at Barnsley and the miners throwing pennies at John Blanshard, the company were to return, as the Theatre Workshop in 1953, with artistic director Joan Littlewood and take over the theatre. Money remained short, and the manager, Gerry Raffles only managed redecoration, in 2001, following a successful Heritage Lottery Fund bid, all of the theatres front of house and backstage areas were refurbished as part of the Olympiads Stratford Cultural Quarter project. In 1990, TRSE scored a hit with the premiere of Five Guys Named Moe. The show has produced all over the word, including Broadway. In 2004, TRSE made history by having the first British Black musical, The Big Life, transfer to Londons West End, where it played at the Apollo Theatre. In 2005, the theatre produced a version of the cult Jamaican film The Harder They Come – famous for its reggae soundtrack
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Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education
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The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education is the independent body that checks on standards and quality in UK higher education. It conducts quality assessment reviews, develops reference points and guidance for providers, QAA checks how universities, colleges and alternative providers of UK higher education maintain their academic standards and quality. It does this through external peer review, reviewers check that the 19 expectations of the Quality Code, agreed and recognised by the UK higher education sector, are met. It also provides advice to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, on institutions requests for degree awarding powers, QAA works closely with other organisations that have an interest in the reputation of UK higher education, including the Higher Education Academy, Universities UK and GuildHE. QAAs mission is to safeguard standards and improve the quality of UK higher education wherever it is delivered around the world. Its four strategic aims may be summarised as, to address the needs of students, to standards, to drive improvements. QAA is an independent body, a company and a registered charity in England, Wales. Its objects and constitution are set out in its Memorandum and Articles of Association and its board includes representatives of UK universities, funding councils, and students. It has a office in Gloucester, a Scottish office in Glasgow. QAA is the body that undertakes this independent role in the UK and it does so through processes of peer review. Reviewers have extensive experience of education at a senior level. While there are differences between the methods used by QAA to achieve this, they have some key features in common. Each review results in a report containing judgements on whether UK expectations are met. Separate judgements comment on academic standards, academic quality, and the information provided about courses. Reports include recommendations for improvement, citations of good practice, qAA’s review methods are informed by a self-evaluation submitted in advance by each university or college, and by a student submission - a commentary by its students. Evidence is obtained in a variety of ways, including interviews with relevant individuals and structured discussions with student, QAA reviews do not generally look at individual courses or programmes of study, neither do they review or evaluate students work. Where appropriate, QAA also works with professional, regulatory and statutory bodies, draft guidance is published on QAAs website, where it is accessible for public consultation before being formally published. The Quality Code sets out 19 expectations that must be met by UK higher education providers that receive any kind of public or student loan funding, in 2015 the Quality Code was extended to include the UK frameworks for higher education qualifications and the subject benchmark statements
25.
Times Higher Education
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Times Higher Education, formerly the Times Higher Education Supplement, is a weekly magazine based in London, reporting specifically on news and issues related to higher education. It is the United Kingdoms leading publication in its field, from its first issue, in 1971, until 2008 the Times Higher Education Supplement was published in newspaper format and was born out of, and affiliated with, The Times newspaper. On 10 January 2008, it was relaunched as a magazine and it is published by TES Global, which until October 2005 was a division of Rupert Murdochs News International. The magazine is edited by John Gill, phil Baty is the editor at large, and is responsible for international coverage. He is also the editor of the magazines World University Rankings, the magazine features a fictional satirical column written by Laurie Taylor, the Poppletonian, which reflects on life at the fictional Poppleton University. In 2011 Times Higher Education was awarded the titles of Weekly Business Magazine of the Year, Times Higher Education became known for publishing the annual Times Higher Education–QS World University Rankings, which first appeared in November 2004. On 30 October 2009 Times Higher Education broke with QS, then its partner in compiling the Rankings, the magazine developed a new methodology in consultation with its readers and its editorial board. Thomson Reuters collects and analyses the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the results have been published annually since autumn 2010. QS, which collected and analysed the data from 2004-2009. The magazine runs two sets of awards annually, the first is the Times Higher Education Awards. The 2011 awards took place on 24 November at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane, seventeen universities were given awards in different categories, with the University of Sheffield being University of the Year. Tessa Blackstone was given the Lord Dearing Lifetime Achievement Award, the University of Strathclyde was named as the University of the Year at the 2012 awards which took place on 29 November 2012 at the Grosvenor House Hotel on Londons Park Lane. University of Strathclyde Principal and Vice-Chancellor Professor Sir Jim McDonald received the award at the ceremony, the Times Higher Education Leadership and Management Awards were launched in 2009. The Thelmas were set up to recognise the impact that administrative staff have on the success of education institutions
26.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
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University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
28.
Mechanics' Institutes
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Mechanics Institutes are educational establishments, originally formed to provide adult education, particularly in technical subjects, to working men. Similar organisation are sometimes simply called Institutes, as such, they were often funded by local industrialists on the grounds that they would ultimately benefit from having more knowledgeable and skilled employees. The Mechanics Institutes were used as libraries for the working class. Its purpose was to address societal needs by incorporating fundamental scientific thinking, the school revolutionised access to education in science and technology for ordinary people. The second Institute in Scotland was incorporated in Glasgow in November 1823, under the auspices of the Andersonian University, Birkbeck had first instituted free lectures on arts, science and technical subjects in 1800. This mechanics class continued to meet after he moved to London in 1804, the first Mechanics Institute in England was opened at Liverpool in July 1823. The London Mechanics Institute followed in December 1823, and the Mechanics Institutes in Ipswich, by the mid-19th century, there were over 700 institutes in towns and cities across the UK and overseas, some of which became the early roots of other colleges and universities. See for example the University of Gloucestershire, which has the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute and it was as a result of delivering a lecture series at the Cheltenham Mechanics Institute that the famous radical George Holyoake was arrested and then convicted on a charge of blasphemy. From the 1850s, Mechanics Institutes quickly spread throughout Victoria wherever a hall, over 1200 Mechanics Institutes were built in Victoria but just over 500 remain today, and only six still operate their lending library services. The Industrial Revolution created a new class of reader in Britain by the end of the 18th century, mechanics, later popular non-fiction and fiction books were added to these collections. The first known library of type was the Birmingham Artisans Library. Some mechanics libraries only lasted a decade or two, many eventually became public libraries or were given to public libraries after the Public Libraries Act 1850 passed. Beyond a lending library, Mechanics Institutes also provided lecture courses, laboratories, the Glasgow Institute, founded in 1823, not only had all three, it was also provided free light on two evenings a week from the local Gas Light Company. The London Mechanics Institute installed gas illumination by 1825, revealing the demand, Ballarat Mechanics Institute, Ballarat Berwick Mechanics Institute, Berwick Briagolong Mechanics Institute, Briagolong Footscray Mechanics Institute Inc. Birkbeck, University of London Lurgan, County Armagh and it is chartered the following year and is eventually superseded in New Haven by The Young Mens Institute Library. 1795 The Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association of Boston, Massachusetts, was formed for the purposes of promoting the mechanic arts. 1820 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York established, renamed and became the Mechanics Institute in 1858. 1821 The English High School is established in Boston, MA, as the first public high school,1824 The Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts opens in Philadelphia
29.
Strand, London
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Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile
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Chancery Lane
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Chancery Lane is a one-way street situated in the ward of Farringdon Without in the City of London. It has formed the boundary of the City since 1994. Chancery Lane, numbered the B400 in the British road numbering scheme and it gives its name to Chancery Lane tube station which lies at the junction of Holborn and Grays Inn Road, a short distance from Chancery Lanes northern end. Lincolns Inn occupies most of the side north of Carey Street. Chancery Lane takes its name from the historic High Court of Chancery, which started its association with the area when Robert de Chesney, the Bishop of Lincoln acquired the old Temple in 1161. In later centuries the Court convened in Lincolns Inn Old Hall and other buildings there for the Courts purposes, in the 14th century it became the estate of the Master of the Rolls, which included an official residence and storage for court records. The site later became the Public Record Office, the present Grade II* listed, in 1907 it became the museum of the Public Record Office and throughout the latter half of the 20th century records gradually moved to a new site located in Kew. In 2001 it underwent renovation and became the Maughan Library, the largest academic library of Kings College London, just to the south of the Maughan Library is the site of the former Serjeants Inn. The principal building of The Law Society, the body for solicitors in England. Ede and Ravenscroft, the oldest tailors in London, have their main outlet,93, which is also their outlet for legal dress. The London Silver Vaults are located at the end of Chancery Lane
31.
Fetter Lane
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Fetter Lane is a street in the ward of Farringdon Without in the City of London. It forms part of the A4 road and runs between Fleet Street at its end and New Fetter Lane, which continues north towards Holborn Circus. The earliest mention of the street is Faitereslane in 1312, the name occurs with several spellings until it settles around 1612. There is no agreement about the origin of the name. At the southern end, towards Fleet Street, is situated Cliffords Inn, towards the northern end, near Holborn, is Barnards Inn. They were both Inns of Chancery, the official address of the old Public Record Office was on Chancery Lane, but the back of this building dominates the southern stretch of Fetter Lane. It is now the Maughan Library belonging to Kings College London, on Fleet Street is St. Dunstan-in-the-West, and next to it, at 133–137 Fetter Lane, is St. Dunstans House. In Victorian times the publishing house Sampson Low was located at St. Dunstans House, two plaster reliefs by Walter Crane were salvaged from the building when it was destroyed in 1905. They now stand next-door in the Kings College library, the site then became the main London warehouse of the Cambridge University Press. It is now the Technology and Construction Court hearing litigation related to science, the Admiralty Court is also at St. Dunstans House. In the 1590s there was a gibbet at the junction of Fleet Street, christopher Bales was among those hanged there. It is sometimes said that John Dryden lived at No,16, but there is no evidence for this. In 1604, John Dowland published Lachrimae, the preface states to be solde at the authors House in Fetter-lane neare Fleet-streete. In 1651 Thomas Hobbes lived in Fetter Lane, in the opening paragraphs of Gullivers Travels the central character states that he lived briefly at Fetter Lane. From 1660 to 1680 Thomas Goodwin preached at the Fetter Lane Independent Church,33, the Moravian Chapel was founded in 1738. The Trust Society for the Furtherence of the Gospel was founded by the Moravian Church in 1741 and they undertook missionary work and were based at Fetter Lane. The composer Christian Ignatius Latrobe did missionary work for them in South Africa, the organisation still exists, but is now based in Muswell Hill. For 67 years, Birkbeck, University of London, was located at Breams Buildings on Fetter Lane, the writers Charles Lamb and Mary Lamb attended William Birds Academy in Fetter Lane
32.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
33.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
34.
Helen Gwynne-Vaughan
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Dame Helen Charlotte Isabella Gwynne-Vaughan, GBE was a prominent English botanist and mycologist. In 1909, she was named head of the department at Birkbeck College in London. In 1911 she married David Thomas Gwynne-Vaughan, who died four years later and she served reluctantly as Commandant of the Womens Royal Air Force from September 1918 until December 1919. In 1923, she stood as the Conservative candidate in Camberwell North, Gwynne-Vaughan received her DBE just before her resignation in 1919. In 1921, she became a professor at Birkbeck College and continued her studies on fungi genetics as well as becoming involved in politics, in 1929, she was appointed GBE for public and scientific services. She was also active in Girl Guides and was honoured with the Silver Fish, in 1930, Gwynne-Vaughan chaired the Guides Sixth World Conference. At this conference, the constitution of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts was agreed, Gwynne-Vaughan was first Chief Controller of the Auxiliary Territorial Service from 1939-41. She returned to Birkbeck and retired as Professor Emeritus in 1944, fungal species named in her honour include Palaeoendogone gwynne-vaughaniae and Pleurage gwynne-vaughaniae. Story of the Girl Guides 1908-1938, women in the British Army, War and the Gentle Sex, 1907-1948. Creese, Mary R. S. Vaughan, Dame Helen Charlotte Isabella Gwynne-
35.
Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
36.
Nikolaus Pevsner
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Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner CBE FBA was a German, later British scholar of history of art and, especially, of history of architecture. He is best known for his 46-volume series of county-by-county guides, The Buildings of England, the son of a Russian-Jewish fur haulier, Nikolaus Pevsner was born in Leipzig, Saxony. He attended the Thomas School and went on to art history at the Universities of Leipzig, Munich, Berlin. In 1923, he married Carola Kurlbaum, the daughter of distinguished Leipzig lawyer Alfred Kurlbaum and he worked as an assistant keeper at the Dresden Gallery. In 1928 he contributed the volume on Italian baroque painting to the Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft and he taught at the University of Göttingen, offering a specialist course on English art and architecture. According to biographer Stephen Games, Pevsner welcomed many of the economic, however, due to Nazi race laws he was forced to resign his lectureship in 1933. Later that year he moved to England and his first post was an 18-month research fellowship at the University of Birmingham, found for him by friends in Birmingham and partly funded by the Academic Assistance Council. He was subsequently employed as a buyer of modern textiles, glass, since its first publication by Faber & Faber in 1936, it has gone through several editions and been translated into many languages. The English-language edition has also been renamed Pioneers of Modern Design, Pevsner was more German than the Germans to the extent that he supported Goebbels in his drive for pure non-decadent German art. He was reported as saying of the Nazis I want this movement to succeed, there is no alternative but chaos. There are things worse than Hitlerism, nonetheless he was included in the Nazi Black Book as hostile to the Hitler regime. In 1940, Pevsner was interned as an alien in Huyton. He was released three months on the intervention of, among others, Frank Pick, then Director-General of the Ministry of Information. He also completed for Penguin Books the Pelican paperback An Outline of European Architecture, Outline would eventually go into seven editions, be translated into 16 languages, and sell more than half a million copies. In 1942, Pevsner finally secured two regular positions, from 1936 onwards he had been a frequent contributor to the Architectural Review and from 1943 to 1945 he stood in as its acting editor while the regular editor J. M. Richards was on active service. Under the ARs influence, Pevsners approach to modern architecture became more complex and he was also closely involved with the Reviews proprietor, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, in evolving the magazines theories on Picturesque planning. In 1942, Pevsner was also appointed a lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. He lectured at Cambridge for almost 30 years, having been Slade professor there for a six years from 1949 to 1955
37.
John Desmond Bernal
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John Desmond Bernal FRS was a scientist and was a pioneer in X-ray crystallography in molecular biology. He also published extensively on the history of science, in addition, Bernal was a political supporter of Communism and wrote popular books on subjects connecting science and society. His family was Irish, of mixed Italian and Spanish/Portuguese Sephardic Jewish origin on his fathers side and his American mother, née Elizabeth Miller, whose mother was from Antrim, was a graduate of Stanford University and a journalist and had converted to Catholicism. Bernal was educated in England first, for one term, at Stonyhurst College which he hated, because of this he was moved to Bedford School at the age of thirteen. In 1919, he went to Emmanuel College, Cambridge with a scholarship, at Cambridge, Bernal read both mathematics and science for a B. A. degree in 1922, which he followed by another year of natural sciences. Whilst at Cambridge, he became known as Sage, a nickname given to him about 1920 by a young woman working in C. K. Ogdens Bookshop at the corner of Bridge Street. After graduation, Bernal began research under Sir William Bragg at the Davy Faraday Laboratory at the Royal Institution in London, in 1924 he determined the structure of graphite and also did work on the crystal structure of bronze. In 1927, he was appointed as the first lecturer in Structural Crystallography at Cambridge, while at Cambridge, he analysed vitamin B1, pepsin, vitamin D2, the sterols, and the tobacco mosaic virus. He also worked on the structure of water, showing the boomerang shape of its molecule. It was in Bernals research group where, following a working with Tiny Powell at Oxford. Max Perutz arrived as a student from Vienna in 1936 and started the work on haemoglobin that would occupy him most of his career, the same year he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society. After the second world war he established Birkbecks Biomolecular Research Laboratory in two Georgian houses in Torrington Square with 15 researchers, aaron Klug worked on ribonuclease whilst Andrew Booth developed some of the earliest computers to help with the computation. Rosalind Franklin joined from Kings College and did pioneering work on viruses until her death in 1957. His Guthrie lecture of 1947 concentrated on proteins as the basis of life, but it was Perutz, still at Cambridge, in the early thirties Bernal had been arguing for peace, but the Spanish civil war changed that. Their subsequent analysis of the effects of bombs on Birmingham and Hull showed that city bombing produced little disruption and production was affected by direct hits on factories. From 1942 he and Zuckerman served as advisers to Lord Louis Mountbatten. Bernal was able to argue on both sides of Project Habbakuk, Pykes proposal to build huge aircraft landing platforms in the North Atlantic made of ice and he rescued Max Perutz from internment, getting him to perform experiments in a meat store freezer below Smithfield Meat Market. After the disaster of the Dieppe raid, Bernal was determined that these mistakes not be repeated in Operation Overlord and he demonstrated the advantages of an artificial harbour to the participants of the Quebec Conference in 1943, as the only British scientist present
38.
C. E. M. Joad
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Cyril Edwin Mitchinson Joad was an English philosopher and broadcasting personality. He appeared on The Brains Trust, a BBC Radio wartime discussion programme and he popularised philosophy and became a celebrity, before his downfall in a scandal over an unpaid train fare in 1948. Joad was born in Durham, the son of Edwin. In 1892 his father became an Inspector of Schools and the moved to Southampton. Joad started school at the age of five in 1896, attending Oxford Preparatory School until 1906, in 1910 Joad went up to Balliol College, Oxford. Here he developed his skills as a philosopher and debater, by 1912 he was a first class sportsman and Oxford Union debater. He also became a Syndicalist, a Guild Socialist and then a Fabian, in 1913 he heard about George Bernard Shaw through the newly founded magazine, the New Statesman. This developed his study of philosophy, one of the blocks for his career as a teacher and broadcaster. Joad began at the Board of Trade in 1914 after attending a Fabian Summer School and his aim was to infuse the civil service with a socialist ethos. He worked in the Labour Exchanges Department of the Board of Trade, in the months leading up to the First World War he displayed ardent pacifism, which resulted in political controversy. Joad, along with Bernard Shaw and Bertrand Russell, became unpopular with many who were trying to encourage men to enlist as soldiers to fight for their country, in May 1915 Joad married Mary White, and they bought a home in Westhumble, near Dorking, in Surrey. The village, formerly home to Fanny Burney, was near to the founder of the Fabian Society, Joad was so fearful of conscription that he fled to Snowdonia, Wales, until it was safe to return. After the birth of three children, Joads marriage ended in separation in 1921, Joad later caused some controversy by stating his separation had caused him to abandon his feminism and instead adopt a belief in the inferior mind of women. After the separation Joad moved to Hampstead in London with a student teacher and she was the first of many mistresses, all of whom were introduced as Mrs Joad. He described sexual desire as a buzzing bluebottle that needed to be swatted promptly before it distracted a man of intellect from higher things and he believed that female minds lacked objectivity, and he had no interest in talking to women who would not go to bed with him. By now Joad was short and rotund, with bright eyes, round, rosy cheeks. He dressed in clothing as a test, if people sneered at this they were too petty to merit acquaintance. Job interviews proved a difficulty for Joad, due to his flippancy
39.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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The Blitz
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By September 1940—two months into the battle—faulty German intelligence suggested that the Royal Air Force was close to defeat at the hands of the Luftwaffe. The German air fleets were ordered to attack London, thereby drawing up the last remnants of RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation, Adolf Hitler and commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, sanctioned the change in emphasis on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, one year into the war, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days, on 15 September 1940, a large daylight attack against London was repulsed with significant German losses. Thereafter, the Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of nocturnal attacks, ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked. The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed, the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, was subjected to raids in the Hull Blitz during the war. More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed, by May 1941, the threat of an invasion of Britain had ended, and Hitlers attention turned to Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy, the eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand. The German offensives greatest effect was forcing the dispersal of aircraft production, British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months. The German air offensive failed for several reasons, discussions in OKL revolved around tactics rather than strategy. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency was also a factor, in the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars, without a need for land and sea fighting. It was thought there was no defence against air attack, particularly at night, enemy industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, taking away their means to resist. It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will, democracies, where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the state, were thought particularly vulnerable. This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and the United States Army Air Corps, the policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. In the Luftwaffe, there was a view of strategic bombing. OKL did not believe that air power alone could be decisive, contrary to popular belief, evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets and it could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. Wever outlined five points of air strategy, To destroy the air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories
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