1.
Working class
–
The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
Working class
–
Working class life in
Victorian Wetherby,
West Yorkshire,
England.
Working class
–
Striking teamsters battling police on the streets of Minneapolis, June 1934.
Working class
–
Precursors
2.
Manual labour
–
Manual labour or manual work is physical work done by people, most especially in contrast to that done by machines, and to that done by working animals. It is most literally work done with the hands, and, by figurative extension, for most of human prehistory and history, manual labour and its close cousin, animal labour, have been the primary ways that physical work has been accomplished. To be implemented, they require that sufficient technology exist and that its capital costs be justified by the amount of wages that they will obviate. Thus there is a partial but significant correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers, throughout human existence the latter has involved a spectrum of variants, from slavery, to caste or caste-like systems, to subtler forms of inequality. Economic competition often results in trying to buy labour at the lowest possible cost or to obviate it entirely. It has always been the case for humans that many workers begin their working lives lacking any special level of skill or experience and these conditions have assured the correlations strength and persistence. The phrase hard labour has become a legal euphemism for penal labour. Throughout human existence, but most especially since the Age of Enlightenment, humans have not yet succeeded in instantiating any such utopia, but some social systems have been designed that go far enough toward the goal that hope yet remains for further improvement. Concepts such as the Three-fifths compromise and the Untermensch defined slaves as less than human, one interesting historical trend that is true of all of the systems above is that they began crumbling in the 20th century and have continued crumbling since. Todays forms of them are mostly greatly weakened compared to past generations versions, at the lowest extreme, such distortion produces subtler forms of racism and de facto inequality of opportunity. The more plausible the deniability, the easier the rationalisation and perpetuation, at such areas of the spectrum, it becomes ever harder to justify efforts that use de jure methods to fight de facto imbalances, because valid instances can be highlighted by all sides. A willingness to recognise that manual labour can involve skill and intelligence can take a variety of forms, in its healthier forms, it recognises the dignity and intelligence of blue-collar workers, and it recognises their civil equality with white-collar workers. Yet it simultaneously leaves room in society for meritocracy, allowing both upward and downward social mobility. In its more pathological forms, it may admit that there can be a science of manual labour. Some people would have only the first, others, only the second, therefore, players usually should not be their own coaches. Whether Taylor was capable of predicting and preventing that problem is unclear, an example of the second pathology are 20th-century variants of communism, such as Leninism and Stalinism. Mechanisation and automation strive to reduce the amount of labour required for production. Automation helps to bring mechanisation to more complicated tasks that require dexterity, decision making based on visual input
Manual labour
–
Detail from Labor,
Charles Sprague Pearce (1896).
Manual labour
–
Peasants harvesting crops, by Flemish artist
Pieter Brueghel, 17th century
Manual labour
–
Rail track construction, Kansas, 1974
3.
Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
4.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
Mining
–
Surface
coal mining
Mining
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert
Mining
–
Ancient Roman development of the
Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales
Mining
–
Agricola, author of
De Re Metallica
5.
Roughneck
–
Roughneck is a term for a person whose occupation is hard-manual labor. The term applies across a number of industries, but is most commonly associated with the workers on a drilling rig, the ideal of the hard-working, tough roughneck has been adopted by several sports teams who use the phrase as part of their name or logo. Originally the term was used in the carnivals of 19th century United States. By the 1930s the terms had transferred to the oil drilling industry, in practice, these workers ranged from unskilled to highly skilled, depending subjectively on the individual workers aptitude and experience. By contrast, a roustabout would perform general labor, such as loading and unloading cargo from crane baskets and assisting welders, mechanics, electricians, the word roughneck was in use in the U. S. oil drilling industry even earlier and had a similar meaning. In oil fields, a roughnecks duties can include anything involved with connecting pipe down the well bore, the crew of a land-based oil rig can be further divided into several positions, Toolpusher, The highest position at the drilling location, responsible for every crew. A toolpusher may stay on location for a few days or weeks at a time during operations, driller, The head of an individual crew, responsible for controlling a rigs machinery during drilling, as well as most other rig operations. Acting as a lead for the driller who is restricted to the rig floor. In many cases the derrickman is exclusively responsible for work in the derrick during tripping pipe in, pit Watcher, Responsible for the drilling mud, the mud pits, and associated pumping/circulating of mud and various fluids through the pits, downhole and returning through the pits. Motorman, Responsible for maintenance of engines, water pumps, water lines, steam lines, boilers. Also responsible for movement of equipment on site, on a four-man drilling crew the motorman is also the chainhand. Boilerman, Though this position is now obsolete, before the century, when most rigs were steam-powered. The boilerman also functioned as the laundryman, steam-cleaning the last crews greasy work clothes in the blow barrel, leadhand/Floorhand, Usually the lowest member of the drilling crew, those in this position are often nicknamed worm, because this hand has the dirtiest and most physically demanding position. The floorhand works primarily on the rig floor where he is the one operating the tongs, iron roughneck, tugger, and catwalk. Roustabout, On bigger rigs and offshore rigs, a roustabout does most of the painting and cleaning so roughnecks can take care of other work and this is also derogatory insult among roughnecks. Iron Roughneck is also a specialized equipment used in oil drilling operations, in Canada on land-based rigs, the term roughneck refers to the floorhand. The Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League used to use an oil rigging roughneck with a stick as one of their secondary logos. The West Texas Roughnecks of the Indoor Football League also use this nickname, in the BAFA National Leagues, the Aberdeen Roughnecks have also adopted the nickname
Roughneck
–
A roughneck.
Roughneck
–
Roughnecks on a drilling rig.
6.
Construction
–
Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
Construction
–
In large construction projects, such as this
skyscraper in
Melbourne,
Australia,
cranes are essential.
Construction
–
Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan
Construction
–
The National Cement Share Company of
Ethiopia 's new plant in
Dire Dawa.
Construction
–
Framing
7.
Mechanic
–
A mechanic is a tradesman, craftsman, or technician who uses tools to build or repair machinery. Auto mechanics, for example, have many trades within, some may specialize in the electrical aspects, while others may specialize in the mechanical aspects. Other areas include, brakes and steering, automatic or standard transmission, an auto technician, on the other hand, has a wide variety of topics to learn. A mechanic is typically certified by an association or regional government power. There are different types of mechanics, heavy weight and light weight, heavy weight work is on bigger machines like tractors and trailers, light weight work on smaller items like engines for a car
Mechanic
–
Mechanic at
steam pump in an
electric power house, 1920, (from a photo study for the
WPA).
8.
Maintenance, repair and operations
–
Maintenance, repair, and operations involves fixing any sort of mechanical, plumbing, or electrical device should it become out of order or broken. In the former case it may be an operation within a larger organization or smaller operation. The former of these represents a closed loop supply chain and usually has the scope of maintenance, repair, the latter of the categorisations is an open loop supply chain and is typified by refurbishment and remanufacture. The main characteristic of the loop system is that the demand for a product is matched with the supply of a used product. Neglecting asset write-offs and exceptional activities the total population of the product between the customer and the service provider remains constant, for material – all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, classification as to serviceability, repair, rebuilding, for material – all supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission. For material – the routine recurring work required to keep a facility in such condition that it may be used, at its original or designed capacity. Manufacturers and industrial-supply companies often refer to MRO as opposed to original equipment manufacturer, OEM includes any activity related to the direct manufacture of goods, where MRO refers to any maintenance, repair or overhaul activity to keep a manufacturing plant or facility running. Maintenance is strictly connected to the stage of ideation, in which the concept of maintainability must be included, overhaul extends to the concept of improving performance over and above original design specification. Corrective maintenance where equipment is repaired or replaced after wear, malfunction or break down, preventive maintenance is maintenance performed with the intent of avoiding failures, safety violations, unnecessary production costs and losses, and to conserve original materials of fabrication. The effectiveness of a maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based on
Maintenance, repair and operations
–
Mechanical repair
Maintenance, repair and operations
–
Road repair
9.
Warehousing
–
A warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods. Warehouses are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers, transport businesses, customs and they are usually large plain buildings in industrial areas of cities, towns and villages. They usually have loading docks to load and unload goods from trucks, sometimes warehouses are designed for the loading and unloading of goods directly from railways, airports, or seaports. They often have cranes and forklifts for moving goods, which are placed on ISO standard pallets loaded into pallet racks. Stored goods can include any raw materials, packing materials, spare parts, components, or finished goods associated with agriculture, manufacturing, in Indian English a warehouse may be referred to as a godown. The origins of the warehouse are difficult to pinpoint, early civilizations relied on storage pits rather than large structures to protect seeds and surplus food. Sociologists like Alain Testart have argued that these early techniques were essential to the evolution of societies. Some of the earliest examples of warehouses that resemble the buildings of today are Roman horrea and these were rectangular buildings, built of stone, with a raised ground floor and overhanging roof to keep the walls cool and dry. Roman horrea were typically used to store grain, but other such as olive oil, wine, clothing. Though horrea were built throughout the Roman empire, some of the most studied examples are found in or around Rome, particularly at Ostia, a harbor city that served ancient Rome. The Horrea Galbae, a complex in the southern part of ancient Rome, demonstrates that these buildings could be substantial. The horrea complex contained 140 rooms on the floor alone. As a point of reference, less than half of U. S. warehouses today are larger than 100,000 square feet, however, dedicated warehouses could be found around ports and other commercial hubs to facilitate overseas trade. Examples of these include the Venetian fondaci, which combined a palace, warehouse, market. During the industrial revolution the function of warehouses evolved and became more specialised, some warehouses from the period are even considered architecturally significant, such as Manchesters cotton warehouses. Always a building of function, in the past few decades they have adapted to mechanisation, technological innovation, historically, warehouses were a dominant part of the urban landscape from the start of the Industrial Revolution through the 19th century and into the twentieth century. The buildings remained when their original usage had changed, there are four identifiable types of warehouses. The cotton industry rose with the development of the warehouse, Warehouses of that period in Manchester were often lavishly decorated, but modern warehouses are more functional
Warehousing
–
Storehouse of a ranch in
Nevada
Warehousing
–
Inside Green Logistics Co.,
Kotka,
Finland. Goods are shown loaded on pallets to the left of the
aisle, and stacked pallets with no loads to the right of the aisle.
Warehousing
–
Historic Atlantic Dock warehouse in
Brooklyn in the 1800s
Warehousing
–
Old warehouses in
Amsterdam,
Netherlands
10.
Firefighting
–
Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodland, etc. A firefighter suppresses and extinguishes fires to protect lives and to prevent the destruction of property, firefighters may provide other services to their communities. Additional hazards include falls and structural collapse that can exacerbate the problems entailed in a toxic environment, to combat some of these risks, firefighters carry self-contained breathing equipment. The first step in an operation is reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire, to identify the specific risks. Fires can be extinguished by water, fuel or oxidant removal, the earliest known firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A. D. emperor Nero established a Corps of Vigils to protect Rome after a disastrous fire and it consisted of 7,000 people equipped with buckets and axes, and they fought fires and served as police. In the 4th century B. C. an Alexandrian Greek named Ctesibius made a force pump called a siphona. As water rose in the chamber, it compressed the air inside, in the 16th century, syringes were also used as firefighting tools, the larger ones being mounted on wheels. Another traditional method that survived was the brigade, involving two lines of people formed between the water source and the fire. Typically, men in one of the lines would pass along the full buckets of water toward the fire while in the other women and children would pass back the empty buckets to be refilled. In the 17th century, fire engines were made, notably in Amsterdam, ancient Rome did not have municipal firefighters. Instead, private individuals relied on their slaves or supporters to take action and they would not only form bucket brigades or attempt to smother smaller fires, but would also demolish or raze nearby buildings to slow the spread of the fire. However, there is no mention of fires being extinguished, rather they were contained and burned themselves out, ancient Rome did not have an organized firefighting force until the Vigiles were formed in the reign of Augustus. Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organize rudimentary firefighting, after the Great Fire, Nicholas Barbon introduced the first fire insurance. In order to reduce costs, Barbon also formed his own fire brigade. By the start of the 1800s, insured buildings were identified with a badge or mark, in 1833, these companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment. In World War II, the Auxiliary Fire Service and later the National Fire Service were established to supplement local fire services, at that time, there was no countrywide standard for firefighting terms, procedures, ranks, or equipment. These were standardized after World War II, in January 1608, a fire destroyed many of the colonists provisions and lodgings in Jamestown, Virginia
Firefighting
–
Firefighters at a major fire involving an abandoned convent in Canada, 2006
Firefighting
–
Firefighting in
Jyväskylä, Finland
Firefighting
–
Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s
Firefighting
–
A hose team training to fight an aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft carrier, 2006
11.
White-collar worker
–
In many countries, a white-collar worker is a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work is performed in an office, cubicle, or other administrative setting, many occupations blend blue, white and pink industry categorizations. Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt, employees in office environments may wear a variety of colors, may dress business casual or wear casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred, white-collar employees may perform blue-collar tasks. An example would be a restaurant manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking customers orders or a worker who also performs desk work. A Cochrane systematic review published in 2016 concluded that at present there is low quality evidence that sit-stand desks can reduce sitting at work at the short term. There is no evidence for other types of interventions, also, evidence was lacking on the long term health benefits of such interventions. Knowledge worker Designation of workers by collar color Notes Further reading Mills, white Collar, the American Middle Classes, in series, Galaxy Book. New York, Oxford University Press,1956
White-collar worker
–
Receptionists in
Stockholm,
Sweden
White-collar worker
–
Office work
12.
Pink collar
–
In the United States, a pink-collar worker performs jobs in the service industry. Companies may sometimes blend blue, white, and pink industry categorizations, the term pink-collar was popularized in the late 1970s by writer and social critic Louise Kapp Howe to denote women working as nurses, secretaries, and elementary school teachers. Its origins, however, go back to the early 1970s, to when the equal rights amendment, at that time, the term was used to denote secretarial and steno-pool staff as well as non-professional office staff, all of which were largely held by women. De rigueur, these positions were not white-collar jobs, but neither were they blue-collar manual labor, hence, the creation of the term pink collar, which indicated it was not white-collar but was nonetheless an office job, one that was overwhelmingly filled by women. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that, as of May 2008, furthermore, the World Health Organizations 2011 World Health Statistics Report states that there are 19.3 million nurses in the world today. In the United States, women comprise 92. 1% of the nurses that are currently employed. Pink-collar occupations include, Historically, women were responsible for the running of a household and their financial security was often dependent upon a male patriarch. Widowed or divorced women struggled to support themselves and their children, Women began to develop more opportunities when they moved into the paid workplace, formerly of the male domain. In the 20th century women aimed to be treated like the equals of their male counterparts, in 1920 American women won the right to vote, marking a turning point in their roles in life. Many single women traveled to cities like New York where they work in factories and sweatshops, working for low pay operating sewing machines, sorting feathers, rolling tobacco. These factories were dirty, noisy, dark and dangerous, Workers frequently breathed dangerous fumes and worked with flammable materials. Women lost fingers and hands in accidents because in order to save money they were required to clean, unfortunately, most women who worked in the factories did not earn enough money to live on and lived in poverty. Throughout the 20th century certain women helped change womens roles in America, emily Balch, Jane Addams, and Lillian Wald are among the most notable. They created settlement houses and launched missions in crowded, unsanitary neighborhoods where immigrants lived, Balch, Addams, and Wald offered social services to the women and children, often inviting them into their homes and classrooms. Women took on leadership roles starting in the church, Women became involved with the church activities, a few went on to become president of the societies. The Association for the Sociology of Religion was the first to elect a president in 1938. World War I was the beginning of pink-collar jobs as the military needed personnel to type letters, answer phones, one thousand women worked for the U. S. Navy as stenographers, clerks, and telephone operators. The field of nursing also became feminized and was a profession for women
Pink collar
–
A
waitress writes down the food order of diners
Pink collar
–
A
U.S. Navy recruiting poster from World War II, showing an officer of the
Navy WAVES before a hospital ship
Pink collar
–
This graph shows the increase in women graduating high school and attending college, while there is a decrease in high school dropouts.
13.
Boilersuit
–
A boilersuit is a loose fitting garment covering the whole body except for the head, hands and feet. The 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary lists the word boilersuit first on 28 October 1928 in the Sunday Express newspaper, a more tight-fitting garment that is otherwise similar to a boilersuit is usually called a jumpsuit. The siren suit favoured by Winston Churchill during the Second World War was closely similar to a boilersuit, a boilersuit is a one-piece garment with full-length sleeves and legs like a jumpsuit, but usually less tight-fitting. Its main feature is that it has no gap between jacket and trousers or between lapels, and no loose jacket tails and it often has a long thin pocket down the outside of the right thigh to hold long tools. It usually has a front fastening extending the length of the front of the body up to the throat. It may be fastened with buttons, a zip, velcro, boilersuits with an attached hood are available. The word boilersuit may also refer to disposable garments such as DuPonts Tyvek suits, boilersuits are so called because they were first worn by men maintaining coal-fired boilers. To check for leaks or to clean accumulated soot from inside the firebox of a steam locomotive, someone had to climb inside. A one-piece suit avoids the problem of loosened soot entering the lower half of ones clothing through the gap in the middle. Coveralls are most often worn as protective clothing over street clothes at work, the French police unit Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité use boilersuits as a uniform. Japanese politicians have been known to use boiler suits to convey an image of preparedness, coveralls called student boilersuits are used by university students in some Nordic countries as a sort of party-uniform, with insignia on the back and colour varying with programme and university. For fans of music, Pete Townshend of The Who frequently wore a white boiler suit during performances. The Church of Scientology has punished Sea Org members in the Rehabilitation Project Force by making them wear black boiler suits. In 1919, the Italian designer Thayaht started designing his most famous piece, the TuTa and it was an early example of what are now known as coveralls, intended to revolutionise fashion and create a modern and particularly Italian style. With help from his artist brother RAM he launched the new design in 1920, intended as a practical item of clothing for the everyday, it was instead adopted as a fad by high Florentine society
Boilersuit
–
Man in boilersuit
14.
Social class
–
Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
Social class
–
Burmese nobles and servants
Social class
–
A symbolic image of three orders of feudal society in Europe prior to the
French Revolution: The rural third estate carrying the clergy and the nobility.
Social class
–
In the United States the lowest stratum of the working class, the
underclass, often lives in urban areas with low-quality
civil services.
Social class
–
Members of the working class, and particularly peasantries,
starve to death at a much higher rate than petits-bourgeois professionals or capitalists.
15.
Alden, Iowa
–
Alden is a city in Hardin County, Iowa, United States. The population was 787 at the 2010 census, Alden was laid out in 1855. It was named for its founder, Henry Alden, a native of Massachusetts, aldens longitude and latitude coordinates in decimal form are 42.516867, -93.375809. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.73 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 787 people,338 households, the population density was 460.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 368 housing units at a density of 215.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 5% White,0. 5% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 3% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 1% of the population. 31. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 41.6 years. 23. 6% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 3% were from 25 to 44,29. 1% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50. 6% male and 49. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 904 people,351 households, and 250 families residing in the city. The population density was 526.2 people per square mile, there were 372 housing units at an average density of 216.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 68% White,0. 22% Asian,1. 66% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 09% of the population. 25. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.12. In the city, the population was out with 27. 2% under the age of 18,8. 0% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,20. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males, the median income for a household in the city was $35,966, and the median income for a family was $39,524. Males had an income of $29,489 versus $22,000 for females
Alden, Iowa
–
Alden, Iowa
Alden, Iowa
–
The front of the Alden library
16.
Deindustrialization
–
It is the opposite of industrialization. There are multiple interpretations of what this process is, cairncross and Lever offer four possible definitions of deindustrialization, A straightforward long-term decline in the output of manufactured goods or in employment in the manufacturing sector. A shift from manufacturing to the sectors, so that manufacturing has a lower share of total employment. Theories that predict or explain deindustrialization have a long intellectual lineage, rowthorn argues that Marxs theory of declining profit may be regarded as one of the earliest. In parallel, however, technological innovations replace people with machinery, assuming only labor can produce new additional value, this greater physical output embodies a smaller value and surplus value. The average rate of industrial profit therefore declines in the longer term and they suggest deindustrialization may be both an effect and a cause of poor economic performance. Moreover, to the extent that manufacturing firms downsize through, e. g. outsourcing, contracting out, indeed, it potentially has positive effects, provided such actions increase firm productivity and performance. George Reisman identified inflation as a contributor to deindustrialization, institutional arrangements have also contributed to deindustrialization such as economic restructuring. The term de-industrialization crisis has been used to describe the decline of industry in a number of countries. In addition, technological inventions that required less labor, such as industrial robots. The Deindustrialization of America, Plant Closings, Community Abandonment and the Dismantling of Basic Industry, brady, David, Jason Beckfield, and Wei Zhao. The Consequences of Economic Globalization for Affluent Democracies, annual Review of Sociology 33, 313–34. “Deindustrialization and Dispossession, An Examination of Social Division in the Industrial City, ” Sociology 29#1, Pp. 5–17 in, Blackaby, F. Deindustrialisation Cowie, J. Heathcott, J. and Bluestone, B. Beyond the Ruins, The Meanings of Deindustrialization Cornell University Press,2003, the CIA World Factbook Feinstein, Charles. Structural Change in the Developed Countries During the Twentieth Century, oxford Review of Economic Policy 15, 35–55. Fuchs, V R The Service Economy New York, National Bureau of Economic Research Lever, W F ‘Deindustrialisation,6, Pp. 983–999 Goldsmith, M and Larsen, H Local Political Leadership, Nordic Style. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research Vol.28.1, Industrial Sunset, The Making of North Americas Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Confronting Decline, The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England, Business and Regional Economic Decline, The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England Business and economic history online #12 Krugman, Paul
Deindustrialization
–
Bethlehem Steel plant in
Pennsylvania, USA went bankrupt in 2001, and has since been demolished to build the
Sands Casino.
17.
Western world
–
The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
Western world
–
The
Parthenon (
Athens).
Western world
–
Division of the
Roman Empire after 395 into western and eastern part. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire.
Western world
–
The
Roman Forum (
Rome).
Western world
–
The
Supreme Court of the United States (
Washington, D.C.).
18.
Agrarian nation
–
An agrarian society is any society whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland. Another way to define an agrarian society is by seeing how much of a total production is in agriculture. In an agrarian society cultivating the land is the source of wealth. Such a society may acknowledge other means of livelihood and work habits but stresses the importance of agriculture, Agrarian societies have existed in various parts of the world as far back as 10,000 years ago and continue to exist today. They have been the most common form of organization for most of recorded human history. Agrarian societies were preceded by hunter and gatherer societies and horticultural societies, the transition to agriculture, called the Neolithic Revolution, has taken place independently multiple times. Horticulture and agriculture as types of subsistence developed among humans somewhere between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent region of the Middle East. The reasons for the development of agriculture are debated but may have included climate change and the accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving. In addition to the emergence of farming in the Fertile Crescent, agriculture appeared in, by at least 6,800 B. C. E. in East Asia and, later, in Central and South America. Small-scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in India, however, full dependency on domestic crops and animals, when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet, did not occur until the Bronze Age. Agriculture allows a greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering. Agrarian societies thus support the emergence of a complex social structure. In agrarian societies, some of the correlations between social complexity and environment begin to disappear. But environmental factors may play a strong role as variables that affect the internal structure. It is now clear that agriculture was adopted despite certain disadvantages of that lifestyle, archeological studies show that health deteriorated in populations that adopted cereal agriculture, returning to pre-agricultural levels only in modem times. This is in part attributable to the spread of infection in crowded cities, people in many parts of the world remained hunter-gatherers until quite recently, though they were quite aware of the existence and methods of agriculture, they declined to undertake it. Many explanations have been offered, usually centered around a factor that forced the adoption of agriculture. Agrarian societies transition into industrial societies when less than half of their population is engaged in agricultural production
Agrarian nation
–
Agriculture
19.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
20.
Rust Belt
–
The term gained popularity in the U. S. in the 1980s. While some cities and towns have managed to adapt by shifting focus towards services and high-tech industries, others have not fared as well, witnessing rising poverty and declining populations. The flourishing of industrial manufacturing in the region was caused in part by the proximity to the Great Lakes waterways. After the transportation infrastructure linked the iron ore found in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Upper Michigan with the coal mined from Appalachian Mountains and this region for decades served as a magnet for immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Poland and Russia who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor. Following several boom periods from the late-19th to the century, cities in this area struggled to adapt to a variety of adverse economic. As people migrate, they often coin new names for their destinations, since the term Rust Belt pertains to a set of economic and social conditions rather than to an overall geographical region of the United States per se, the Rust Belt has no precise boundaries. This includes most of the cities of the Midwest as far west as the Mississippi River, including St. Louis, before World War II, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the United States. However, by the centurys end their population had fallen the most in the country. A gate was opened between a variety of burgeoning industries on the interior North American continent and the markets not only of the large Eastern cities. Coming in the direction were millions of European immigrants, who populated the cities along the Great Lakes shores with then-unprecedented speed. Chicago, famously, was a trading post in the 1840s. Early signs of the difficulty in the states were evident early in the 20th century. Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an important issue in the region, one source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements. Some economists contend that the U. S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt, since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements have been less favorable to U. S. workers. Imported goods such as steel cost much less to produce in Third World countries with cheap foreign labor, beginning with the recession of 1970–71, a new pattern of deindustrializing economy emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U. S. manufacturing workers experiencing lay-offs, in general, in the Factory Belt employment in the manufacturing sector declined by 32. 9% between 1969 and 1996. A gradual expansion of the U. S. trade deficit with China began in 1985, in the ensuing years the U. S. developed a massive trade deficit with the East Asian nations of China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. As a result, the manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval
Rust Belt
–
An abandoned
Fisher auto body plant in Detroit
Rust Belt
–
>58% loss
Rust Belt
–
A steel plant in
Bethlehem, PA. Though the blast furnaces themselves remain intact, part of the property was sold in 2007 and turned into the
Sands Casino Resort Bethlehem.
Rust Belt
–
An unused
grain elevator in Buffalo
21.
Northeastern United States
–
The Northeast is one of the four regions defined by the Census Bureau for the collection and analysis of statistics. The Census Bureau-defined region has an area of 181,324 sq mi with 162,257 square miles of that being land mass. Though lacking a unified identity, the Northeastern region is the nations most economically developed, densely populated. Of the nations four census regions, the Northeast is the second most urban, with 85 percent of its residing in urban areas. The region is subdivided into New England and the Mid-Atlantic States and this definition has been essentially unchanged since 1880 and is widely used as a standard for data tabulation. C. Similarly, the Geological Society of America defines the Northeast as these same states but with the addition of Maryland, the narrowest definitions include only the states of New England. Other more restrictive definitions include New England and New York as part of the Northeast United States, States beyond the Census Bureau definition that other entities include in the Northeast United States are, Delaware, Maryland, and Washington, D. C. Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D. C. and West Virginia Delaware, Maryland, Washington, most did not settle in North America until the 17th century. Among the many tribes that inhabited this area were those made up the Iroquois nations. In the United States of the 21st century,18 federally recognized tribes reside in the Northeast, the two cultural and geographic regions that form parts of the Northeastern region have distinct histories. The first Europeans to settle New England were Pilgrims from England, the Pilgrims arrived by the Mayflower ship and founded Plymouth Colony so they could practice religion freely. Ten years later, a group of Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston to form Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1636, colonists established Connecticut Colony and Providence Plantations, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, who was banished by Massachusetts for his beliefs in freedom of religion, and it was the first colony to guarantee all citizens freedom of worship. Anne Hutchinson, who was banished by Massachusetts, formed the town of Portsmouth. Providence, Portsmouth, and two towns consolidated to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Although the first settlers of New England were motivated by religion, in recent history. In a 2009 Gallup survey, less than half of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts reported religion as an important part of their daily life. In a 2010 Gallup survey, less than 30% of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, New England played a prominent role in early American education
Northeastern United States
–
High Point Monument as seen from Lake Marcia at High Point,
Sussex County, the
highest elevation in New Jersey at 1803 feet above sea level
Northeastern United States
–
The states shown in the two darkest red shades are included in the
United States Census Bureau Northeast Region, with states in lighter shades included in other regional definitions (see
Composition).
Northeastern United States
–
Cape Cod Bay, a leading tourist destination in Massachusetts
Northeastern United States
–
The Palisades along the
Hudson River, New Jersey
22.
Midwestern United States
–
It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984. Illinois is the most populous of the states and North Dakota the least, a 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684. The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions, the East North Central Division includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin, all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region. Major rivers in the include, from east to west, the Ohio River, the Upper Mississippi River. Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country, other large Midwest cities include, Indianapolis, Columbus, Detroit, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, Cleveland, Wichita and St. Louis. Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan area with 9.8 million people, followed by Metro Detroit. Paul, Greater St. Louis, Greater Cleveland, Greater Cincinnati, Kansas City metro area, the term Midwestern has been in use since the 1880s to refer to portions of the central United States. A variant term, Middle West, has used since the 19th century. Another term sometimes applied to the general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen out of use, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest, the Northwest Territory was one of the earliest territories of the United States, stretching northwest from the Ohio River to northern Minnesota and upper-Mississippi. The upper-Mississippi watershed including the Missouri and Illinois Rivers was the setting for the earlier French settlements of the Illinois Country, economically the region is balanced between heavy industry and agriculture, with finance and services such as medicine and education becoming increasingly important. Its central location makes it a crossroads for river boats, railroads, autos, trucks. Politically the region swings back and forth between the parties, and thus is heavily contested and often decisive in elections, after the sociological study Middletown, which was based on Muncie, Indiana, commentators used Midwestern cities as typical of the nation. The region has a higher ratio than the Northeast, the West. Traditional definitions of the Midwest include the Northwest Ordinance Old Northwest states, the states of the Old Northwest are also known as Great Lakes states and are east-north central in the United States. The Ohio River runs along the section while the Mississippi River runs north to south near the center. Many of the Louisiana Purchase states in the west-north central United States, are known as Great Plains states. The Midwest lies north of the 36°30′ parallel that the 1820 Missouri Compromise established as the line between future slave and non-slave states
Midwestern United States
–
Typical terrain of the
Driftless Area as viewed from
Wildcat Mountain State Park in
Vernon County, Wisconsin
Midwestern United States
–
The Midwest as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.
Midwestern United States
–
Flint Hills grasslands of Kansas
Midwestern United States
–
Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota
23.
Western New York
–
Western New York is the westernmost region of the state of New York. It includes the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Niagara Falls, the suburbs, as well as the outlying rural areas of the Great Lakes lowlands, the Genesee Valley. One writer suggests Western New Yorks eastern border to be the Preemption Line, Western New York can also be defined as the area of the Holland Purchase and the Phelps and Gorham Purchase. The area is served by Buffalo and Rochester media markets. Western New York is in some contexts considered a sub-region of Upstate New York, Western New York has four sub-regions. One sub-region is the Greater Niagara Region, comprising Niagara, Erie, the second sub-region is the Genesee Region which derives its name from the Genesee River. This “sub-region” which includes Monroe, Livingston, Wayne, Orleans, Ontario and these two sub-regions share Genesee County. The mountainous southern regions of Chautauqua, Cattaraugus, and Allegany counties make up a third sub-region known as Chautauqua–Allegheny Region and this portion of Western New York takes up most of the western New York counties along the New York–Pennsylvania border. Finally the fourth region is the western Finger Lakes Region which is Seneca, Steuben, Schuyler, a large portion of the Finger Lakes Region is not part of Western New York, but rather Central New York. However, the U. S. Census Bureau has classified the Buffalo, if it were counted as a state, the population of Western New York would rank as the 37th most populated state in the United States. Western New York has a continental climate heavily influenced by both Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Winters are long and cold, often lasting from around mid-November to early April, there are often snows before and after that period, as well. Western New York is known for its lake effect snows, which can result in highly localized, sometimes intense, Lake effect storms are a result of cold air blowing over warm lake waters. Lake effect snows are usually most active between November and February and typically diminish when Lake Erie freezes over, generally, the heaviest amount of snow in Western New York during the winter falls near the southern end of Erie County. Spring and fall in Western New York are usually short and changeable, lost in its famed winters, Western New York summers are among the sunniest in the Northeast and are generally very pleasant. Thanks in part to breezes blowing over Lakes Erie and Ontario, most of Western New York enjoy generally cooler, Interstate System Interstate 90, also known as the New York State Thruway. Interstate 86 in the Southern Tier, Interstate 190 in the Buffalo-Niagara Falls Metropolitan area. Interstate 290 in the Buffalo-Niagara Falls Metropolitan area, Interstate 390 in the Genesee Valley region
Western New York
Western New York
Western New York
Western New York
24.
Western Pennsylvania
–
Western Pennsylvania refers to the western third of the state of Pennsylvania in the United States. Pittsburgh is the principal city, with a metropolitan area population of about 2.4 million people. Erie, Altoona, and Johnstown are its other metropolitan centers, as of the 2010 census, Western Pennsylvanias total population is nearly 4 million. In the 18th century, this caused some to rally for the formation of a 14th state in this region named Westsylvania. The strong cultural identity of Western Pennsylvania is reinforced by the supreme court holding sessions in Pittsburgh, in addition to Harrisburg. In alphabetical order those counties are, Long recognized as a powerhouse of American industry, Western Pennsylvania is a large geophysical and it encompasses that portion of the state to the west of the Appalachian divide and included within the Mississippi drainage system of rivers. The largest rivers in this area are the Allegheny River, which flows southward from the New York border, and the Monongahela River, which flows northward from West Virginia. These two rivers meet in Downtown Pittsburgh and join to form the Ohio River, which from that point flows an additional 981 miles southwest to the Mississippi River. The juncture of the Allegheny and Monongahela was historically regarded as strategic, at various times this juncture has been called the Forks of the Ohio, Fort Duquesne, Fort Pitt, the Golden Triangle, and today, at its apex, Point State Park. To the west and north of this point lies the Allegheny Plateau, Western Pennsylvania is home to more than two dozen institutions of higher learning, including those listed below. Perhaps the best known transportation innovation to simplify access to this area is the famous Pennsylvania Turnpike, the initial problem was economic marketing of a limited number of goods that could stand such high freight costs. Later marketing arrangements turned to access via the Ohio River, with Pittsburgh a barge, locally, a system of agriculture arose suitable to Western Pennsylvanias rugged terrain, emphasizing animal husbandry and dairying but with few exportable vegetable crops. The search for exploitable resources first resulted with the development of huge bituminous coal or soft coal deposits in the area for use in an iron foundry sector. The region also had large glass, pottery, brickmaking, and ceramic industries, which took advantage of the coal, the local glass industry produced 45 percent of the nations output in glass by the 1860s and more than 80 percent of the output by the 1920s. Other necessary economic concepts for description could well include economies of scale, diseconomies of scale, monopoly price equilibrium, other exploitable resources in Western Pennsylvania were also distinct. One was the drilling of the first oil well in the world at Titusville, during this time of intensive exploitation of forests a whole new sector, the wood chemistry industry, appeared and then later vanished. Finally, mention should also be made of management in the areas of a large animal population which supports the famous Pennsylvania deer-hunting cultural ethos. Since the early 1950s, a renaissance occurred in the development of institutions and abatement of pollution in Pittsburgh
Western Pennsylvania
–
Pittsburgh
Western Pennsylvania
Western Pennsylvania
–
Erie
Western Pennsylvania
–
Altoona
25.
Cleveland, Ohio
–
Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
26.
Detroit, Michigan
–
Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
Detroit, Michigan
–
From top to bottom, left to right:
Downtown Detroit skyline and the
Detroit River,
Fox Theatre,
Dorothy H. Turkel House in
Palmer Woods,
Belle Isle Conservatory,
The Spirit of Detroit,
Fisher Building,
Eastern Market,
Old Main at
Wayne State University,
Ambassador Bridge, and the
Detroit Institute of Arts
Detroit, Michigan
–
Ste. Anne de Détroit, founded in 1701 by French colonists, is the second-oldest continuously operating
Catholic parish in the United States. The present church was completed in 1887.
Detroit, Michigan
–
A 4
p.m. change of work shift at the Ford Motor Company assembly plant in
Highland Park, Michigan, 1910s
Detroit, Michigan
–
Looking south down
Woodward Avenue, with the Detroit skyline in the distance, July 1942
27.
Buffalo, New York
–
Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo, New York
28.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Clockwise:
Cathedral of Learning at the
University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh skyline;
Carnegie Mellon University;
PNC Park;
Duquesne Incline
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
This article is about the Pennsylvania city. For other uses, see
Pittsburgh (disambiguation).
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Monongahela River scene, 1857
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Downtown facade memorializing Pittsburgh's
industrial heritage with an image of legendary steelworker
Joe Magarac
29.
Erie, Pennsylvania
–
Erie /ˈɪəri/ is a city in and the county seat of Erie County, Pennsylvania, United States. Named for the lake and the Native American tribe that resided along its shore, Erie is the fourth-largest city in Pennsylvania. With a population of 101,786 at the 2010 census, the estimated population in 2016 had decreased to 100,055. The Erie metropolitan area, equivalent to all of Erie County, Erie is situated between Buffalo, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh. Eries manufacturing sector remains prominent in the economy, though health care, higher education, technology, service industries. Erie is known as the Flagship City because of its status as the port of Oliver Hazard Perrys flagship Niagara. The city has also called the Gem City because of the sparkling lake. Cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the shoreline and bluffs in this area for thousands of years, the historic Iroquoian-speaking Erie Nation occupied this area before being defeated by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the 17th century during the Beaver Wars. The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a league in the 1500s. The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca, keeper of the door of the Iroquois. The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie, the French term presque-isle means peninsula. When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War, the British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year, three years before the end of the French and Indian War.25 in Continental currency. The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $2,000 from Pennsylvania, the Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $800. The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18,1795, initial settlement of the area began that year. Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his moved to the Erie area from Geneva, New York, they were Yankees from Uxbridge. They became the first European-American settlers of Erie, settling at what became known as Presque Isle, president James Madison began the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British. Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner−rigged gunboats, commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie. Erie was an important shipbuilding, fishing, and railroad hub during the mid-19th century, the city was the site where three sets of track gauges met
Erie, Pennsylvania
–
The
downtown Erie skyline, facing south from
Presque Isle State Park across
Presque Isle Bay
Erie, Pennsylvania
–
Flag
Erie, Pennsylvania
–
The Battle of Lake Erie played a role in the history of Erie.
Erie, Pennsylvania
–
State and 9th Streets in downtown Erie during the early 1920s
30.
Youngstown, Ohio
–
Youngstown is a city in and the county seat of Mahoning County in the U. S. state of Ohio, with small portions extending into Trumbull County. Youngstown is located on the Mahoning River, approximately 65 miles southeast of Cleveland and 61 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. Despite having its own market, Youngstown is often included in commercial and cultural depictions of both Northeast Ohio as well as the Pittsburgh Tri-State Area due to these proximities. Youngstown lies 10 miles west of the Pennsylvania state line, midway between New York City and Chicago via Interstate 80, the city was named for John Young, an early settler from Whitestown, New York, who established the communitys first sawmill and gristmill. Youngstown is in a region of the United States that is referred to as the Rust Belt. The city has experienced a decline of over 60% of its population since 1959, Youngstown also falls within the Appalachian Ohio region, among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. Youngstown was named for New York native John Young, who surveyed the area in 1796, on February 9,1797, Young purchased the township of 15,560 acres from the Western Reserve Land Company for $16,085. The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19,1802, the area including present-day Youngstown was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve, a section of the Northwest Territory that Connecticut initially did not cede to the Federal government. Upon cession, Connecticut retained the title to the land in the Western Reserve, while many of the areas early settlers came from Connecticut, Youngstown attracted a significant number of Scots-Irish settlers from neighboring Pennsylvania. The first European Americans to settle permanently in the area were Pittsburgh native James Hillman, by 1798, Youngstown was the home of several families who were concentrated near the point where Mill Creek meets the Mahoning River. Boardman Township was founded in 1798 by Elijah Boardman, a member of the Connecticut Land Company, also founded in 1798 was Austintown by John McCollum who was a settler from New Jersey. As the Western Reserves population grew, the need for administrative districts became apparent, in 1800, territorial governor Arthur St. Clair established Trumbull County, and designated the smaller settlement of Warren as its administrative center, or county seat. In 1813, Trumbull County was divided into townships, with Youngstown Township comprising much of what became Mahoning County, the village of Youngstown was incorporated in 1848, and in 1867 Youngstown was chartered as a city. It became the county seat in 1876, when the center of Mahoning County was moved from neighboring Canfield. Youngstown has been Mahoning Countys county seat to this day, the discovery of coal by the community in the early 19th century paved the way for the Youngstown areas inclusion on the network of the famed Erie Canal. The Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal Company was organized in 1835, the arrival of the railroad in 1856 smoothed the path for further economic growth. Youngstowns industrial development changed the face of the Mahoning Valley, the communitys burgeoning coal industry drew hundreds of immigrants from Wales, Germany, and Ireland. With the establishment of mills in the late 19th century, Youngstown became a popular destination for immigrants from Eastern Europe, Italy
Youngstown, Ohio
–
Youngstown, Ohio
Youngstown, Ohio
–
Governor
David Tod
Youngstown, Ohio
–
Youngstown, 1910s: Central Square and Viaduct (view looking south)
31.
Toledo, Ohio
–
Toledo is a city in and the county seat of Lucas County, Ohio, United States. Toledo is in northwest Ohio, at the end of Lake Erie bordering the state of Michigan. The city was founded by United States citizens in 1833 on the west bank of the Maumee River and it was re-founded in 1837, after conclusion of the Toledo War, when it was incorporated in Ohio. After construction of the Miami and Erie Canal, Toledo grew quickly and it has since become a city with an art community, auto assembly businesses, education, healthcare, and local sports teams. The citys glass industry has earned it the nickname, The Glass City, the population of Toledo as of the 2010 Census was 287,208, making it the 71st-largest city in the United States. It is the fourth most populous city in the U. S. state of Ohio after Columbus, Cleveland, and Cincinnati. The Toledo metropolitan area had a 2010 population of 651,429, and was the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the state of Ohio, behind Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, Dayton, and Akron. Varying cultures of indigenous peoples lived along the rivers and lakefront of what is now northwestern Ohio for thousands of years, when the city of Toledo was preparing to pave its streets, it surveyed two prehistoric semicircular earthworks, presumably for stockades. One was at the intersection of Clayton and Oliver streets on the bank of Swan Creek. Such earthworks were typical of mound-building peoples and this region was part of a larger area controlled by the historic tribes of the Wyandot and the people of the Council of Three Fires. The first European to visit the area was Étienne Brûlé, a French-Canadian guide and explorer, the French established trading posts in the area by 1680 to take advantage of the lucrative fur trade. The Odawa moved from Manitoulin Island and the Bruce Peninsula at the invitation of the French and they settled an area extending into northwest Ohio. By the early 18th century, the Odawa occupied areas along most of the Maumee River to its mouth and they served as middlemen between the French and tribes further to the west and north. The Wyandot occupied central Ohio, and the Shawnee and Lenape occupied the southern areas, the area was not settled by European-Americans until 1795 and after. They were finally defeated in 1794 at the Battle of Fallen Timbers and this loose affiliation of tribes included the Wyandot and Council of Three Fires. By a treaty in 1795, they ceded large areas of territory in Ohio to the United States, according to Charles E. Slocum, the American military built Fort Industry at the mouth of the Maumee about 1805, but as a temporary stockade. No official reports support the 19th-century tradition of its history there. The United States continued to work to extinguish land claims of Native Americans, in the Treaty of Detroit, the above four tribes ceded a large land area to the United States of what became southeastern Michigan and northwestern Ohio, to the mouth of the Maumee River
Toledo, Ohio
–
Images, from top left to right:
Downtown Toledo,
University Hall,
Toledo Museum of Art, Lucas County Courthouse,
Tony Packo's Cafe,
Anthony Wayne Bridge,
Fifth Third Field
Toledo, Ohio
–
A 1955
Interstate planning map of Toledo
Toledo, Ohio
–
Toledo c. 1905
Toledo, Ohio
–
Downtown Toledo's skyline from across the
Maumee River
32.
Rochester, New York
–
Rochester is a city on the southern shore of Lake Ontario in the western portion of the U. S. state of New York, and the seat of Monroe County. The citys population was the third largest — after New York City. This area, which is part of the Western New York region, had a population of 1,079,671 at the time of the 2010 Census, a Census estimate of July 1,2012, raised that number to 1,082,284. Rochester was one of Americas first boomtowns, and rose to prominence as the site of many mills along the Genesee River. Several of the universities have renowned research programs. In addition, Rochester is the site of important inventions and innovations in consumer products. Until 2010, the Rochester metropolitan area was the second-largest regional economy in New York State, internal Revenue Service, after the New York City metropolitan area. Rochesters GMP has since ranked just below that of Buffalo, New York, the 25th edition of the Places Rated Almanac rated Rochester as the most livable city in 2007, among 379 U. S. metropolitan areas. In 2010 Forbes rated Rochester as the third-best place to raise a family, in 2012 Kiplinger rated Rochester as the fifth-best city for families, citing low cost of living, top public schools, and a low jobless rate. Of the 19 places in the United States named Rochester at least eight were named directly after Rochester, New York, having been founded or settled by former residents. These include Rochester, Indiana, Rochester, Texas, Rochester, Iowa, Rochester, Kentucky, Rochester, Michigan, Rochester, Minnesota, Rochester, Nevada, and Rochester, Ohio. The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until they lost their claim to most of land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown, development of modern Rochester followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after the defeat of Great Britain. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced from New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a land grant on the Grand River in Canada. Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English-Puritan descended immigrants from New England who were looking for new agricultural land and they would be the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power, beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville, by 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County
Rochester, New York
–
Rochester, New York
Rochester, New York
–
An aerial view of
downtown Rochester in 1938
Rochester, New York
–
Bridge originally built as an aqueduct for the
Erie Canal in 1842, replacing the original construction from 1823. It was subsequently used for subway trains and, in the 1920s, the Broad Street Bridge was erected on top of it. This photograph shows how it appeared in 2002.
Rochester, New York
–
Rochester, NY
Broad Street aqueduct interior in 2011.
33.
Saint Louis, Missouri
–
St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
Saint Louis, Missouri
–
From top left:
Forest Park Jewel Box,
MetroLink at
Lambert-St. Louis International Airport,
Apotheosis of St. Louis at the
Saint Louis Art Museum, The
Gateway Arch and the St. Louis skyline,
Busch Stadium, and the
St. Louis Zoo
Saint Louis, Missouri
–
An illustrated map by F. Graf; Saint Louis in 1896.
Saint Louis, Missouri
–
South Broadway after a May 27, 1896, tornado
Saint Louis, Missouri
–
Westward view of St. Louis skyline, September 2008.
34.
Restaurant
–
A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
Restaurant
–
Sandrinos restaurant in
Fremantle,
Western Australia
Restaurant
–
Le Piment Rouge restaurant in
Montreal
Restaurant
–
A Salaama Hut restaurant at a
Somali strip mall in
Toronto
Restaurant
–
The
kitchen of
Pétrus, located in
Knightsbridge,
Central London
35.
Bar (establishment)
–
Some types of bars, such as pubs, may also serve food from a restaurant menu. The term bar also refers to the countertop and area where drinks are served, bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Bars that offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars, live venues, types of bars range from inexpensive dive bars to elegant places of entertainment often accompanying restaurants for dining. Many bars have a discount period, designated a happy hour to encourage off-peak-time patronage, bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum drink purchase requirement during their peak hours. Bars may have bouncers to ensure patrons are of age, to eject drunk or belligerent patrons. Such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a band, vocalist, comedian. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, depending on the size of a bar and its approach, alcohol may be served at the bar by bartenders, at tables by servers, or by a combination of the two. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. There have been different names for public drinking spaces throughout history. In the colonial era of the United States taverns were an important meeting place, during the 19th century saloons were very important to the leisure time of the working class. Today, even when an establishment uses a different name, such as tavern or saloon, the sale and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the first half of the 20th century in several countries, including Finland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States. In the United States, illegal bars during Prohibition were called speakeasies, blind pigs, laws in many jurisdictions prohibit minors from entering a bar. If those under legal drinking age are allowed to enter, as is the case with pubs that serve food, in some jurisdictions, bars cannot serve a patron who is already intoxicated. Cities and towns usually have restrictions on where bars may be located. Some bars may have a license to serve beer and wine, in some jurisdictions, patrons buying alcohol must also order food. In some jurisdictions, bar owners have a liability for the conduct of patrons who they serve. A bars owners and managers choose the name, décor, drink menu, lighting
Bar (establishment)
–
A bar in Switzerland.
Bar (establishment)
–
A
Depression-era bar in
Melrose, Louisiana.
Bar (establishment)
–
Liquor and wine bottles behind a bar in Baden, Austria
Bar (establishment)
–
The bar in the coach terminal at
Udine, Italy.
36.
Blue-collar crime
–
While blue-collar crime has no official legal classification, it holds to a general net group of crimes. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them and this can also include personal related crimes that can be driven by immediate reaction, such as during fights or confrontations. These crimes include but are not limited to, Narcotic production or distribution, sexual assault, theft, burglary, assault or murder. Blue-collar crime is a used to identify crime, normally of a small scale nature in contrast to “white-collar crime”. During the 1910s through to the 1920s in America, manual labourers often opted for blue shirts and this has carried on to the modern day, therefore meaning crime committed by lower classes. It is important to note that blue-collar crime does not exclusively address low income earners in work, the process of industrialisation encouraged working-class incorporation into society with greater social mobility being achieved during the twentieth century. A perennial source of conflict has therefore involved working-class youth but, as structural unemployment emerged. Ralf Dahrendorf argues that the majority class did not need the unemployed to maintain and even increase its standard of living, box sums up the research into crime and unemployment at pp96–7, The relationship between overall unemployment and crime is inconsistent. On balance the weight of existing research supports there being a weak, however, properly targeted research on young males, particularly those from disadvantaged ethnic groups, which considers both the meaning and duration of unemployment, has yet to be done. What this and other empirical research demonstrates is that crime-rates, especially for property offences, were higher during periods of unemployment than of employment and this suggests that holding constant other variables, the same youths commit more crimes while unemployed. This is not surprising since unemployment provides an incentive to commit offences and erodes the social controls which would otherwise encourage conformity, but crime also rose during the so-called period of affluence, prompting the Right Realism of James Q. More generally, the growth of anomie, predicted a strong correlation between unemployment and property crime, but Cantor and Land found a negative association for unemployment and property crime in the United States. They argued that unemployment decreases the opportunity for property crime since it reflects a general slowdown in, however, there is an explanation for this correlation between unemployment and tendencies towards crime. A study found that both social standing in the classes and the employment status of offenders found them likely to be detained, arrested and prosecuted by Law Enforcement. Further it came to the conclusion that unemployed persons were more likely to be dealt harsher punishments, the evidence that there are new affluent criminals allows populist politicians to deny any link between inner-city deprivation and crime. As Durkheim asserted, moral education cannot be effective in an economically unjust society, a further factor currently being researched is the role of the media in the social construction of hot spots or dangerous places within a city. Crime is an element in media news reporting. In Australia a study undertaken, focusing on Aboriginal Australians, researched into the crime rates between similar communities
Blue-collar crime
–
Criminology and
penology
37.
Moonlight clan
–
Moonlight Clan, or Yue Guang Zu is used to describe a large group of people who use up their entire salary before the end of each month, especially young adults. The term is derived from a lunar cycle, while yue guang translates directly to moonlight, it is also a pun derived from the combination of its individual words, yue and guang. Zu refers to a group of people who shares common characteristic and this group of people can not only meet the basic needs but also pursue higher standard of living. Examples of this group are white collar workers and the middle class, members of Moonlight Clan who earn relatively high income tend to pursue materialism. Most of them lack financial discipline and future planning, people earning relatively high income are usually brand-loyal consumers who pursue pleasure-seeking and luxurious lifestyles. They tend to have strong consumption confidence and this group of people struggle to meet basic needs, thus having lower standard of living in comparison to Type 1. This group is constituted by low socio-economic groups including the grassroots, people who are paid minimum wage. Lower-income consumers spend mostly on necessities and rent as they are burdened by the rising cost of living and they do not have extra money for expensive pleasure-seeking activities and luxurious goods. The median monthly income of the population has been increased to HKD$9,000 over the past ten years. The Consumer Price Index of Hong Kong has increased by thirteen percent, from 96 to 109 index point, the lower income group could hardly afford the progression of standard of living of the society. As a result, the high cost of living leads to an increase in the number of Moonlight Clan members, lacking knowledge in money management, personal budget and saving, people seldom track their spending habits and savings to review their expenses. Poor money management factors into the causes of increase in the number of Moonlight Clan, being bombarded by commercial advertisements, people with relatively high income feel compelled to pursue personal wellbeing and happiness through material possessions. By using credit cards, people can spend money they have not earned, in recent years, the credit card industry has been burgeoning, making credit cards available for almost everyone with insufficient screening. In Hong Kong, the credit card rates are rising and the debt they are carrying is 30% or above for annualized interest, furthermore, online buying is becoming more and more popular. People can frequent online shopping and auction sites like Amazon. com, Taobao. com, eBay. com and this may affect their financial discipline and foster overspending behavior, becoming one of the underlying causes of compulsive or obsessive consumerism. In 2012, MassMutual Asia Ltd commissioned the Public Opinion Programme of the University of Hong Kong to conduct a survey about post-80s and post-90s. The survey findings revealed that one out of seven respondents represented the Moonlight Clan, as they spent as much as they earned monthly, a survey in 2011 on Guangzhou youth aged fifteen to thirty-five revealed that thirty-five percent of interviewees were part of the Moonlight Clan. Their average expenditure is two-third of the average income, moreover, there are approximately three hundred million people earning less than $2 a day
Moonlight clan
–
Moonlight Clan
38.
Green-collar worker
–
A green-collar worker is a worker who is employed in the environmental sectors of the economy. Environmental green-collar workers satisfy the demand for green development, generally, they implement environmentally conscious design, policy, and technology to improve conservation and sustainability. They often seek to make their output more sustainable, and thus more favorable to public opinion, governmental regulation, there is a growing movement to incorporate social responsibility within the green industries. A sustainable green economy simultaneously values the importance of resources and inclusive, equitable. Of or pertaining to both employment and the environment or environmentalism. S, government Printing Office, page 134,1997, Geoff Mulgan, Perri 6 et al. 2007, U. S. Green Jobs Act 2007, U. S. Energy Independence and Security Act - Title X, Green Jobs - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Worker Training Program 2008, during the U. S. Presidential Campaign, both Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama specifically promised more green collar jobs, and green vehicle bonds, other candidates energy policy of the United States recommendations all included increased green development, which should accelerate the creation of millions of new green jobs. Widespread bipartisan, Administration and Congressional support for economic stimulus funding. Of or pertaining to rural, agricultural employment, often contrasted with urban blue-collar employment, the Center believes that clean energy investments would yield about 300,000 more jobs than if the same funds were distributed among U. S. taxpayers. The clean energy investments would also have the benefits of lower home energy bills and reduced prices for non-renewable energy sources. In terms of supply, the renewable energy industry will be particularly important. Some 2.3 million people have found renewable energy jobs in recent years, the report notes that most of todays jobs are in metropolitan areas, led by New York City, Washington, D. C. Houston, Texas, and Los Angeles, California, the Swedish utility Vattenfall did a study of full life cycle emissions of Nuclear, Hydro, Coal, Gas, Solar Cell, Peat and Wind which the utility uses to produce electricity. The net result of the study was that power produced 3.3 grams of carbon dioxide per KW-Hr of produced power. This compares to 400 for natural gas and 700 for coal, the study also concluded that nuclear power produced the smallest amount of CO2 of any of their electricity sources. Claims exist that the problems of nuclear waste do not come close to approaching the problems of fossil fuel waste. In the U. S. alone, fossil fuel waste kills 20,000 people each year, a coal power plant releases 100 times as much radiation as a nuclear power plant of the same wattage. It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident, in addition, fossil fuel waste causes global warming, which leads to increased deaths from hurricanes, flooding, and other weather events
Green-collar worker
–
Contents
39.
Pink-collar worker
–
In the United States, a pink-collar worker performs jobs in the service industry. Companies may sometimes blend blue, white, and pink industry categorizations, the term pink-collar was popularized in the late 1970s by writer and social critic Louise Kapp Howe to denote women working as nurses, secretaries, and elementary school teachers. Its origins, however, go back to the early 1970s, to when the equal rights amendment, at that time, the term was used to denote secretarial and steno-pool staff as well as non-professional office staff, all of which were largely held by women. De rigueur, these positions were not white-collar jobs, but neither were they blue-collar manual labor, hence, the creation of the term pink collar, which indicated it was not white-collar but was nonetheless an office job, one that was overwhelmingly filled by women. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that, as of May 2008, furthermore, the World Health Organizations 2011 World Health Statistics Report states that there are 19.3 million nurses in the world today. In the United States, women comprise 92. 1% of the nurses that are currently employed. Pink-collar occupations include, Historically, women were responsible for the running of a household and their financial security was often dependent upon a male patriarch. Widowed or divorced women struggled to support themselves and their children, Women began to develop more opportunities when they moved into the paid workplace, formerly of the male domain. In the 20th century women aimed to be treated like the equals of their male counterparts, in 1920 American women won the right to vote, marking a turning point in their roles in life. Many single women traveled to cities like New York where they work in factories and sweatshops, working for low pay operating sewing machines, sorting feathers, rolling tobacco. These factories were dirty, noisy, dark and dangerous, Workers frequently breathed dangerous fumes and worked with flammable materials. Women lost fingers and hands in accidents because in order to save money they were required to clean, unfortunately, most women who worked in the factories did not earn enough money to live on and lived in poverty. Throughout the 20th century certain women helped change womens roles in America, emily Balch, Jane Addams, and Lillian Wald are among the most notable. They created settlement houses and launched missions in crowded, unsanitary neighborhoods where immigrants lived, Balch, Addams, and Wald offered social services to the women and children, often inviting them into their homes and classrooms. Women took on leadership roles starting in the church, Women became involved with the church activities, a few went on to become president of the societies. The Association for the Sociology of Religion was the first to elect a president in 1938. World War I was the beginning of pink-collar jobs as the military needed personnel to type letters, answer phones, one thousand women worked for the U. S. Navy as stenographers, clerks, and telephone operators. The field of nursing also became feminized and was a profession for women
Pink-collar worker
–
A
waitress writes down the food order of diners
Pink-collar worker
–
A
U.S. Navy recruiting poster from World War II, showing an officer of the
Navy WAVES before a hospital ship
Pink-collar worker
–
This graph shows the increase in women graduating high school and attending college, while there is a decrease in high school dropouts.
40.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
41.
Slate.com
–
Slate is an online liberal / progressive magazine that covers current affairs, politics and culture in the United States. It was created in 1996 by former New Republic editor Michael Kinsley, on 21 December 2004, it was purchased by The Washington Post Company, later renamed the Graham Holdings Company. Since 4 June 2008, Slate has been managed by The Slate Group, Slate is based in New York City, with an additional office in Washington, DC. A French version was launched in February 2009 by a group of four journalists, including Jean-Marie Colombani, Eric Leser, among them, the founders hold 50% in the publishing company, while The Slate Group holds 15%. In 2011, slate. fr started a separate site covering African news, Slate Afrique, in July 2014, Julia Turner replaced David Plotz, who had been editor of Slate since 2008. Plotz had been the deputy editor to Jacob Weisberg, Slates editor from 2002 until his designation as the Chairman, the Washington Post Companys John Alderman is Slates publisher. Slate, which is updated throughout the day, covers politics, arts and culture, sports, as of mid-2015, it publishes about 1500 stories per month. Slate is also known for adopting contrarian views, giving rise to the term Slate Pitches and it is ad-supported and has been available to read free of charge since 1999, but restricted access for non-US readers via a metered paywall in 2015. Slate features regular and semi-regular columns such as Explainer, Moneybox, Spectator, Transport, many of the articles are short and argument-driven. Around 2010, the magazine began running long-form journalism. Many of the stories are an outgrowth of the Fresca Fellowships. In the context of a 2014 reader discussion, it was stated that the magazine is perceived to have left-liberal leanings, in 1998, Slate introduced a paywall-based business model that attracted up 20,000 subscribers but was abandoned afterwards. A similar subscription model would later be implemented by Slates independently owned competitor, Salon. com, on November 30,2005, Slate started a daily feature ”Todays Pictures”, featuring fifteen to twenty photographs from the archive at Magnum Photos that share a common theme. The column also features two flash animated ”Interactive Essays” a month, in June 2006, on its tenth anniversary, Slate unveiled a redesigned website. In 2007, it introduced Slate V, a video magazine with content that relates to or expands upon their written articles. In 2013, the magazine was redesigned under the guidance of Design Director Vivian Selbo, in 2011, Slate was nominated for four digital National Magazine Awards and won the NMA for General Excellence. In the same year, the laid off several high-profile journalists, including co-founder Jack Shafer. At the time, it had around 40 full-time editorial staff, the following year, a dedicated ad sales team was created
Slate.com
–
Slate
42.
Social status
–
Social status is the position or rank of a person or group, within the society. Status can be determined in two ways, one can earn their social status by their own achievements, which is known as achieved status. Alternatively, one can be placed in the system by their inherited position. An embodied status is one that is generated by physical characteristics located within our physical selves, the status that is the most important for an individual at a given time is called master status. Ascribed statuses can also be defined as those that are fixed for an individual at birth, ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, race, ethnic group and family background. For example, a born into a wealthy family characterized by traits such as popularity, talents. Therefore, they are given and taught many social roles as they are positioned into a family becoming equipped with all these traits. Achieved status means also what the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, Social status is used in many parts of the world. Hierarchy can be conveyed and detected through voice, Status refers to the relative rank that an individual holds, this includes attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. Status has two different types that come along with it, achieved, and ascribed, the word status refers to social stratification on a vertical scale. In society, pariah status groups are regarded with disdain or treated as outcasts by the majority of the population, the term derives from the Paraiyar, members of which are treated as outcasts in Hindu society. In modern societies, occupation is thought of as the main determinant of status. Achieved status is when people are placed in the structure based on their individual merits or achievements. This status can be achieved through education, occupation, and marital status and their place within the stratification structure is determined by societys bar, which often judges them on success, success being financial, academic, political and so on. America most commonly uses this form of status with jobs, the higher you are in rank the better off you are and the more control you have over your co-workers. In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied, in some cases it can be quite rigid and class based, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, in these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wifes mother quite seriously, all societies have a form of social status
Social status
–
Sociology
Social status
–
Social status is often associated with clothing and possessions. Compare the foreman with a horse and high hat with the
inquilino in picture. Image from 19th century rural Chile.
43.
Gilbert model
–
The Gilbert model was developed by Dennis Gilbert as a means of a more effective way of classifying people in a given society into social classes. Karl Marx believed that class is determined by ownership of the means of economic production - ownership of raw materials, farm land, coal mines, factories. His theory contains the idea of a struggle between two social classes - the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat, like Marx, Max Weber agreed that social class is determined mostly on the basis of unequal distribution of economic power and hence the unequal distribution of opportunity. He also saw that honor, status and social prestige were key factors in determining social class people belong to. Life-styles such as where a person lives and the schools they attend are very important in determining social class, if a person becomes a respectable member of society it will raise their social class. Party affiliations can also influence social class, even though Marxs and Webers research were both taken into consideration when trying to create an effective means of social stratification, they were not weighted the same. The aspect that Marxism takes into consideration when referring to the economy is what a person owns determines their class - a capitalistic viewpoint. If a man owns a factory, he is going to be in a social class than someone who works in the factory. In Marxist theory, the class is not emphasized or described. The Gilbert model focuses more on income when referring to how the system places people in classes. The income of a person is related to a persons educational preparation because better education provides for a better occupation which in turn raises their class level. The three main factors that Gilbert used to propose his model were income, education, and occupation, the six social classes that provide the basis for the Gilbert model are determined based on the assumption of how class structure develops out of the economic system. Even though the capitalist class is a small class of super rich capitalists at the top of the hierarchy, its impact on economy. These people contribute their money to political parties and are owners of newspapers or television stations. They have investments that affect millions of people in the labor force and they tend to only associate with other people from their own class, rarely interacting with people from an inferior class. Even their children are usually segregated attending only the most elite preparatory schools, the upper middle class is the group in society most shaped by formal education. A college degree is required and graduate studies are becoming increasingly required. Most people in class are technicians, professionals, managers, officials
Gilbert model
–
Sociology
44.
Mudsill theory
–
Mudsill theory is a sociological term indicating the proposition that there must be, and always has been, a lower class for the upper classes to rest upon. The term derives from a mudsill, the lowest threshold that supports the foundation for a building, efforts to reduce class or racial inequality, under this theory, inevitably run counter to civilization itself. Many saw the argument as a justification for exploitation. It was directly used to advocate slavery in the rhetoric of others pre-Civil War Democrats, abraham Lincoln argued forcefully against the mudsill theory, particularly in a speech in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1859, where he delineated its incompatibility with Free Soil. In his view, mudsill advocates conclude that all laborers are necessarily either hired laborers, or slaves, since to them, nobody labors unless somebody else, further, mudsillers believed that these laborers were fatally fixed in their status. Northern soldiers fighting in the Western Theater of the Civil War turned this derogatory term into one of self pride, as in Western Mudsill
Mudsill theory
–
James Henry Hammond coined the "Mudsill Theory"
45.
Three-component theory of stratification
–
Weber developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige and power. Weber argued that power can take a variety of forms, a person’s power can be shown in the social order through their status, in the economic order through their class, and in the political order through their party. Thus, class, status and party are each aspects of the distribution of power within a community, Class, status and party have not only a great deal of effect within their individual areas but also a great deal of influence over the other areas. This essay was shortly before World War I and was published posthumously in 1922 as part of Webers Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. It was translated into English in the 1940s as Class, Status, Party and has been re-translated as The distribution of power within the community, Classes, Stände, according to Weber, the ability to possess power derives from the individuals ability to control various social resources. These resources can be anything and everything, they might include land, capital, social respect, physical strength, and intellectual knowledge. The ability to exercise power takes a number of different forms, “Class, at its core, is an economic concept, it is the position of individuals in the market that determines their class position. And it is how one is situated in the marketplace that directly affects one’s life chances. ” and this was theorized by Weber on the basis of unequal access to material resources. For example, if someone possesses something that you want or need then this makes him more powerful than you. He is in a dominant position and you are in a position because he controls access to a desired social resource. A classic illustration here is the relationship between an employer and employee, if you respect someone or view him as your social superior, then he will potentially be able to exercise power over you. In this respect, social status is a social resource simply because he may have it while you may not, not all power, however entails social honor, The Typical American Boss, as well as the typical big speculator, deliberately relinquishes social honor. Quite generally, mere economic power, and especially naked money power, is by no means a recognized basis or social honor. Parties are associations that aim at securing “power within an organization for its leaders in order to attain ideal or material advantages for its active members. ”This form of power can be related to the way in which the State is organized in social systems. If you can influence this process of law creation then you will be in a powerful position. Thus, by your ability to influence a decision-making process you possess power, Social action is in direct relation to political or party power in combination with the class situation. The influence of laws is based on the action of members of the classes. It is also likened to the extent of the contrasts that have already evolved. ”, class-conscious action is most likely if, first, the connection between the causes and consequences of the class situation are transparent, or clear
Three-component theory of stratification
–
Sociology
46.
Caste
–
Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
Caste
–
The
Basor weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The Basor are a
Hindu caste found in the state of
Uttar Pradesh in India.
Caste
–
A page from the manuscript Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India, which consists of 72 full-color hand-painted images of men and women of various religions, occupations and ethnic groups found in
Madura, India in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste, before the British made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the
varna categories from the 1901 census on wards.
Caste
–
A Sudra caste man from
Bali. Photo from 1870, courtesy of
Tropenmuseum,
Netherlands.
Caste
–
Japanese
samurai of importance and servant.
47.
Class conflict
–
The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself
Class conflict
–
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) demonstration in New York, 11 April 1914
Class conflict
–
Teamsters wild-cat strike in Minneapolis, 1934
Class conflict
–
Warren Buffett
Class conflict
–
Karl Marx, 1875
48.
Euthenics
–
Euthenics /juːˈθɛnɪks/ is the study of the improvement of human functioning and well-being by improvement of living conditions. Rose Field notes of the definition in a May 23,1926 New York Times article, the Flynn effect has been often cited as an example of euthenics. Another example is the increase in body size in industrialized countries since the beginning of the 20th century. The term was derived in the late 19th century from the Greek verb eutheneo, also from the Greek Euthenia, Εὐθηνία. Good state of the body, prosperity, good fortune, abundance. —Herodotus, the opposite of Euthenia is Penia, Πενία the personification of poverty and need. Ellen H. Swallow Richards was one of the first writers to use the term, in The Cost of Shelter and it is unclear if any of the study programs of euthenics ever completely embraced Richards multidisciplinary concept, though several nuances remain today, especially that of interdisciplinarity. After Richards death in 1911, Julia Lathrop - one of Vassars most distinguished alumnae - continued to promote the development of a program in euthenics at the college. Lathrop soon teamed with alumna Minnie Cumnock Blodgett, who with her husband, John Wood Blodgett, curriculum planning, suggested by Vassar president Henry Noble MacCracken in 1922, began in earnest by 1923, under the direction of Professor Annie Louise Macleod. According to Vassars chronology entry for March 17,1924, the faculty recognized euthenics as a field for sequential study. With the new division came the first major in child study at an American liberal arts college, the Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics accepted its first students in June 1926. Created to supplement the controversial euthenics major which began February 21,1925, some Vassar faculty members contentiously believed the entire concept of euthenics was vague and counter-productive to womens progress. Having overcome a lukewarm reception, Vassar College officially opened its Minnie Cumnock Blodgett Hall of Euthenics in 1929, Dr. Ruth Wheeler took over as director of euthenics studies in 1924. Wheeler remained director until Mary Shattuck Fisher Langmuir succeeded her in 1944, the college continued for the 1934–35 academic year its successful cooperative housing experiment in three residence halls. Intended to help meet their college costs by working in their residences. For example, in Main, students earned $40 a year by doing relatively light work such as cleaning their rooms. In 1951, Katharine Blodgett Hadley donated $400,000, through the Rubicon Foundation, to Vassar to help fund operating deficits in the current and succeeding years and to improve faculty salaries. Discontinued for financial reasons, the Vassar Summer Institute for Family and Community Living, founded in 1926 as the Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics, held its last session and this was the first and last session for the institutes new director, Dr. Mervin Freedman. Elmira College is noted as the oldest college still in existence which granted degrees to women which were the equivalent of those given to men, Elmira College became coeducational in all of its programs in 1969
Euthenics
–
Ellen Swallow Richards, the first female student and instructor at MIT.
Euthenics
–
Julia Clifford Lathrop as the first chief of the U.S. Children's Bureau.
Euthenics
–
Lester Frank Ward
Euthenics
–
Abraham Flexner, c. 1895.
49.
Poverty
–
Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
Poverty
–
An example of urban poverty in this
slum in
Jakarta,
Indonesia
Poverty
–
Children of the
Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937
Poverty
–
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day.
Sweden, 1868.
Poverty
–
A
Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.
