1.
Oslo Opera House
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The Oslo Opera House is the home of The Norwegian National Opera and Ballet, and the national opera theatre in Norway. The building is situated in the Bjørvika neighborhood of central Oslo and it is operated by Statsbygg, the government agency which manages property for the Norwegian government. The structure contains 1,100 rooms in a area of 38,500 m2. The main auditorium seats 1,364 and two performance spaces can seat 200 and 400. The main stage is 16 m wide and 40 m deep, the angled exterior surfaces of the building are covered with marble from Carrara, Italy and white granite and make it appear to rise from the water. It is the largest cultural building constructed in Norway since Nidarosdomen was completed circa 1300, in 1999, after a long national debate, the Norwegian legislature decided to construct a new opera house in the city. A design competition was held and, of the 350 entries received, construction started in 2003 and was completed in 2007, ahead of schedule and 300 million NOK under its budget of 4.4 billion NOK. The gala opening on 12 April 2008 was attended by His Majesty King Harald, Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and President Tarja Halonen of Finland, during the first year of operation,1.3 million people passed through the buildings doors. The Opera House won the award at the World Architecture Festival in Barcelona in October 2008. The roof of the angles to ground level, creating a large plaza that invites pedestrians to walk up. The lobby is surrounded by 15 m tall windows with minimal framing, the roof is supported by thin angled columns also designed not to interfere with views. Interior surfaces are covered in oak to bring warmth to spaces in contrast to the coolness of the white exterior, the main auditorium is a horseshoe shape and illuminated by an oval chandelier containing 5,800 handmade crystals. Seats include monitors for the electronic system, allowing audiences to follow opera libretti in Norwegian. Several art projects were commissioned for the interior and exterior of the Opera House, the most notable is She Lies, a sculpture constructed of stainless steel and glass panels by Monica Bonvicini. It is permanently installed on a platform in the fjord adjacent to Opera House and floats on the water moving in response to tides. The work was unveiled by Her Majesty Queen Sonja on 11 May 2010, a perforated wall panel which covers roof supports in the lobby was designed by Olafur Eliasson. It features hexagonal opening and is illuminated from below and behind to create the illusion of melting ice, the main stage curtain is the work of Pae White who designed it to look like crumpled aluminum foil. White scanned a crumpled piece of foil into a computer which translated the information to a loom that wove the curtain from wool, cotton, the curtain was manufactured by the German-based theatrical equipment company Gerriets GmbH
2.
Sentrum, Oslo
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Sentrum meaning city-centre is located on the southeast side of the city near the inner Oslofjord. The district is dominated by high rises like Postgirobygget and The Plaza, Oslos Central Station is located on the eastern side of the borough. Sentrum consists of Bjørvika which has a history as Oslos main harbour, the area is now being rebuilt with modern high rises consisting of the Barcode and also several student apartments, schools and museums. Sentrum is not a borough with an administration and it is partially administrated by St. Hanshaugen, and in part directly by the city council. The borough St. Hanshaugen takes care of health and social services, the waterfront near what was once a harbour is now a cultural centre and where the Oslo Opera House is located. An artificial island is being constructed together with a beach near the Opera. The upcoming Munch Museum which will replace the current one at Tøyen will most likely be located on the side of the Opera House. Several canals will be built in the apartment district east of the upcoming Munch Museum, the tallest buildings in the city are located in the innermost part of Sentrum. Spektrum is one of the major staging facilities in Oslo, Sentrum is located near the Plaza. Several media companies are located here, various magazines and companies such as Aftenposten, which offices are located in Postgirobygget and TV Norge. An entrance to the Oslo Central Station is located here and Oslo Bus Terminal is being rebuilt, Oslo City is a large shopping mall located near Spektrum. It is a mall and currently the third largest mall in the Oslo district
3.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
4.
Oslofjord
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The Oslofjord is an inlet in the south-east of Norway, stretching from an imaginary line between the Torbjørnskjær and Færder lighthouses and down to Langesund in the south to Oslo in the north. It is part of the Skagerrak strait, connecting the North Sea and the Kattegat sea area, the Oslofjord is not a fjord in the geological sense - in Norwegian the term fjord can refer to a wide range of waterways. The bay is divided into the inner and outer Oslofjord at the point of the 17 by 1 kilometre Drøbak Sound, in the period 1624-1925 the name of the fjord was Kristianiafjorden - since this was the name of the capital in this period. The old Norse name of the fjord was Fold, giving names to the counties of Vestfold and Østfold -, each of the islands in the innermost part of the fjord has its own identity and distinguishing history. Among them are Hovedøya, Lindøya, Nakholmen, Bleikøya, Gressholmen and these islands can be reached with the Oslo-boats from Vippetangen. Hovedøya contains monastery ruins, Gressholmen for its rabbits, Nakholmen, Bleikøya, Lindøya for their cabins at the water’s edge. The inner part of the Oslofjord has steep and forest covered hill slopes down towards the fjord, the Oslofjord has Norway’s highest all year temperature,7.5 degrees Celsius. February is the coldest month in the fjord with -1.3 degrees Celsius, the islands in the middle of the fjord are among Norway’s warmest with high summer temperatures and moderate winters. Oslofjord’s relatively high temperatures enable various flora to flourish, the oldest settlements in the area surrounding the Oslofjord date from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. It was here on the eastern and western shores that three of the best preserved Viking ships were unearthed, in historical times, this bay was known by the current name of the region, Viken. Oslofjord has been an important body of water due to its proximity to Oslo. During WWII, there were German installations at several points on its coastline, one installation in Hovedøya held 1,100 Wehrmacht soldiers and later women deemed Nazi collaborators at the National Internment Camp for Women in Hovedøya. Norwegian painter Edvard Munch had a cottage and studio in Åsgårdstrand on the fjord, the fjord was the scene of a key event in the German invasion of Norway in April 1940, the Battle of Drøbak Sound. The invasion included a landing of 1,000 troops transported by ship to Oslo. Colonel Eriksen, Commander of the Oscarsborg fortress near Drøbak, mainly maintained for historical purposes, the fortresss resistance blocked the route to Oslo, thus delaying the rest of the group long enough for the royal family, government, parliament, and national treasury to be evacuated. The entire population situated around the Oslofjord including Oslo is about 1.96 million, more than 40% of Norway’s population resides under 45 minutes of driving from the Oslofjord. The Oslofjord has Norway’s busiest traffic of ferries and cargo boats, even though the Oslofjord contains hundreds of populated islands, most of the population of the fjord resides on the mainland. In the summer there are boats of all sizes on the fjord, and it is possible to go kayaking, canoeing, fishing, the Oslofjord is one of the nine venues of the Class 1 World Powerboat Championship
5.
Gamlebyen
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Gamle Oslo is a district of the city of Oslo, Norway. The district has several landmarks and large parks, including the Edvard Munch Museum, the Botanical Gardens, during the time that present Oslo was named Christiania, this area was called Oslo. H. P. Lovecraft alludes to the fact in his story The Call of Cthulhu, johansens address, I discovered, lay in the Old Town of King Harald Hardrada, which kept alive the name of Oslo during all the centuries that the greater city masqueraded as Christiana. In the municipal election of 2007 all district councils became elective, labour became the largest party with 5 representatives, the Socialist Left have 3, the Conservatives, Liberals and the Red Electoral Alliance 2 each, and the Progress party 1. Places formerly known for squatting, includes Brakkebygrenda
6.
Akershus Fortress
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Akershus Fortress or Akershus Castle is a medieval castle that was built to protect Oslo, the capital of Norway. It has also used as a prison. It was constructed in response to the Norwegian nobleman, Earl Alv Erlingsson of Sarpsborg’s earlier attack on Oslo that occurred in 1287, in the aftermath of the attack, it became clear that the city’s existing defences weren’t effective and therefore, a stronger defensive centre was needed. The castle is mentioned in sources for the first time in 1300 in a letter from king Haakon to a church in Oslo. However, the letter does not mention how far the construction of the castle has progressed by then, the fortress has successfully survived all sieges, primarily by Swedish forces, including those by forces led by Charles XII in 1716. In the early 17th century, the fortress was modernized and remodelled under the reign of the active King Christian IV, and got the appearance of a renaissance castle. The fortress was first used in battle in 1308, when it was besieged by the Swedish duke Eric of Södermanland, the siege was eventually broken by a local Norwegian army in a battle. In 1449-1450 the castle was besieged again, this time by the Swedish king Karl Knutsson Bonde, the castle wasn’t besieged again until 1502 when Scottish soldiers in service of the Danish king besieged the castle in order to regain it from the hands of the Norwegian nobleman Knut Alysson. Akershus was besieged yet again in 1523, this time by Swedish soldiers but Oslo’s inhabitants burned down their houses in an attempt to drive them out, the king Christian II besieged the castle from 1531 to 1532 but the siege was lifted by forces from Danmark and Lübeck. After this siege the castle was improved and strengthened, the immediate proximity of the sea was a key feature, for naval power was a vital military force as the majority of Norwegian commerce in that period was by sea. The fortress was important for the capital, and therefore. Whoever controlled Akershus fortress ruled Norway, the fortress has never successfully been besieged by a foreign enemy. However it surrendered without combat to Nazi Germany in 1940 when the Norwegian government evacuated the capital in the face of the unprovoked German assault on Denmark, during World War II, several people were executed here by the German occupiers, including members of the Pelle group. The fortress was liberated on 11 May 1945, when it was handed over to Terje Rollem on behalf of the Norwegian resistance movement, after the war, eight Norwegian traitors who had been tried for war crimes and sentenced to death were also executed at the fortress. Among those executed were Vidkun Quisling and Siegfried Fehmer, Akershus has also been a prison, with a section of it known as The Slavery because the prisoners could be rented out for work in the city. It has housed many rebels and criminals through Norwegian history, particularly well-known people to have been imprisoned there include author Gjest Baardsen, and the similarly idealized thief Ole Høiland. Also, many early Norwegian socialists also spent time in the cells of Akershus, the prison was also a plot element in the film Fante-Anne. Following the 1852 Laestadian Sámi revolt in Guovdageaidnu, all men except the two leaders Aslak Hætta and Mons Somby ended up in Akershus Fortress – the women were imprisoned in Trondheim, many of the rebels died after a few years in captivity
7.
Akerselva
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Akerselva or Akerselven is a river which flows through Oslo. It starts at Maridalsvannet in Oslomarka, and follows the urban areas Nordre Aker, Sagene, Grünerløkka, Oslo centre and Grønland, whereby it finally ends at Paulsenkaien, the river is considered to be a part of the Nordmarkvassdraget, and has the watercourse number 006. Z. The entire river is about 8.2 kilometres long, and has a difference in elevation between source and mouth of approximately 149 metres, earlier, the river gave power to numerous industry companies in Oslo. Akerselven is Oslo’s green lung”, many parks and nature trails are to be found by its path, from Grønland to Maridalsvannet. A walk from along Akerselven from the rural Frysja down through the different parts of Oslo all the way down to the city centre is an amazing experience, salmon run and spawn in the upper part of the river. Aker River in the 1970s was heavily contaminated after 150 years of industrial, in the 1980s, a local initiative to limit emissions and revive the flora and fauna of the river began. Early in March 2011, Oslos water and wastewater department accidentally discharged 6,000 litres of chlorine into the river near its headwaters, according to Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, the discharge occurred at the water treatment plant Oset. The first element is the case of Aker, the name of the old farm. The last element is the form of the noun elv. The river is considered to be the border between the eastern and the part of Oslo. In the eastern part people treat the word elv as a feminine noun, the westside dialect is influenced by Danish, where the feminine and masculine genders have merged into a common gender inflected like Norwegian masculine nouns. Therefore, people in the western part often treat elv as a masculine noun, the Old Norse name of the river was Frysja, and this old name has been revived as the name of a neighborhood along the river. The name is derived from the verb frusa froth, referring to the many waterfalls in the river
8.
Urban renewal
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Urban renewal, which is generally called urban regeneration, revitalization in the United States, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures and its modern incarnation began in the late 19th century in developed nations and experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s – under the rubric of reconstruction. The process has had a impact on many urban landscapes. This process is carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal. In some cases, renewal may result in urban sprawl and less congestion when areas of cities receive freeways and expressways, Urban renewal has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control. It may enhance existing communities, and in some cases result in the demolition of neighborhoods, many cities link the revitalization of the central business district and gentrification of residential neighborhoods to earlier urban renewal programs. The agenda that emerged was a doctrine that assumed better housing conditions would reform its residents morally and economically. The first area to be targeted was the notorious slum called the Devils Acre near Westminster and this new movement was largely funded by George Peabody and the Peabody Trust and had a lasting impact on the urban character of Westminster. Slum clearance began with the Rochester Buildings, on the corner of Old Pye Street and Perkins Rent and they are one of the earliest large-scale philanthropic housing developments in London. The Rochester Buildings were sold to the Peabody Trust in 1877, angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts funded an experimental social housing estate, among the first of its kind, on the corner of Columbia Road and Old Pye Street. In 1869 the Peabody Trust built one of its first housing estates at Brewers Green, between Victoria Street and St. Jamess Park. What remained of the Devils Acre on the side of Victoria Street was cleared. In 1882, the Peabody Trust built the Abbey Orchard Estate on former marshland at the corner of Old Pye Street, like many of the social housing estates, the Abbey Orchard Estate was built following the square plan concept. Blocks of flats were built around a courtyard, creating a space within the estate functioning as recreation area. The courtyards were meant to create a community atmosphere and the blocks of flats were designed to allow sunlight into the courtyards, the blocks of flats were built using high-quality brickwork and included architectural features such as lettering, glazing, fixtures and fittings. The estates built in the area at the time were considered model dwellings and included shared laundry and sanitary facilities, innovative at the time, the design was subsequently repeated in numerous other housing estates in London. State intervention was first achieved with the passage of the Public Health Act of 1875 through Parliament, the Act focused on combating filthy urban living conditions that were the cause of disease outbreaks. It required all new construction to include running water and an internal drainage system
9.
Barcode Project
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The Barcode Project is a section of the Bjørvika portion of the Fjord City redevelopment on former dock and industrial land in central Oslo. It consists of a row of new multi-purpose high-rise buildings, that was completed in 2014, the developer is marketing the project as The Opera Quarter. There has been public debate about the height and shape of the buildings. Oslo S Utvikling AS is responsible for the development of the Barcode, OSU is a subsidiary of Entra Eiendom AS, Linstow Eiendom and ROM Eiendom AS. A line of apartment buildings will be between Dronning Eufemias gate and the Oslofjord, where the new Oslo Opera House has already been built. The general plan was based on a competition to plan the new Bjørvika, which was won by Dark Architects, a-lab. The general plan specified five high-rise buildings, the tallest in area B11, closest to the Station Common, rising to 100 m above sea level and having approximately 24 floors. The other towers were specified to be lower in height,70 m in area B13,78 m in B10, the buildings were described as a geometric system of volumes based on penetrating strips of empty space. The building plan for the Barcode buildings was approved by the city in March 2008 with few changes from the 2006 proposal, the Barcode has been planned as a row of different buildings with views between them. The unbuilt spaces between the buildings are to be at least 12 m wide, several of the buildings will have fewer floors facing the fjord than the railway. The buildings are long and narrow, the buildings will have a shared basement, entered from Trelastgata. The Barcode buildings are, from west to east, PriceWaterhouseCoopers Building, a glass structure of simple form with a central entrance five storeys high affording views through the building, and 3-storey voids within the building visible from the exterior. The first Barcode building to be completed, in April 2008 a-lab won the Europe 40 under 40 prize in part on the basis of this design. 2 overlapping segments in contrasting materials and of differing shapes separated by a column of glass, the western tower will contain 54 luxury apartments and the eastern the KLP offices. The building will have 5 roof surfaces,3 of which will be gardens and this building will be between the KLP Building and the Station Common and will provide services associated with the station, probably including restaurants, on its lowest floors. It will be tall and narrow and the surface realized half in glass and its form was inspired by a calving glacier and it was initially referred to as the Glacier. Three office towers joined by two glass atria, varying between 12 and 17 floors. The cladding is to make it hard to read the number of floors from the exterior, Architects, MVRDV, Dark Arkitekter and a-lab
10.
Munch Museum
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Munch Museum is an art museum in Oslo, Norway dedicated to the life and works of the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch. The museum was financed from the profits generated by the Oslo municipal cinemas, the museum now has in its permanent collection well over half of the artists entire production of paintings and at least one copy of all his prints. This amounts to over 1,200 paintings,18,000 prints, six sculptures, as well as 500 plates,2,240 books, the museum also contains educational and conservation sections, and has facilities for the performing arts. The museum structure was designed by the architects Einar Myklebust and Gunnar Fougner, Myklebust also played an important role in the expansion and renovation of the museum in 1994 for the 50th anniversary of Munchs death. This site has also been the location of filming for an Olsenbanden-movie from 1984, the City of Oslo promoted an architectural competition for a new Munch Museum in the area of Bjørvika, a new urban development were the Oslo Opera House is also located. The new museum will probably be completed in 2018 by the Spanish studio Herreros Arquitectos, on Sunday,22 August 2004, two paintings by Munch, The Scream and Madonna, were stolen from the Munch Museum by masked men wielding firearms. The paintings were recovered by Oslo Police on August 31,2006, for more details on the theft see The Scream. The City of Oslo promoted a competition in 2008 for a new Munch Museum in the area of Bjørvika. The competition was won in 2009 by the Spanish studio Herreros Arquitectos with its project Lambda, before the local election in Oslo in 2011, the Oslo Progress Party decided that they would no longer support building Lambda due to economic concerns. After the election, in December 2011, the Oslo City Council voted to end the Lambda project, instead the council wanted to consider improving the current museum or moving the collection to Nasjonalgalleriet. In May 2013, the Oslo City Council finally took the decision to revive the Lambda project, the new museum is expected to open in 2018. Eggum, Arne, Gerd Woll, Marit Lande Munch At The Munch Museum Langaard, Johan H. Edvard Munch, Masterpieces from the artists collection in the Munch Museum in Oslo Munch-museet Herreros Arquitectos
11.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
12.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
13.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
14.
Christian IV of Denmark
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Christian IV, sometimes colloquially referred to as Christian Firtal in Denmark and Christian Kvart or Quart in Norway, was king of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 to 1648. His 59-year reign is the longest of Danish monarchs, and of Scandinavian monarchies, a member of the house of Oldenburg, Christian began his personal rule of Denmark in 1596 at the age of 19. He is frequently remembered as one of the most popular, ambitious, Christian IV obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. He engaged Denmark in numerous wars, most notably the Thirty Years War, which devastated much of Germany, undermined the Danish economy and he renamed the Norwegian capital Oslo as Christiania after himself, a name used until 1925. Christian was born at Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark on 12 April 1577 as the child and eldest son of King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway. He was descended, through his mothers side, from king John of Denmark, at the time, Denmark was still an elective monarchy, so in spite of being the eldest son Christian was not automatically heir to the throne. However, in 1580, at the age of 3, his father had him elected Prince-Elect, at the death of his father on 4 April 1588, Christian was 11 years old. He succeeded to the throne, but as he was still under-age a regency council was set up to serve as the trustees of the power while Christian was still growing up. It was led by chancellor Niels Kaas and consisted of the Rigsraadet council members Peder Munk, Jørgen Ottesen Rosenkrantz and his mother Queen Dowager Sophie,30 years old, had wished to play a role in the government, but was denied by the Council. At the death of Niels Kaas in 1594, Jørgen Rosenkrantz took over leadership of the regency council, Christian continued his studies at Sorø Academy and received a good education with a reputation as a headstrong and talented student. In 1595, the Council of the Realm decided that Christian would soon be old enough to assume control of the reins of government. On 17 August 1596, at the age of 19, Christian signed his haandfæstning, twelve days later, on 29 August 1596, Christian IV was crowned at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand, Peder Jensen Vinstrup. He was crowned with a new Danish Crown Regalia which had made for him by Dirich Fyring. On 30 November 1597, he married Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, Christian took an interest in many and varied matters, including a series of domestic reforms and improving Danish national armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction of Dutch engineers, the Danish navy, which in 1596 had consisted of but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them built after Christians own designs. The formation of a national army proved more difficult, up until the early 1620s, Denmarks economy profited from general boom conditions in Europe. This inspired Christian to initiate a policy of expanding Denmarks overseas trade and he founded a number of merchant cities, and supported the building of factories. He also built a number of buildings in Dutch Renaissance style
15.
Trunk Line
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The Trunk Line is a railway line in Norway which runs between Oslo and Eidsvoll. The line is owned by Bane NOR, built by Robert Stephenson, the Trunk Line was opened on 1 September 1854 by the Norwegian Trunk Railway, making it the oldest public railway line in Norway. It connected to steamboats on Lake Mjøsa, allowing steam powered transport to places like Lillehammer,180 kilometers from Oslo. The name comes from the fact that during the planning, it was the railway project in Norway considered economically viable. The railway was successful and more railways started to be considered, the section between Kristiania East and Lillestrøm was rebuilt to double track in 1902, and the line was electrified in two portions, in 1927 and 1953. The Trunk Line was the line between Oslo and Eidsvoll until 8 October 1998, when the more direct, double-tracked high-speed Gardermoen Line opened. Today the old line between Oslo and Lillestrøm is used for traffic and for commuter trains serving the suburban stations in outer Oslo, Lørenskog. In addition overcrowded trains are not allowed through the Romerike Tunnel, passenger service on the old line past Jessheim is only provided to Dal. Media related to Hovedbanen at Wikimedia Commons Norwegian National Rail Administrations list of stations between Oslo and Lillestrøm Note, these usually start at Asker on the Drammen Line. Norwegian National Rail Administrations list of stations between Lillestrøm and Dal Note these trains start at Skøyen, and run on the Gardermo Line between Oslo and Lillestrøm
16.
Icebreaker
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An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels. For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack, a hull, an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice. Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into ice pockets, the bending strength of sea ice is so low that usually the ice breaks without noticeable change in the vessels trim. In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship, even in the earliest days of polar exploration, ice-strengthened ships were used. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to the hull, bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, stern and along the keel, such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was nipped by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in a vise and this vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. Although such wind and tidal forces may be exerted many miles away, the first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the indigenous Arctic people. Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a deck, and one or more cockpits. Such boats, of course, have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light, in the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic, and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings, however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the 11th century, in North-Russia started settling the coasts of the White Sea, named so for being ice-covered for over half of a year. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors. Gradually they developed a type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships, used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi, the kochs hull was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage. If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water, in the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Fram is said to be the ship to have sailed farthest north and farthest south. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre wooden paddle steamer,1, that was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837
17.
Oslo Tunnel
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The Oslo Tunnel is a 3, 632-meter, double-track, railway tunnel which runs between Olav Kyrres plass and Oslo Central Station in Oslo, Norway. The tunnel constitutes the eastern-most section of the Drammen Line and runs below the business district of Oslo. It features the four-track Nationaltheatret Station, Norways second-busiest railway station, at Frogner, the Elisenberg Station was built, but has never been used. The tunnel is the busiest section of line in Norway and serves all west-bound trains from Oslo, including many services of the Oslo Commuter Rail. Traditionally, Oslo had two stations, the larger Oslo East Station and Oslo West Station, which served the Drammen Line and this caused a physical barrier between the two parts of the railway network, only connected by the Oslo Port Line which ran partly in city streets. Formal planning of a station and a tunnel connecting the Drammen Line to Oslo Ø started in 1938. The Oslo Tunnel opened on 1 June 1980, and made it possible to close Oslo V in 1989, Nationaltheatret saw a major upgrade in 1999, when it was expanded to four tracks, and from 2008 to 2010, the tunnel will see a major technical upgrade. There are plans to build a tunnel to increase train capacity west of Oslo. The tunnel constitutes the easternmost 3,632 meters of the Drammen Line, at Oslo S,12 of the 19 tracks connect to the tunnel, which is shaped as a funnel, eventually merging the twelve tracks into two. The tunnel runs below some important heritage buildings in Oslo, including Basarhallene, Nationaltheatret Station is the second-busiest railway station in the country, and is located below the Oslo Metro station with the same name. The station has four tracks and two 250-meter long island platforms, serving the business district of Oslo. Through this section, the line runs below the Common Tunnel of the Oslo Metro for 280 meters, at this point, the line is 18 meters below the surface. Elisenberg Station, located in Frogner, is built, including a 220-meter long island platform. The line follows Bygdøy allé and surfaces just west of Olav Kyrres plass, immediately afterwards, the Skøyen–Filipstad Line merges into the Drammen Line. The next station along the line is Skøyen Station, the Oslo Tunnel is the most heavily trafficked section of mainline railway in Norway. It has a capacity of 40 trains per hour in each direction. In rush hour, there are up to 20 trains operating through the tunnel, all eight lines of the Oslo Commuter Rail have some or all of their services operate through the tunnel, although many of these terminate at Skøyen. Freight trains along the Sørland Line operate through the tunnel, although only at night, while freight trains along the Bergen Line do not, by the 1930s, Oslo had two main railway stations, Oslo East Station and Oslo West Station
18.
Containerization
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Containerization is a system of intermodal freight transport using intermodal containers made of weathering steel. The handling system is completely mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes, all containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. The system, developed after World War II, dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the boom in international trade. Containerization did away with the sorting of most shipments and the need for warehousing. It displaced many thousands of workers who formerly handled break bulk cargo. Containerization also reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time and reduced losses from damage, before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory, when the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo, delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable, containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat Starvationer with 10 wooden containers, in 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal. By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, originally used for moving coal on and off barges, loose boxes were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones, the early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks, prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems. In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon, the Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland
19.
Automation
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Some processes have been completely automated. The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is used to save energy and materials and to improve quality, accuracy. The term automation, inspired by the word automatic, was not widely used before 1947. It was during this time industry was rapidly adopting feedback controllers. Automation has been achieved by means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers. Complicated systems, such as factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these combined techniques. Fundamentally, there are two types of control loop, open loop control, and closed loop control, in open loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the process output. A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so heat is applied for a constant time. In closed loop control, the action from the controller is dependent on the process output. A closed loop controller therefore has a loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the Reference input or set point. For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers, the theoretical basis of closed loop automation is control theory. The control action is the form of the output action. One of the simplest types of control is on-off control, an example is the thermostat used on household appliances which either opens or closes an electrical contact. Sequence control, in which a sequence of discrete operations is performed. An elevator control system is an example of sequence control, a proportional–integral–derivative controller is a control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. Sequential control may be either to a sequence or to a logical one that will perform different actions depending on various system states. An example of an adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler, States refer to the various conditions that can occur in a use or sequence scenario of the system. An example is an elevator, which uses logic based on the state to perform certain actions in response to its state
20.
European route E18
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European route E18 runs from Craigavon in Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom to Saint Petersburg in Russia, passing through Scotland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. It is about 1,890 kilometres in length, the route starts in Northern Ireland and runs from Craigavon – Belfast – Larne, then to Scotland, Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway – Gretna – then England via the – Carlisle to Newcastle. Like all European routes, it is not signposted as such in the United Kingdom, the route continues as a motorway from Kristiansand in Norway. E18 is connected with the E39 Ferry to Denmark, the ferry runs from Kristansand to Hirtshals, takes about 3 hours and 15 minutes, and is operated by Color Line. In Norway and Sweden the E18 runs Kristiansand – Arendal – Porsgrunn – Larvik – Sandefjord – Tønsberg – Horten – Drammen – Oslo – Ås – Askim – Karlstad – Örebro – Västerås – Stockholm/Kapellskär, the length is 415 km in Norway and 510 km in Sweden. The E18 is motorway on 190 km in Norway and 245 km in Sweden, there are long term plans until around 2030-2040 to build motorways on all remaining parts of E18 in Norway and Sweden except between Ørje and Segmon. A flyover carrying the E18 Holmestrand bypass, opened in 2001, partially collapsed in February 2015 following a landslip, the connection over the Baltic Sea from Sweden to Turku/Naantali Finland is by cruiseferries operated by Silja Line and Viking Line. It is also possible to take a route to Helsinki. In Finland the E18 goes from Åland through southern Finland by way of Turku/Naantali – Salo – Vihti – Espoo – Porvoo – Loviisa – Kotka – Hamina – Vaalimaa till the border with Russia. Crossing the border to Russia used to often require queuing as the volume of traffic using it increased, the situation has since 2009 improved thanks to increased capacity, and a new parking lot constructed by 2016 is expected to solve the problem for good. In Russia, E18 goes along the M10 highway from Finnish border to Saint Petersburg, the stretch of M10 between Saint Petersburg and the Finnish border will be redesignated to A181 by 2018. The route runs through northwestern Leningrad Oblast and mostly through sparsely populated areas, since 2003, after opening of Vyborg bypass E18 does not go through Vyborg, though previously it did. Near Saint Petersburg the route runs through suburbs, such as Sestroretsk, E18 terminates at the western border of Saint Petersburg. There are plans to expand the road from one to three lanes in each direction because of the volume of traffic. In 2012 the highway will be connected with the Western Rapid Diameter near Beloostrov by expanded existing junction of M10 with the Zelenogorsk highway and it is likely to be a new terminus of E18. Media related to E18 at Wikimedia Commons Queue situation at the Finnish/Russian border
21.
Fjord City
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The Fjord City is an urban renewal project for the waterfront part of the center of Oslo, Norway. The first redevelopment was at Aker Brygge during the 1980s, Bjørvika and Tjuvholmen followed up during the 2000s, while the remaining parts of the Port of Oslo will be developed in the 2010s. The port will be relocated to Sørhavna, the planning is performed by the Oslo Waterfront Planning Office. Major investments in the include a new Central Railway Station, an already completed Oslo Opera House. Several large cultural institutions will be moved to Bjørvika, including moving the Oseberg Ship, Oslo Public Library, the main barrier between the city and the fjord will disappear when European Route E18 is relocated to the Bjørvika Tunnel. Development of the Tjuvholmen commenced in 2008 and this is a mixed residential and commercial area, and home to the Norwegian National Academy of Ballet. Filipstad, a 32 hectares container port, will receive a 5 hectares park, 50% of the area will be housing, providing 2,200 apartments. Aker Brygge, developed during the 1980s, is also a mixture of residential and commercial zones and it contains the corporate headquarters of several of Norways largest companies, including DnB NOR, Aker, and Storebrand. Vestbanen rail terminal will host the National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design, the City Hall Square transport hub and Pipervika neighbourhood were renewed in the 1960s, when the surrounding slums were removed. In 1994, the square became car-free, after the opening of the Festning Tunnel. Vippetangen and Akershusstranda will receive little renewal, since the features the national monument of Akershus Fortress. Bjørvika harbour will be renovated following European Route E18 being moved to the Bjørvika Tunnel. This will free up large areas, and a new avenue, Dronning Eufemias gate. South of the street is the new Oslo Opera House, and the area also feature the Munch Museum, the Stenersen Museum. North of the street, there will be twelve skyscrapers, Oslo Central Station will be completely rebuilt, and only the tracks and platforms will be preserved. Sørengautstikkeren, Loenga, and Grønlia were part of the port, Grønlia and Sørenga will lose the port facilities, and will mainly be zoned as residential areas. Loenga will retain some railway infrastructure, kongshavn, Sjursøya, Ormsund, and Bekkelaget were previously planned as part of the Fjord City, but have been removed from the plans and will continue to be part of the port. The main transport link to Fjord City will be the Oslo Tramway, the first part was opened in 1995, when the Vika Line was built to serve Vika, Aker Brygge, and The City Hall Square
22.
Bispelokket
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Bispelokket was a Norwegian three-level stack interchange roundabout in Bjørvika, Oslo. European Route E18 and Norwegian National Road 162 jointed at this point, the new roundabout at Postgirobygget is from October 31,2011, the new traffical centre of Oslo. Bispelokket ceased to function as a roundabout on October 28,2011, the physical demolition was launched by the Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg, November 4,2011, at 1,46 pm. As a complex intersection, Bispelokket was not recognized as an aesthetical suitable landmark in the cityline of Oslo. Sinsenkrysset is from October 31 the most visited Norwegian road intersection by 100,000 vehicles a day, Bispelokket, including all on and offramps, are to be demolished by late 2012. Nylandsvegen bridge, which is connected to Bispelokket through NNR162 and it will not, at any point, be completely unavailable for vehicles. Instead, the traffic will be reduced from two lanes to one in each direction in addition to the new Norenga bridge, opened on August 29,2011. Dronning Eufemias gate will from 2014 be a new avenue, located parially on the route as the old E18. It will serve as a main road through the new borough Bjørvika after the Fjord City urban renewal project is finished. The demolition also enables space for the building of a new national library, the Deichman Library
23.
Ekeberg Line
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The Ekeberg Line is a 6. 6-kilometre long light rail line of the Oslo Tramway which runs from Gamlebyen to Ljabru in Oslo, Norway. Operated by lines 18 and 19, it serves the area of Nordstrand, the line is operated by Oslo Sporvognsdrift using SL79 and SL95 trams on contract with Ruter. The line itself is owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon, at Oslo Hospital, the line connects to the Gamleby Line, which runs to the city center. Proposals for a line in the area were first launched 1897, the line was built and operated by Ekebergbanen. The line opened in 1917, and connected to the Gamleby Line to reach Stortorvet in the city center. The line differed from the trams in that it ran in its own right of way and used 1,200 volt supply. In the early 1930s, the line was rebuilt to double track and a branch, the Ekeberg Line was extended to its current terminus in 1941. In 1948, the company was taken over by the municipal Oslo Sporveier, the line was nearly closed in 1967 and 1973, but during the 1970s, the line received new rolling stock and a renovation. Future plans include an extension to Hauketo Station on the Østfold Line, the entire line is built as a light rail with its own right-of-way. The line is electrified at 750 volts with overhead wires and it runs up Ekeberg on the east side of Kongsveien, passing Sjømannsskolen at 59.5 meters above mean sea level and 0.8 kilometers from Oslo Hospital. The next station is Jomfrubråten, which is located 2.0 kilometers from Oslo Hospital and this is where the Simensbråten Line previously branched off. Past Jomfrubråten, the Simenbråten Line, while it existed, ran under the Ekeberg Line. The next station is Sportsplassen, located 400 meters further south, at 108.9 meters AMSL, followed by Holtet, Holtet is the location of the depot and a balloon loop. At Holtet, the line crosses Kongsveien and continues along the west side of Ekebergveien. The next station is Sørli, which is located 4.0 kilometers from Oslo Hospital and at 111.7 meters AMSL, followed by Kastellet located 4.4 kilometers from Oslo Hospital and at 112.0 meters AMSL. The line continues past Bråten, located 4.9 kilometers from Oslo Hospital and at 117.6 meters AMSL and past Sæter, located 5.6 kilometers from Oslo Hospital, between Sæter and Ljabru is a bridge over Nordstrandsveien which is single tracked. Ljabru is the terminus and is located 7.6 kilometers from Oslo Hospital, the Ekeberg Line is served by lines 18 and 19 of the Oslo Tramway. Line 19 always runs the length of the line, while Line 18 does not operate from Ljabru to Holtet during the morning
24.
Trams in Oslo
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The Oslo tram network, is the 131. 4-kilometre tram system in Oslo, Norway. It consists of six lines with 99 stops and has a ridership of 132,000. It is operated by Sporveien Trikken AS, a subsidiary of the municipal owned Sporveien who maintain the track and 72 tram vehicles on contracts with the transport authority Ruter. The system operates on standard gauge and uses 750 V DC overhead, depot, workshops and headquarters are at Grefsen. There is also a depot at Holtet that is home to the technical company InfraPartner, which maintains the track for the tram and metro systems in Oslo, and a small Office building for Oslo Sporveier. The first tram in Oslo was opened in 1875 with a line between Homansbyen west of the city centre, Oslo West Railway Station and a sideline to Grønland. The first trams were in fact horse-drawn vehicles on flanged steel wheels, the first expansion of the line came in 1878 with a line to Grünerløkka just north-east to the city center. Electric tram service was initiated in 1894 with a line over Briskeby to Majorstuen, horsedrawn service was entirely replaced with electric service in 1900. For a long time, there were two companies operating in Oslo, Grønntrikken and Blåtrikken. These companies were merged in 1924 and it was operated by a separate company. It was originally built to Sæter in 1917, the line was completed to Ljabru in 1941, the tram network reached its greatest extent in 1939 with the opening of the northeastern line to Sinsen. A number of lines had been replaced with the T-bane subway system, however, in 1977, the city council rescinded its decision to close the tram system. An order was made for a set of new articulated trams to supplement the aging fleet, the first of these trams, the SL79 was delivered in 1982. The tram network was expanded slightly in the 1990s, a line over Aker Brygge was added in 1995, and in 1999 an extension of the northwestern Ullevål line was extended past the University of Oslo campus, to the new Rikshospitalet national hospital. A further renewal of the fleet by the addition of Italian double-articulated SL95 cars was also started. In 2002 the tram appeared to fall on hard times again, Oslo Sporveier was strapped for cash, and the board passed a decision to close down much of the tram system and replace it with buses. However, such a change of operations forced a general assembly to meet. Finally, only the northernmost line to Kjelsås was closed in November 2002, in 2003, the tram system which had been part of Oslo Sporveier, was fissioned out to a separate company, Oslotrikken
25.
Oslo Central Station
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Oslo Central Station is the main railway station in Oslo, and the largest railway station within the entire Norwegian railway system. It is the terminus of Drammen Line, Gardermoen Line, Gjøvik Line, Hoved Line and it serves express, regional and local rail services by four companies. The railway station is owned by Rom Eiendom and operated by Bane NOR, Oslo Central was built on the site of the older Oslo East Station, the combining of the former east and west stations being made possible by the opening of the Oslo Tunnel. Oslo Central has nineteen tracks, thirteen of which have connections through the Oslo Tunnel, the station has two buildings, the original Oslo East building and the newer main building for Oslo Central. Each building houses a shopping centre. The square in front of the station is called Jernbanetorget, when the first railway line, Hoved Line, was built between Oslo and Eidsvoll in 1854, the terminus in Oslo was constructed as an ad-hoc solution located at Gamlebyen. Alternate sites included Youngstorget, Grünerløkka and Vaterland Bridge, in 1852 an architectural competition was held, and a plan based on Crown Street Station in Liverpool won. The station was located east of the river Akerselva, but could not serve as a permanent solution, in 1859 the freight section of the station was expanded with the purchase of land between Loelva and the port, and part of Bjørvika. From the beginning, rail traffic increased, especially after the expansion of the Trunk Line to Hamar in 1862, in 1872 Oslo got its second terminal station, located at Pipervika near Aker Brygge and the city hall. Oslo West Station was built to allow the then narrow-gauged Drammen Line between Drammen and Oslo to terminate in downtown Oslo, the two stations were located about 2 km apart and were not connected by rail until 1907 when the Oslo Port Line line was built. There had been discussions about building a station to connect the Drammen Line with the eastern station. Oslo V always remained a secondary station in Oslo, since it mostly served local traffic to Buskerud, Telemark. Traffic at the station was expected to explode due to this railway, the engineers within NSB wanted to locate this new station west of the river Akerselva, between Jernbanetorget and Bjørvika. But a conflict arose between Carl Abraham Pihl, who was director of NSB at the time, and the City of Oslo, while Pihl wanted a separate station for the Smaalenene Line, the city wanted to concentrate the stations in one place in Oslo. The engineers insisted on moving the station closer to the city, the architect Georg Andreas Bull drafted four plans for a new station with nine tracks over the river Akerselva. In 1878 the legislature decided to build the smallest suggested station—with only seven tracks over the river, Oslo East Station opened in 1882. But it was recognized that the station was too small. The population of Oslo doubled to 150,000 between 1875 and 1890 and from the opening of the station to 1890, the traffic increased from 400,000 passengers annually to more than a million
26.
Oslo Metro
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The Oslo Metro is the rapid transit system of Oslo, Norway, operated by Sporveien T-banen on contract from the transit authority Ruter. The network consists of five lines all run through the city centre, with a total length of 85 kilometres. In addition to serving 14 out of the 15 boroughs of Oslo, in 2015, the system had an annual ridership of 94.4 million. The first rapid transit line, the Holmenkoll Line, opened in 1898 and it became the first Nordic underground railway in 1928 when the underground line to Nationaltheatret was opened. The Sognsvann Line opened in 1934 and the Kolsås Line in 1942, all the trains are operated with MX3000 stock. These replaced the older T1000 stock between 2006 and 2010, rail transport in Oslo started in 1854, with the opening of Hoved Line to Eidsvoll, through Groruddalen. In 1872, Drammen Line, going through Oslo West, and in 1879, Østfold Line going through Nordstrand opened, by 1875, Kristiania Sporveisselskab opened the first horsecar trams. In 1894 electric trams were in service by Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei and this service remained part of the municipal Oslo Sporveier, that had bough all the streetcar companies in 1924. Akersbanerne opened the connecting Sognsvann Line in 1934, at the time there were two suburban tramways on the east side, the Ekeberg Line and the Østensjø Line. The Lambertseter Line was opened in 1957, from Brynseng to Bergkrystallen while the Østensjø Line was extended to Bøler in 1958. The metro opened on 22 May 1966, when the Common Tunnel opened from Brynseng to the new station of Jernbanetorget. In October the Grorud Line opened to Grorud while the Østensjø Line was connected to the system in 1967 when the line also was extended to Skullerud. In 1970, the Furuset Line opened to Haugerud and extended to Trosterud in 1974, by 1981, the Furuset Line had reached Ellingsrudåsen. The metro took delivery of T1000 rolling stock from Strømmens Værksted, the eastern network was extended from Jernbanetorget to Sentrum in 1977. This station was forced to close in 1983, due to leakage, and when it opened again in 1987, renamed Stortinget. Through services were not possible at the time because of incompatibility of signaling, not until 1993 did the first trains run through the station, after the Sognsvann Line had been rebuilt to metro standard, the Røa Line followed in 1995. The Holmenkoll and Kolsås Lines remained non-metro, using dual mode trains that switch to overhead lines at Frøen, the western network took delivery of 33 T1300 cars in 1978–81, with an additional 16 converted from T1000. In 1994 twelve T2000 cars were delivered for the Holmenkollen Line, in 2003 the Ring Line opened, connecting Ullevål stadion to Storo
27.
Jernbanetorget (station)
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Jernbanetorget is both a rapid transit station on the Oslo Metro and a light rail station of the Oslo Tramway. The metro station is in the Common Tunnel used by all lines under the city centre and it is located between Stortinget to the west and Grønland to the east. Until the construction of the station at Stortinget, Jernbanetorget was the end station for the lines in downtown. Along with the Oslo Central Station, Oslo Bus Terminal and the tram and bus station above ground, all six of the subway lines pass through the station, totaling 24 departures per hour during most of the day. The station is 0.5 kilometres from Stortinget and submerged 5.2 metres below sea level. It is also the hub of the Tram network with all six lines using either the platform in front of Christiania Hotel or the one in front of the public transport information centre. Media related to Jernbanetorget stasjon at Wikimedia Commons
28.
HAV Eiendom
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HAV Eiendom AS is a company that is responsible for the urban redevelopment of the Bjørvika area of Oslo, Norway. The company was founded on 7 April 2003, the company owns most of the real estate in Bjørvika, though parts have been sold to Statsbygg to build the Oslo Opera House. As of 2009, the company retains 15.6 hectares of land, about 20,000 jobs will be located to Bjørvika. Most of the development will begin after 2010, when the Bjørvika Tunnel opens, the development of Sørengautstikkeren, a peninsula that sticks out form Bjørvika, has been sold to a private company, Sørenga Utvikling. Along with Oslo S Utvikling, that will develop real estate on property owned by the Norwegian State Railways in the north of Bjørvika and this company is responsible for overall planning and the development of infrastructure and public areas in Bjørvika
29.
Oslo Port Authority
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Oslo Port Authority is a kommunalt foretak, and accountable to the Municipality of Oslo. For many years, Oslo Havn KF was known as Oslo havnevesen but was renamed on June 8,2004, today, the enterprise has 123 employees and is managed by an elected board, Havnestyret and a Port Director, havnedirektøren. The organisation as a whole is divided into five branches, market, communication and environment, administration, finance and IT, real estate, Oslo Havn KFs principal objectives are to ensure an effective and sustainable enterprise at the Port of Oslo by facilitating green and efficient maritime transport. Apart from the management of the port, it is also Oslo Havn KFs task to monitor the traffic in and out of the port. Oslo Havn KF was first established by a Royal Charter, on September 16,1735, the current day enterprise was then created as an executive body, a Port Commission, which makes Oslo Havn KF one of Norways oldest organisations still in existence. The Port Commission, Havnekommissionen, was responsible for overlooking all the ports within Oslos jurisdiction, in the first few decades the work primary consisted of controlling the depth of the waters, dredging works and mooring equipment, but as the years passed its responsibilities multiplied. The highest authority in Oslo Havn KF is havnestyret, the executive board, the board consists of representatives from a range of positions, Oslo Municipality, the ports commercial users, employees and other nearby municipalities. On May 8,2012, a new board was appointed with Bernt Stilluf Karlsen from the Norwegian Liberal Party as leader, anne Sigrid Hamran is Oslo Havn KFs Port Director and she has had the position since 2003. Official website Oslo kommune about Oslo Havn
30.
Oslo West Station
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Oslo West Station or Oslo V, is a former railway station located in Vika in Oslo, Norway. It was the terminus of the Drammen Line between 1872 and 1980, until the Oslo Tunnel opened, the station remained in use until 1989, when all traffic was moved to the new Oslo Central Station. Until its closure it was the station for trains on the Sørland Line, the Drammen Line. There was no rail connection to Oslo Ø, the eastern station that served the eastern lines. The only connection was the Oslo Port Line that went partially through some of the most trafficked streets in Oslo, the station building was drawn by architect Georg Andreas Bull in historism and built in tilestone. The fascade against The City Hall Square has two low towers diagonally against the main direction. After the station closed, the building has taken into use by among others the Nobel Peace Center. On 13 April 1921, the restaurant was taken over by Norsk Spisevognselskap, after it had received a renovation, in 1922, the company and Narvesen opened two kiosks at the station. After the station was destroyed on 2 February 1942, it remained closed until 1 June. Media related to Vestbanen at Wikimedia Commons Entry at the Norwegian Railway Club
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Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions
32.
Stenersen Museum
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The Stenersen Museum is a Museum of Fine Arts located in Oslo, Norway. It principally features exhibitions of contemporary art, the museum art exhibited originated with three private art collections which were donated to the city. In 1933, the family of Amaldus Nielsen donated an art collection to the City of Oslo, in 1936, the prominent financier and author Rolf E. Stenersen donated his collection of Norwegian art to the Municipality of Aker, which was later merged with the City of Oslo. In 1972, the Ravensberg collection was donated to the City of Oslo by the widow of artist Ludvig O. Ravensberg. In 2008, plans were finalized for the Stenersen Museum to relocate to Bjørvika and occupy a new building near the Oslo Opera House together with the Munch Museum
33.
PricewaterhouseCoopers
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PricewaterhouseCoopers is a multinational professional services network headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the second largest professional services firm in the world, vault Accounting 50 has ranked PwC as the most prestigious accounting firm in the world for seven consecutive years, as well as the top firm to work for in North America for three consecutive years. PwC is a network of firms in 157 countries,756 locations, as of 2015, 22% of the workforce worked in Asia, 26% in North America and Caribbean and 32% in Western Europe. The companys global revenues were $35.9 billion in FY2016, of which $15.2 billion was generated by its Assurance practice, $9.1 billion by its Tax practice, the firm was formed in 1998 by a merger between Coopers & Lybrand and Price Waterhouse. The trading name was shortened to PwC in September 2010 as part of a rebranding, as of 2016, PwC is the 5th-largest privately owned company in the United States. The firm was created in 1998 when Coopers & Lybrand merged with Price Waterhouse, both firms had histories dating back to the 19th century. In 1854 William Cooper founded a practice in London, which became Cooper Brothers seven years later when his three brothers joined. In 1898, Robert H. Montgomery, William M. Lybrand, Adam A. Ross Jr. and his brother T. Edward Ross formed Lybrand, Ross Brothers and Montgomery in the United States. In 1957 Cooper Brothers, Lybrand, Ross Bros & Montgomery, in 1973 the three member firms in the UK, US and Canada changed their names to Coopers & Lybrand. Then in 1980 Coopers & Lybrand expanded its expertise in insolvency substantially by acquiring Cork Gully, in 1990 in certain countries including the UK, Coopers & Lybrand merged with Deloitte Haskins & Sells to become Coopers & Lybrand Deloitte, in 1992 they reverted to Coopers & Lybrand. Samuel Lowell Price, an accountant, founded a practice in London in 1849. In 1865 Price went into partnership with William Hopkins Holyland and Edwin Waterhouse, Holyland left shortly afterwards to work alone in accountancy and the firm was known from 1874 as Price, Waterhouse & Co. The original partnership agreement, signed by Price, Holyland and Waterhouse could be found in Southwark Towers, by the late 19th century, Price Waterhouse had gained significant recognition as an accounting firm. As a result of growing trade between the United Kingdom and the United States, Price Waterhouse opened an office in New York in 1890, and the American firm itself soon expanded rapidly. It was said by those involved with the merger that at the end of the discussion, the partners at the table realized they had different views of business. In 1998, Price Waterhouse merged with Coopers & Lybrand to form PricewaterhouseCoopers, after the merger the firm had a large professional consulting branch, as did other major accountancy firms, generating much of its fees. Management Consulting Services was the fastest growing and often most profitable area of the practice, the major cause for growth in the 1990s was the implementation of complex integrated ERP systems for multi-national companies. PwC came under increasing pressure to avoid conflicts of interests by not providing some consulting services, particularly financial systems design and implementation, since it audited a large proportion of the worlds largest companies, this was beginning to limit its consulting market
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Avinor
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Avinor AS is a state-owned limited company that operates most of the civil airports in Norway. The Norwegian state, via the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications, Avinor was created on 1 January 2003, by the privatization of the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration known as Luftfartsverket. Its head office is in Bjørvika, Oslo, located on the seaside of Oslo Central Station, Avinor owns and operates 46 airports in Norway, fourteen in association with the Royal Norwegian Air Force, and is responsible for air traffic control services in Norway. In addition to the 46 airports, it operates three Area Control Centers, Bodø Air Traffic Control Center, Stavanger Air Traffic Control Center, as of 2010, the Chief Executive Officer was Sverre Quale who has been in the job since 18 April 2006. He was previously the head of the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board, as of 2011, Sverre Quale has been employed as the Chief Executive at Multiconsult. His replacement, Dag Falk-Petersen, has served as CEO of CHC Helicopters, Avinor has about 2,400 employees, including air traffic control, air navigation services, rescue, maintenance, administration and other airport operations personnel. On 1 July 1947, the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication created the Aviation Directorate to take over the responsibility for the airports in Norway. Until then the Norwegian Ministry of Defence was responsible for operating airports and this responsibility had been delegated to the Aviation Council within the ministry. The first director was Einar Bøe, followed by Erik Willoch, Ove Liavaag, Randi Flesland, Sverre Quale, the organisation changed its name to Luftfartsverket in 1967. In 1997, Oslo Airport, Fornebu and the then under construction Oslo Airport, Gardermoen and this company still operates Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. On 14 December 2005, CEO Randi Flesland resigned after a dispute with employees. She was temporarily replaced by Nic, nilsen until Sverre Quale took over. Official website About Avinor Official website
35.
Oslo Sporveier
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AS Oslo Sporveier is a defunct municipal owned company responsible for public transport in Oslo, Norway. It was created in 1924 to take over the two private tram companies. In 1927 its started with bus transport, including from 1940 to 1968 trolleybuses, since 1966 rapid transit and from 1985 water buses have also been operated by the company. The latter merged into Ruter in 2008, when the Oslo Sporveier brand was discontinued, in 1875, Kristiania Sporveisselskab started the first horsecar services in Oslo—at the time called Kristiania. It was followed by Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei who established electric tram services in 1894, in 1899 the city council decided to also venture into the tram industry, and established Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie. The city had granted a concession to the two private companies until 1924, after which the city could expropriate the companies. Both companies where well run and highly profitable, and on 1 May 1924 KSS and KES were merged and taken over by the city council, on 1 January 1925 the city changed its name to Oslo, with the companys name also changing. After the take-over Oslo Sporveier immediately started expanding the network, on 1 August 1925 the Homansbyen Line was extended from Adamstuen to Ullevål Hageby. Further expansions were the Kjelsås Line that opened on 25 September 1934 from Storo to Kjelsås, at this point the city has its most extensive tram network. The new company decided that the permitted car width be 2.5 metres. During the 1930 Oslo Sporveier decided they needed more rolling stock, forty-six units were delivered in 1937–40, with twenty-four delivered in the street version, series E and twenty-two in the suburban version, series B. Built with a chassis, they were quick and light, with a distinct streamline shape. Bus transport started in 1927 with line 18 between Kværner and Alexander Kiellands Plass, in 1931 the buss ring around the city is opened, and by 1937 Oslo Sporveier operated 113 vehicles. In December 1940 the first trolleybus route opened, line 17 from served as a shuttle for the tram at Rodeløkka, Line 21 was the next to be converted—opening on 5 December 1943—running from Carl Berners Plass to Skillebekk, on route north of the city center. After sabotage against the a German aircraft engine facility co-located with the bus depot, the last trolleybus route was line 24 converted on 20 May 1955 from Tåsen to the Eastern Railway Station. In total 72 trolleybuses, all built by Strømmen, were delivered, on 1 October 1944, Oslo Sporveier bought Bærumsbanen and took over the operation of the Lillaker-, Ekeberg- and Østensjø Line. The municipalities of Oslo and Aker were merged 1 January 1948, the companies preferred shares were however still listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange. The first part of the Common Tunnel had been opened in 1928 by Holmenkolbanen, the first closing of tram lines occurred in 1949, on 17 January the line to Korsvoll was closed, followed on 6 February the line to Rodeløkka
36.
Aftenposten
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Aftenposten is Norways largest printed newspaper by circulation. It had a circulation of 211,769 in 2015 and estimated 1.2 million readers and it converted from broadsheet to compact format in March 2005. Aftenpostens online edition is at Aftenposten. no, Aftenposten is a private company wholly owned by the public company Schibsted ASA. Norways second largest newspaper, VG, is owned by Schibsted. At least 30% of Schibsted is owned by English and American investment banks such as Goldman Sachs, the paper has around 740 employees. Espen Egil Hansen is editor-in-chief and CEO as of 2016, Aftenposten was founded by Christian Schibsted on 14 May 1860 under the name Christiania Adresseblad. The following year, it was renamed Aftenposten, since 1885, the paper has printed two daily editions. A Sunday edition was published until 1919, and was reintroduced in 1990, the Friday-morning edition carries the A-magasinet supplement, featuring articles on science, politics, and the arts. In 1886, Aftenposten bought a press, being the first Norwegian newspaper in this regard. Historically, Aftenposten labelled itself as independent, conservative, most closely aligning their editorial platform with the Norwegian Conservative Party and this manifested itself in blunt anticommunism during the interwar era. During World War II, Aftenposten, due to its circulation, was put under the directives of the German occupational authorities. In the late 1980s, Egil Sundar served as the editor-in-chief, however, he was forced to resign from his post due to his attempt. In addition to the edition, Aftenposten publishes a separate evening edition called Aften. This edition was published on weekdays and Saturdays until the Sunday morning edition was reintroduced in 1990, the evening edition is only circulated in the central eastern part of Norway, i. e. Oslo and Akershus counties. Thus, it focuses on news related to this area, in contrast with the morning edition, the evening edition was converted to tabloid format in 1997. From April 2006, the Thursday edition of Aften also includes an edition with news specific to a part of Oslo or Akershus. This edition has eight versions, with each subscriber receives the version which is most relevant to the area in which he or she lives, in areas not covered by any of the eight versions, the version for central Oslo is distributed. From May 2009, Aften is only printed and distributed Tuesday through Thursday, the publication of Aften ended on 20 December 2012
37.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
38.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
