1.
Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
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Lunenburg is a port town in Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia, Canada. Situated on the provinces South Shore, Lunenburg is located on the Fairhaven Peninsula at the side of Mahone Bay. The town is approximately 90 kilometres southwest of the county boundary with the Halifax Regional Municipality, the town was established by the three founding fathers, Patrick Sutherland, Dettlieb Christopher Jessen and John Creighton during Father Le Loutres War, four years after Halifax. The town was one of the first British attempts to settle Protestants in Nova Scotia intended to displace Mikmaq, British settlement posed a lasting, grave and certain threat to Mikmaw hegenomy over their traditional territory. The historic town was designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific and this designation ensures protection for much of Lunenburgs unique architecture and civic design, being the best example of planned British colonial settlement in Canada. The historic core of the town is also a National Historic Site of Canada, originally a Mikmaq encampment and clam harvesting site known as āseedĭk, the site became a Mi’kmaq and Acadian village named Mirliguèche for over a hundred years. Mirliguèche is believed to mean milky surf or milky bay, referring to the appearance in a storm. Acadians under the command of Isaac de Razilly established kinship and trade relations with the local Mikmaq, a 1688 census indicates there were 21 at Mirliguèche, in one house and two wigwams, with half an acre under cultivation. In 1745 there were reported to be only eight settlers in the village, four years later, Cornwallis reported that there were a number of families that lived in comfortable wooden houses. Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians, Father Le Loutres War began when Governor Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on June 21,1749. By unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, upon the outbreak of Father Le Loutres War, on October 5,1749, Governor Edward Cornwallis sent Commander White with troops in the 20-gun sloop Sphinx to Mirligueche and had the village destroyed. By 1753 there still was one family in the area – a Mikmaq man named Old Labrador. After establishing Halifax, the British quickly began to other settlements. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Bedford, Dartmouth, Lunenburg, the Natives and Acadians raided the Lunenburg peninsula nine times in the first six years of its establishment. Dissatisfied with the English colonists sent to Halifax in 1749, Cornwallis appealed to the Committee of Privy Council for Trade and Foreign Plantations in London to recruit more Germans, over 2,700 Foreign Protestants signed up for the passage and emigrated to Nova Scotia. Most came from the Upper Rhine area of present-day Germany, from the French and German-speaking Swiss cantons and they stayed in Halifax under British protection while working on the fortifications to pay off the cost of their passage. In 1753, three years into Father Le Loutres War, John Creighton led the group of Foreign Protestants stationed in Halifax to resettle Mirliguèche naming the new British colony Lunenburg. The town was named in honour of the King of Great Britain and Ireland, like Halifax, the British established Lunenburg unilaterally, that is, without negotiating with the Mikmaq whose sovereign territory it had always been
2.
Smith and Rhuland
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Smith & Rhuland was a shipyard located in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, Canada. The yard was opened in 1900 and was the builder of the esteemed Bluenose. The shipyard prided itself in creating quality vessels of all shapes and sizes, Smith and Rhuland was founded in 1900 by George A. Rhuland and Richard W. Smith in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, Canada. Smith and Rhuland, over its 67 years in operation completed many famous vessels including Bluenose, Flora Alberta, Sherman Zwicker, Bluenose II, Bounty, the current shipyard was home to the company from 1905. The Smith and Rhuland Yard is located on Lunenburg’s historic waterfront adjacent to the Lunenburg Marine Railway, fred and John Rhuland Took over Smith and Rhuland after their father, George Rhuland died in 1950. In September 1955 Smith and Rhuland Started to manufacture pleasure craft, some of the first pleasure craft built by Smith and Rhuland were named “Bluenose 26”, a play on their most famous vessel Bluenose. In 1963 the shipyard launched the Bluenose II, a replica of the original using some of the same workers, after many years of fine shipbuilding Smith and Rhuland closed its doors in 1967. During the shipyards history it constructed over 270 vessels, the yard today is operated by Scotia Trawler Limited. Scotia Trawler, established 1962, has performed many refits and repairs of original Smith and Rhuland Vessels including Theresa E. Connor and Bluenose II
3.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
4.
O/a
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Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
5.
Waterline length
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The waterline length is the length of a ship or boat at the point where it sits in the water. It excludes the length of the boat, such as features that are out of the water. Most boats rise outwards at the bow and stern, so a boat may be quite a bit longer than its waterline length. In a ship with raked stems, naturally the waterline length changes as the draft of the ship changes. Length at the waterline is often abbreviated as lwl, w/l and this measure is essential in determining a lot of properties of a vessel, such as how much water it displaces, where the bow and stern waves are, hull speed, amount of bottom-paint needed, etc. In sailing boats, longer waterline length will usually enable a greater speed, because it allows greater sail area. Higher beam and draft causes higher resistance against the water and this maximum speed, also known as theoretical hull speed, can be calculated using the formula x 1.34. Length overall Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
6.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
7.
Ship replica
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A ship replica is a reconstruction of a no longer existing ship. Replicas can range from authentically reconstructed, fully seaworthy ships, to ships of modern construction that give an impression of a historic vessel, some replicas may not even be seaworthy, but built for other educational or entertainment purposes. Reasons to build a replica include historic research into shipbuilding, national pride, exposition at a museum or entertainment, for example, see the project to build a replica of the Continental brig Andrew Doria. The term replica in this context does not normally include scale models, the term museum ship is used for an old ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public. Some generic type replicas such as Thor Heyerdahls Ra II, qualify as true replicas as these ships were built to investigate the craft and that they do not replicate a specific vessel is mainly because no details of such a specific vessel are available. Some other ships that are modeled after ships of a type or era do not qualify as true replicas. Some ships may be borderline cases, such as Kanrin Maru, which is twice the size of the original. Replicas can be temporary, cheap and very simple, such as the replica of a Viking ship that was burnt at the Leixlip Festival, notable historic type ships that are not replicas include, USS Constitution is strictly speaking not a replica but the original vessel. However, most of the timber has been replaced over time. This is a version of the philosophers dilemma concerning replica versus original. HMS Victory is still the original vessel, although unlike Constitution, she is in dry dock and she has also been heavily restored, with only 10-15% of her original timber remaining. Mircea, which is an almost exact copy of Gorch Fock, Mircea was built as a copy because Gorch Fock was a very successful ship. Thus Mircea was not built as a replica per se, stad Amsterdam is a generic clipper type ship combining the best qualities of clippers of the past with modern materials and technologies. Another ambiguous case subject to the Ship of Theseus dilemma is Niagara, the original was sunk in 1820 for preservation, and the ship has been rebuilt three times since. Princess Taiping, a replica of a Ming Dynasty Chinese junk, hokulea, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Makalii, Kawaihae, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, alingano Maisu, Kawaihae, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Hokualakai, Hilo, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, iosepa, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel. Hawaiiloa, Honolulu, Hawaii, an ancient Hawaiian vessel, te Aurere, Auckland, New Zealand, an ancient Maori vessel
8.
Bluenose II
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Bluenose was a fishing and racing schooner built in 1921 in Nova Scotia, Canada. Nicknamed the Queen of the North Atlantic, she was commemorated by a replica, Bluenose II. The name Bluenose originated as a nickname for Nova Scotians from as early as the late 18th century, designed by William Roué, the vessel was intended for both fishing and racing duties. Intended to compete with American schooners for speed, the design that Roué originally drafted in Fall 1920 had a length of 36.6 metres which was 2.4 metres too long for the competition. Sent back to redesign the schooner, Roué produced a revised outline, the accepted revisal placed the inside ballast on top of the keel to ensure that it was as low as possible, improving the overall speed of the vessel. One further alteration to the design took place during construction. The bow was raised by.5 metres to more room in the forecastle for the crew to eat. The alteration was approved of by Roué, the change in increased the sheer in the vessels bow, giving the schooner a unique appearance. The design that was accepted and later built was a combination of the designs of both Nova Scotian and American shipbuilders had been constructing for the North Atlantic fishing fleet. The vessel was constructed of Nova Scotian pine, spruce, birch and oak, Bluenose had a displacement of 258 tonnes and was 43.6 metres long overall and 34.1 metres at the waterline. The vessel had a beam of 8.2 metres and a draught of 4.85 metres, the schooner carried 930 square metres of sail. Bluenoses mainmast reached 38.4 metres above deck and the schooners foremast reached 31.3 metres and her mainboom was 24.7 metres and the schooners foreboom was 9.9 metres. The vessel had a crew of 20 and her hull was painted black, the vessel cost $35,000 to build. Bluenose was constructed by Smith and Rhuland in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, the schooners keel was laid in 1920. The Governor General the Duke of Devonshire drove a spike into the timber during the keel-laying ceremony. She was launched on 26 March 1921, and christened by Audrey Smith, Bluenose was completed in April 1921 and performed her sea trials out of Lunenburg. On 15 April, the departed to fish for the first time. Bluenose, being a Lunenburg schooner, used the dory trawl method, Lunenburg schooners carried eight dories, each manned by two members of the crew, called dorymen
9.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
10.
Bow (ship)
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The bow /ˈbaʊ/ is the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat, the point that is usually most forward when the vessel is underway. Both of the fore and forward mean towards the bow. The other end of the boat is the stern, from Middle Dutch boech or Old Norse bógr. The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. On slower ships like tankers, a bow shape is used to maximise the volume of the ship for a given length. A wet bow results from seawater washing over the top of the hull, a raked stem can help to reduce the wetness of the bow. Aside from making the deck slippery, water can corrode the metal of the ship, if the temperature is low enough this water can also freeze on the deck, rails, turrets, and other exposed surfaces, increasing the topside weight. The bow may be reinforced to serve as an ice-breaker, one example being the bow of container-ship Sea Witch whose reinforcement assisted its destruction of another ship in a 1973 collision, the forward part of the bow, usually on the ships centreline, is called the stem. Traditionally, the stem was a timber or metal bar into which side planks or plates were joined. ISBN 0-7566-0944-5 Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
11.
Forecastle
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Forecastle refers to the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the foremast, or the forward part of a ship with the sailors living quarters. Related to the meaning is the phrase before the mast which denotes anything related to ordinary sailors. The syncope of the word, focsle or focsle, is common among nautical terms, the positioning of the apostrophes represents silent letters, thus focsle. In medieval shipbuilding, a ship of war was usually equipped with a tall and it served as a platform for archers to shoot down on enemy ships, or as a defensive stronghold if the ship were boarded. A similar but usually much larger structure, called the aftcastle, was at the aft end of the ship, having such tall upper works on the ship was detrimental to sailing performance. Sailors stationed on the forecastle, or forecastle men, were responsible for handling the headsails, in the Royal Navy of the 17th and 18th centuries, these roles were reserved for older seamen who lacked the agility to go aloft or take other more strenuous duties aboard. By the end of the 19th century, raised forecastle had become a feature on warships again, in an attempt to keep forward gun positions from getting unacceptably wet on heavy seas. In addition the forecastle may provide additional crews quarters as in the past, a disadvantage of such a design is the structural weakness at the forecastle break relative to a flush deck structure. Media related to Forecastles at Wikimedia Commons
12.
Sheer (ship)
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The sheer is a measure of longitudinal main deck curvature, in naval architecture. The sheer forward is usually twice that of sheer aft, in the early days of sail, one discussed a hulls sheer in terms of how much Hang it had. William Sutherlands The Ship-builders Assistant covers this information in more detail, the practice of building sheer into a ship dates back to the era of small sailing ships. These vessels were built with the decks curving upwards at the bow and stern in order to increase stability by preventing the ship from pitching up and down. Sheer on exposed decks makes a more seaworthy by raising the deck at fore and aft ends further from the water
13.
North Atlantic
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
14.
Pine
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A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus, /ˈpiːnuːs/, of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species, the modern English name pine derives from Latin pinus, which some have traced to the Indo-European base *pīt- ‘resin’. Before the 19th century, pines were often referred to as firs, the genus is divided into three subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters, Pinus subg. Pinus, the yellow, or hard pine group, generally harder wood. Ducampopinus, the foxtail or pinyon group Pinus subg, strobus, the white, or soft pine group, generally with softer wood and five needles per fascicle Most regions of the Northern Hemisphere host some native species of pines. One species crosses the equator in Sumatra to 2°S, in North America, various species occur in regions at latitudes from as far north as 66°N to as far south as 12°N. Various species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or cultivated as ornamental plants in parks, a number of such introduced species have become invasive and threaten native ecosystems. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous trees growing 3–80 m tall. The smallest are Siberian dwarf pine and Potosi pinyon, and the tallest is a 81.79 m tall ponderosa pine located in southern Oregons Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, the bark of most pines is thick and scaly, but some species have thin, flaky bark. The branches are produced in regular pseudo whorls, actually a very tight spiral, the spiral growth of branches, needles, and cone scales are arranged in Fibonacci number ratios. The new spring shoots are sometimes called candles, they are covered in brown or whitish bud scales and point upward at first, then turn green. These candles offer foresters a means to evaluate fertility of the soil, pines are long-lived, and typically reach ages of 100–1,000 years, some even more. The longest-lived is the Great Basin bristlecone pine, Pinus longaeva, one individual of this species, dubbed Methuselah, is one of the worlds oldest living organisms at around 4,600 years old. This tree can be found in the White Mountains of California, an older tree, now cut down, was dated at 4,900 years old. It was discovered in a grove beneath Wheeler Peak and it is now known as Prometheus after the Greek immortal, pines have four types of leaf, Seed leaves on seedlings, born in a whorl of 4–24. Juvenile leaves, which follow immediately on seedlings and young plants, 2–6 cm long, single, green or often blue-green and these are produced for six months to five years, rarely longer. Scale leaves, similar to bud scales, small, brown and non-photosynthetic, needles, the adult leaves, are green and bundled in clusters called fascicles
15.
Spruce
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A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea /paɪˈsiːə/, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from about 20–60 m tall when mature, the needles, or leaves, of spruce trees are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion, each needle on a small, peg-like structure. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the branches rough with the retained pegs, spruces are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. They are also used by the larvae of gall adelgids, the word spruce entered the English language from the Polish Prusy, Prussia. DNA analyses have shown that traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle, Spruce has been found in the fossil record from the early Cretaceous,136 million years ago. Thirty-five named species of spruce exist in the world, the Plant List has 59 accepted spruce names. Beyond that, determination can become more difficult, intensive sampling in the Smithers/Hazelton/Houston area of British Columbia showed Douglas, according to Coates et al. Daubenmire, after sampling, had already recognized the importance of the 2 latter characters. Without cones, morphological differentiation among spruce species and their hybrids is more difficult, but, if an extended photoperiod is provided for Sitka spruce, seedlings become unacceptably tall by the end of the first growing season. g. Growth rhythm, shoot and root weight, and needle serration, or some combination of, Spruce seedlings are most susceptible immediately following germination, and remain highly susceptible through to the following spring. Seedlings that germinate late in the season are particularly vulnerable because they are tiny and have not had time to harden off fully. Mortality rates generally decrease sharply thereafter, but losses often remain high for some years, establishment is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development. Growth remains very slow for several to many years, Spruce is useful as a building wood, commonly referred to by several different names including North American timber, SPF and whitewood. Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from construction work. The Wright brothers first aircraft, the Flyer, was built of spruce, because this species has no insect or decay resistance qualities after logging, it is generally recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only. Spruce wood, when left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the type of climate it is exposed to, Spruce is one of the most important woods for paper uses, as it has long wood fibres which bind together to make strong paper. The fibres are thin walled and collapse to thin bands upon drying, spruces are commonly used in mechanical pulping as they are easily bleached. Together with northern pines, northern spruces are commonly used to make NBSK, spruces are cultivated over vast areas as pulpwood
16.
Birch
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A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech-oak family Fagaceae, the genus Betula contains 30 to 60 known taxa of which 11 are on the IUCN2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are a typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in northern temperate, Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of northern temperate and boreal climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined and they often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels and its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. The buds form early and are grown by midsummer, all are lateral, no terminal bud is formed. The wood of all the species is close-grained with satiny texture, staminate aments are pendulous, clustered or solitary in the axils of the last leaves of the branch of the year or near the ends of the short lateral branchlets of the year. They form in autumn and remain rigid during the winter. The scales of the staminate aments when mature are broadly ovate, rounded, yellow or orange color below the middle, each scale bears two bractlets and three sterile flowers, each flower consisting of a sessile, membranaceous, usually two-lobed, calyx. Each calyx bears four short filaments with one-celled anthers or strictly, the pistillate aments are erect or pendulous, solitary, terminal on the two-leaved lateral spur-like branchlets of the year. The pistillate scales are oblong-ovate, three-lobed, pale yellow green often tinged with red and these scales bear two or three fertile flowers, each flower consisting of a naked ovary. The ovary is compressed, two-celled, and crowned with two styles, the ovule is solitary. Each scale bear a small, winged nut that is oval. Betula species are organised into five subgenera, pendula and B. pubescens confused, though they are distinct species with different chromosome numbers. This root is derived from *bʰreh₁ǵ- ‘to shine’, in reference to the birchs white bark. The Proto-Germanic rune berkanan is named after the birch, the generic name betula is from Latin, which is a diminutive borrowed from Gaulish betua
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Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
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Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
19.
Length overall
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Length overall, often abbreviated as is the maximum length of a vessels hull measured parallel to the waterline. This length is important while docking the ship and it is the most commonly used way of expressing the size of a ship, and is also used for calculating the cost of a marina berth. LOA is usually measured on the hull alone, for sailing ships, this may exclude the bowsprit and other fittings added to the hull. This is how some racing boats and tall ships use the term LOA, however, other sources may include bowsprits in LOA. Sparred length, Total length including bowsprit, Mooring length and LOA including bowsprit are other expressions that might indicate the length of a sailing ship. Often used to distinguish between the length of a vessel including projections from the length of the hull itself, the Length on Deck or LOD is often reported and this is especially useful for smaller sailing vessels, as their LOA can be significantly different from their LOD. In ISO8666 for small boats, there is a definition of LOH and this may be shorter than a vessels LOA, because it excludes other parts attached to the hull, such as bowsprits. Another measure of length is LWL which is useful in assessing a vessels performance. In some cases LWL can be shorter than LOA. Overall length in cartridges The National Register of Historic Vessels Length between perpendiculars Hayler, William B, keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
20.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
21.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind
22.
Deck (ship)
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A deck is a permanent covering over a compartment or a hull of a ship. On a boat or ship, the primary or upper deck is the structure that forms the roof of the hull, strengthening it. Decks for some purposes have specific names, the main purpose of the upper or primary deck is structural, and only secondarily to provide weather-tightness and support people and equipment. The deck serves as the lid to the box girder which is the hull. It resists tension, compression, and racking forces, the decks scantling is usually the same as the topsides, or might be heavier if the deck is expected to carry heavier loads. The deck will be reinforced around deck fittings such as the capstan, cleats, on ships with more than one level, deck refers to the level itself. The actual floor surface is called the sole, the term refers to a structural member tying the ships frames or ribs together over the keel. In modern ships, the decks are usually numbered from the primary deck. So the first deck below the deck will be #2. Some merchant ships may alternatively designate decks below the deck, usually machinery spaces, by numbers. Ships may also call decks by common names, or may invent fanciful and romantic names for a deck or area of that specific ship. Equipment mounted on deck, such as the wheel, binnacle, fife rails. Eastern designs developed earlier, with efficient middle decks and minimalist fore, in vessels having more than one deck there are various naming conventions, numerically, alphabetically, etc. However, there are various common historical names and types of decks,01 level is the term used in naval services to refer to the deck above the main deck. The next higher decks are referred to as the 02 level, the 03 level, afterdeck an open deck area toward the stern-aft. Berth deck, A deck next below the gun deck, where the hammocks of the crew are slung, Boat deck, Especially on ships with sponsons, the deck area where lifeboats or the ships gig are stored. Boiler deck, The passenger deck above the vessels boilers, may also refer to the deck of a bridge. Flight deck, A deck from which aircraft take off or land, flush deck, Any continuous unbroken deck from stem to stern
23.
History of Nova Scotia
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For military history, see Military history of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is a Canadian province located in Canadas Maritimes. The region was occupied by Mikmaq. During the first 150 years of European settlement, the colony was made up of Catholic Acadians. This time period involved six wars in which the Mikmaq along with the French, during Father Le Loutres War, the capital was moved from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia to the newly established Halifax, Nova Scotia. The warfare ended with the Burying the Hatchet Ceremony, after the colonial wars, New England Planters and Foreign Protestants settled Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, the colony was settled by Loyalists, during the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became self-governing in 1848 and joined the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The colonial history of Nova Scotia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine, in 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. Johns Island became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. Johns Island became a separate colony, Nova Scotia included present-day New Brunswick until that province was established in 1784. The oldest evidence of humans in Nova Scotia indicates the Paleo-Indians were the first, natives are believed to have been present in the area between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago. The Mikmaq are a First Nations people, indigenous to the Maritime Provinces, míkmaw is the singular form of Míkmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mikmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, however, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including smallpox and alcoholism, there had been large population losses in the previous century. At the time of contact with the French they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St, Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mikmaq name for this peninsula, Gespedeg. They were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst, with the complete loss by France during the Seven Years War of its North American territories, the Mi’kmaq lost their primary ally. The Mi’kmaq continued to suffer a collapse and with the influx of Planters in the 1760s and Loyalists in the 1780s. Later on the Mikmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated Beothuk tribe became extinct, giovanni Cabotos voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the Bardi family banking firm of Florence. With financing secure and patent issued by Henry VII to Caboto, upon landing on 24 June 1497, Caboto raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church. After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks discovering the coast, Cabotos expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian Alwyn Ruddock who worked on Caboto and his era for 35 years suggested Fr, Nova Scotia was further explored by the Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland
24.
Habitation at Port-Royal
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Not to be confused with Port-Royal Port-Royal National Historic Site is a National Historic Site located on the north bank of the Annapolis Basin in the community of Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The site is the location of the Habitation at Port-Royal, the Habitation at Port-Royal was established by France in 1605 and was that nations first successful settlement in North America. Port-Royal served as the capital of Acadia until its destruction by British military forces in 1613, France relocated the settlement and capital 8 km upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, the site of the present-day town of Annapolis Royal. This interest had been increasing since the publication of Quietly My Captain Waits, the government agreed, after much persuasion, to have the replica built on the original site. Construction took place from 1939-1941 and was based on a set of plans for the original Habitation that had been recently discovered in France. This was the first National Historic Site to have a structure built. Today, the replica of the Habitation is considered a milestone in the heritage movement. Operated by Parks Canada, it is open to the public as a unit of the park system, staffed by historical interpreters in period costumes. Costumed interpreters provide demonstrations of such historic early 17th century activities as farming, building, cooking, fur trading, Port-Royal was founded after the French nobleman Pierre Du Gua de Monts who spent a disastrous winter in Île-Saint-Croix. He was accompanied by Samuel de Champlain, Louis Hébert and Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just. Champlain would note in his journals, that the bay was of size, he believed it an adequate anchorage for several hundred ships of the French Royal Fleet. As such, he would name the basin Port-Royal, the Royal Port, this was, for many years, Poutrincourt asked King Henri IV to become the owner of the Seigneurie which encompassed the settlement. Nestled against the North Mountain range, they set about constructing a log stockade fortification called a habitation, with assistance from members of the Mikmaq Nation and a local chief named Membertou, coupled with the more temperate climate of the fertile Annapolis Valley, the settlement prospered. Marc Lescarbots The Theatre of Neptune in New France, the first work of theater written and it was arguably the catalyst for the Order of Good Cheer. In 1607, Dugua had his fur trade monopoly revoked by the Government of France, the Habitation was left in the care of Membertou and the local Mikmaq until 1610 when Sieur de Poutrincourt, another French nobleman, returned with a small expedition to Port-Royal. Poutrincourt converted Membertou and local Mikmaq to Catholicism, hoping to gain assistance from the government. As a result, Jesuits became financial partners with Poutrincourt, although this division within the community. In May,1613 the Jesuits moved on to the Penobscot River valley and in July, Argall returned in November that same year and burned the Habitation to the ground while settlers were away nearby
25.
Siege of Port Royal (1710)
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After the French surrender, the British occupied the fort in the capital with all the pomp and ceremony of having captured one of the great fortresses of Europe, and renamed it Annapolis Royal. The siege was the third British attempt during Queen Annes War to capture the Acadian capital, the conquest was a key element in the framing of the North American issues in French-British treaty negotiations of 1711–1713. It resulted in the creation of a new colony—Nova Scotia—and introduced significant questions concerning the fate of both the Acadians and the Mikmaq who continued to occupy Acadia, Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604. It consequently became a point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century. It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall, in 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay, although it was restored to France by the Treaty of Ryswick. With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702, acadias governor, Jacques-François de Monbeton de Brouillan, had, in anticipation of war, already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701, which was largely completed by 1704. Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704, led by Benjamin Church, they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities. English and French accounts differ on whether Churchs expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal, Churchs account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack, but ultimately decided against the idea, French accounts claim that a minor attack was made. When Daniel dAuger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706, he went on the offensive and he also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping. The privateers were highly effective, the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707, and some English coastal communities were raided. English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal, in spring of 1707, he authorized an expedition against Port Royal. This expedition made two attempts to take Port Royal, for a variety of reasons, both attempts failed despite the expeditions significant numerical superiority. In the following years, France failed to any significant support, while the British mobilized larger. Samuel Vetch, a Scots businessman with ties, went to London in 1708. She authorized a great enterprise to conquer all of Acadia and Canada in 1709 that was aborted when the military support failed to materialize. Vetch and Francis Nicholson, an Englishman who had served as colonial governor of Maryland and Virginia, returned to England in its aftermath. They were accompanied by four Indian chiefs, who caused a sensation in London, Nicholson and Vetch successfully argued on behalf of colonial interests for British military support against Port Royal. In addition to 400 marines brought over from England, four New England provinces raised militia regiments, Massachusetts Bay provided 900, Rhode Island 180, Connecticut 300, and New Hampshire 100
26.
History of Halifax
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Halifax, Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by the Mikmaq Peoples. The first European settlers to arrive in the future Halifax region were French, in the early 1600s, the British settled Halifax in 1749, which sparked Father Le Loutres War. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian, and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Bedford, Dartmouth, and Lawrencetown. St. Margarets Bay first got settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, all of these regions were amalgamated into the Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996. While all of the regions of HRM developed separately over the last 250 years, the City of Halifax was an incorporated city in Nova Scotia, Canada, which was established as the Town of Halifax in 1749, and incorporated as a city in 1842. The city was the capital of Nova Scotia and shire town of Halifax County and it was also the largest city in Atlantic Canada. The Town of Halifax was founded by the Kingdom of Great Britain under the direction of the Board of Trade under the command of Governor Edward Cornwallis in 1749, the British founding of Halifax initiated Father Le Loutres War. During the war, Mikmaq and Acadians raided the capital region 13 times, Halifax was founded below a drumlin that would later be named Citadel Hill. The outpost was named in honour of George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, in its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, before changes in artillery that could range out into the harbour. After a protracted struggle between residents and the Viceroys of Nova Scotia, the City of Halifax was incorporated in 1842, the area is administered as two separate community planning areas by the regional government for development, Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax. It forms a significant part of the Halifax urban area, residents of the former city are called Haligonians. The Halifax area has been territory of the Mikmaq since time immemorial, before contact they called the area around the Halifax Harbour Jipugtug, meaning Great Harbour. There is evidence that bands would spend the summer on the shores of the Bedford Basin, examples of Mikmaq habitation and burial sites have been found from Point Pleasant Park to the north and south mainland. Despite the Conquest of Acadia in 1710, no attempts were made by Great Britain to colonize Nova Scotia, aside from its presence at Annapolis Royal. The peninsula was dominated by Catholic Acadians and Mikmaq residents, the British founded Halifax in order to counter the influence of the Fortress of Louisbourg after returning the fortress to French control as part of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The first European settlement in the HRM was an Acadian community at present-day Lawrencetown and these Acadians joined the Acadian Exodus when the British established themselves on Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the British Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War
27.
Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)
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The Bay of Fundy Campaign occurred during the French and Indian War when the British ordered the Expulsion of the Acadians from Acadia after the Battle of Fort Beauséjour. The Campaign started at Chignecto and then moved to Grand Pré, Rivière-aux-Canards, Pisiguit, Cobequid. Approximately 7,000 Acadians were deported to the New England colonies, the British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in militia operations against the British, such as the raids on Dartmouth. The Acadians also maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg, prior to the expulsion, the British retrieved the Acadians weapons and boats in the Bay of Fundy region and arrested their deputies and priests. After the fall of Fort Beauséjour, the first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began in the region of Chignecto, under the direction of Colonel Robert Monckton, on August 10, Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow seized four hundred unsuspecting men who were at Fort Cumberland. He also imprisoned 86 Acadians within Fort Lawrence, the number of prisoners was one third of the men of the region, many of the others fled the region. The prisoners were kept in the fort until transports arrived to deport them, the wives and children joined them upon departure. Almost a month after the expulsion began, on September 2, Boishébert organized the Mi’kmaq and Acadian resistance in the region, almost one month later, on October 1, the Acadian prisoners at Fort Lawrence escaped. Joseph Broussard was one of the escapees, on October 13, a convoy of eight transports, carrying on board approximately 1782 prisoners, left Chignecto Basin escorted by three British men–of–war. The Acadians of Chignecto were considered the most rebellious, as a result, they were sent the furthest from Acadia, to South Carolina and Georgia. Upon leaving, Monckton began burning the Acadian villages to prevent the Acadians return, on November 15,1755, British officer John Thomas burned the village of Tentatmar, destroying in the process the church and ninety-seven other buildings. On August 15, under orders from Monckton, Captain Thomas Lewis, the British chose to destroy these villages first in the expulsion because they were the gateway Acadians used to provide cattle and produce to Louisbourg. Toward this end, Willard assembled the men of Tatamagouche in an Acadian home and he ensured that all the guns in the village were confiscated, and then notified the Acadian men that they were being taken prisoner. Willard immediately began to destroy the shipments of Acadian cattle and produce that were on vessels to be sent to Louisbourg, on August 16, Lewis burned twelve homes and the chapel. Willard continued to burn four houses and several barns in the morning of August 17. Captain Lewis went with 40 men to Remsheg where he captured three families and burned several buildings, Lewis returned to Fort Cumberland on August 26 with the Acadian male prisoners
28.
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
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The British government realized that with the Fortress of Louisbourg under French control, there was no way that the Royal Navy could sail up the St. Lawrence River for an attack on Quebec unmolested. Pitt assigned the duty of capturing the fortress to Major General Jeffrey Amherst, amhersts brigadiers were Charles Lawrence, James Wolfe and Edward Whitmore, and command of naval operations was assigned to Admiral Edward Boscawen. As they had in 1757, the French planned to defend Louisbourg by a large naval build-up, however, the French fleet sailing from Toulon was blockaded in Cartagena by a British force, and a relief force was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena. After this the French abandoned their attempt to reinforce Louisbourg from the Mediterranean, British forces assembled at Halifax, Nova Scotia where army and navy units spent most of May training together as the massive invasion fleet came together. After a large gathering at the Great Pontack, on 29 May the Royal Navy fleet departed from Halifax for Louisbourg, the fleet consisted of 150 transport ships and 40 men-of-war. Housed in these ships were almost 14,000 soldiers, almost all of whom were regulars, the force was divided into three divisions, Red, commanded by James Wolfe, Blue, commanded by Charles Lawrence and White commanded by Edward Whitmore. On 2 June the British force anchored in Gabarus Bay,3 miles from Louisbourg, however, unlike the previous year, the French navy was unable to assemble in significant numbers, leaving the French squadron at Louisbourg outnumbered five to one by the British fleet. Drucour ordered trenches to be prepared and manned by some 2,000 French troops, along with other defences, such as an artillery battery, at Kennington Cove. Weather conditions in the first week of June made any landing impossible, however, conditions improved, and at daybreak on 8 June Amherst launched his assault using a flotilla of large boats, organized in 7 divisions, each commanded by one of his brigadiers. French defenses were successful and after heavy losses, Wolfe ordered a retreat. However, at the last minute, a boatload of light infantry in Wolfes division found a rocky inlet protected from French fire, Wolfe redirected the rest of his division to follow. Outflanked, the French retreated rapidly back to their fortress, continuing heavy seas and the difficulty inherent to moving siege equipment over boggy terrain delayed the commencement of the formal siege. In the meantime, Wolfe was sent with 1,220 picked men around the harbour to seize Lighthouse Point, after eleven days, on 19 June, the British artillery batteries were in position and the orders were given to open fire on the French. The British battery consisted of seventy cannons and mortars of all sizes, within hours, the guns had destroyed walls and damaged several buildings. On 21 July a mortar round from a British gun on Lighthouse Point struck a 74 gun French ship of the line, LEntreprenant, a stiff breeze fanned the fire, and shortly after the LEntreprenant caught fire, two other French ships had caught fire. LEntreprenant exploded later in the day, depriving the French of the largest ship in the Louisbourg fleet, the next major blow to French morale came on the evening of 23 July, at 10,00. A British hot shot set the Kings Bastion on fire, the Kings Bastion was the fortress headquarters and the largest building in North America in 1758. Its destruction eroded confidence and reduced morale in the French troops, most historians regard the British actions of 25 July as the straw that broke the camels back
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Province House (Nova Scotia)
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The building is Canadas oldest house of government. Standing three storeys tall, the structure is considered one of the finest examples of Palladian architecture in North America, Province House was built on the same location as the previous Governors House, erected by Edward Cornwallis in 1749. Province House was opened for the first time on February 11,1819, one of the smallest functioning legislatures in North America, Province House originally housed the executive, legislative and judicial functions of the colony, all in one building. The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia held its sessions in Province House, most notably, Joseph Howe, a journalist and later Premier of Nova Scotia, was put on trial on a charge of criminal libel on March 2,1835 at Province House. On January 20,1842, English author Charles Dickens attended the opening of the Nova Scotia Legislature and he said that it was like looking at Westminster through the wrong end of a telescope. During 1848, Province House was the site for the first form of government in the British Empire outside the United Kingdom. The building is located in downtown Halifax on a block bordered by Hollis, Granville, George, led by the efforts of Joseph Howe, the Anti-Confederation Party won a resounding majority in the first election held after Nova Scotia joined the Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867. It is also a Provincially Registered Property under provincial heritage legislation, Province House is the home of the House of Assembly, Nova Scotias elected legislative assembly. The first event was marked by the creation of the Dingle Tower, the celebration was entitled Democracy 250. On October 2,1758, the Nova Scotia House of Assembly met for the first time in a modest wooden building at the corner of Argyle and it was an assembly of twenty-two men, who came together to deliberate as a parliament on questions affecting the colony. With voting limited to Protestant, free-land holding males, it was a modest beginning and it was the first elected assembly of its kind in what eventually became Canada. On 31 January 1837, Simon dEntremont and Frederick A. Robicheau became the first Acadians elected to the House of Assembly, almost forty-three years later, on 1 February 1961, Gladys Porter is the first woman elected to the Assembly. In 1993, Wayne Adams is elected the first Black member of the Assembly, the Nova Scotia legislature was the third in Canada to pass human rights legislation. The Legislative Library, located on the floor between the Red Chamber and Legislative Assembly, was originally the home of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia. The Supreme Court chamber was the site of Joseph Howes 1835 trial for seditious libel, on 2 March 1835, newspaper editor Joseph Howe defended himself at trail in the present-day library for seditious libel by civic politicians in Nova Scotia. Many scholars consider Howes success in case a landmark event in the evolution of press freedom in Canada. The Red Chamber was formerly the place of the Nova Scotia Council and later the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council was appointed by the governor and was abolished in 1928, now the room is used for receptions and other meetings
30.
Hector (ship)
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Hector was a ship famous for having been part of the first significant migration of Scottish settlers to Nova Scotia in 1773. The replica of the ship is located at the Hector Heritage Quay. In 1762 the earliest of the Fuadaich nan Gàidheal forced many Gaelic families off their ancestral lands, the first ship loaded with Hebridean colonists arrived on St. -Johns Island in 1770, with later ships following in 1772, and 1774. In 1773 a ship named The Hector landed in Pictou, Nova Scotia, with 189 settlers, in 1784 the last barrier to Scottish settlement – a law restricting land-ownership on Cape Breton Island – was repealed, and soon both PEI and Nova Scotia were predominantly Gaelic-speaking. It is estimated more than 50,000 Gaelic settlers immigrated to Nova Scotia and her famous voyage took place in 1773 with a departure date around the second week of July, carrying 189 Highlanders who were immigrating to Nova Scotia. The vessels owner, Mr. John Pagan, along with Dr. John Witherspoon, Pagan and Witherspoon hired John Ross as a recruiting agent for settlers willing to immigrate to Pictou with an offer of free passage,1 year of free provisions, and a farm. The settlers were recruited at Greenock and at Lochbroom with the majority being from Lochbroom, the settlers that boarded Hector were poor, obscure, illiterate crofters and artisans from Northern, who spoke Gaelic. The school teacher, William McKenzie was one of the few passengers on the Hector to speak both Gaelic and English, Hector was an old ship and in poor condition when she left Europe. The arduous voyage to Pictou took 11 weeks, with a gale off Newfoundland causing a 14-day delay, dysentery and smallpox claimed 18 lives amongst the passengers. The vessel arrived in Pictou Harbour on September 15, landing at Browns Point, the years free provisions never materialized for the passengers of Hector. They had to hurry to build shelter without those provisions before winter set in, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, heritage officials in Nova Scotia sought to commemorate the Hectors contribution to Nova Scotias Scottish history. The Hector Heritage Quay, along with the Ship Hector Company Store were opened on the Pictou waterfront in the ensuing years. The marine architect firm J. B. McGuire Marine Associates Ltd. was commissioned to research the particulars of the original Hector, after several years of construction, the replica Hector was launched with great fanfare and media coverage on September 17,2000. The date had been delayed due to weather on the 16th. The Quay, opened May to October, offers a three story interpretive centre, along with blacksmith, carpentry, and rigger shops. Year built, before 1750 Location, Netherlands Deck length overall,25.9 m Beam,6.7 m Gross tonnage,200 Number of masts,3 Owner, Mr. John Pagan, a merchant in Greenock, Scotland Boudreau, Michael. A Rare and Unusual Treat of Historical Significance, The 1923 Hector Celebration, journal of Canadian Studies 28, 28-48. Bumsted, J. M. Scottish Emigration to the Maritimes, 1770-1815, Scotland Farewell, The People of the Hector
31.
Battle of Fort Cumberland
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The Battle of Fort Cumberland was an attempt by a small number of militia commanded by Jonathan Eddy to bring the American Revolutionary War to Nova Scotia in late 1776. With minimal logistical support from Massachusetts and four to five hundred volunteer militia and Natives, Eddy attempted to besiege, in retaliation for the role of locals who supported the siege, numerous homes and farms were destroyed, and Patriot sympathizers were driven out of the area. The successful defense of Fort Cumberland preserved the integrity of the British Maritime possessions. Nova Scotia was generally poorly defended in the stages of the American Revolutionary War. Although some reinforcements had reached Halifax by early 1776, the frontiers of the province were only lightly defended, Fort Cumberland was located on the Isthmus of Chignecto, which connects modern mainland Nova Scotia with New Brunswick. The area was important in earlier conflicts between the French colony of Acadia and British-controlled Nova Scotia. Originally built by the French in 1750 as Fort Beauséjour, Fort Cumberland was in deplorable condition, won from the French in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour in 1755, the fortifications had been minimally garrisoned by the British after the Seven Years War and abandoned in 1768. Arriving at the fort in the summer of 1776, Colonel Goreham, but Goreham had not been adequately provisioned and his men lacked everything from victuals to uniforms. Furthermore, the locals were sympathetic to the Patriot cause. Jonathan Eddy was a Massachusetts-born resident of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia and he and John Allan, both of whom served in the provincial assembly, were the prime movers of Patriot activity in the area, which was one of several hotbeds of agitation in Nova Scotia. Patriots in these communities were in contact with other. Eddy believed that military assistance from the Thirteen Colonies, he might be able to bring down the strongly Loyalist administration of Nova Scotia. Early in 1776, Eddy went to Massachusetts in an attempt to interest political and military leaders there in supporting action in Nova Scotia, Eddy returned empty-handed to Nova Scotia in June 1776, only to learn that Goreham had put a price on his head. Eddy returned to Massachusetts in August and it also allowed Eddy to engage in recruiting in the District of Maine. Eddy left Boston in September and sailed to Machias, where he recruited about 20 men, on October 13, this party sailed from Machias for Passamaquoddy Bay. Coincidentally, John Allan, who was working on a plan for military action. The two parties met at sea, where Allan attempted to dissuade Eddy from his plan, informing him that the Mikmaq would not help him, Allan extracted a promise from Eddy to wait at Campobello while he went to Machias to meet with the council there. When the Machias council learned of how little native support there was, Eddy persisted, and left Campobello, having added nine Passamaquoddy recruits to his band
32.
Birchtown, Nova Scotia
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Birchtown is a community and National Historic Site in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located near Shelburne in the Municipal District of Shelburne County. Founded in 1783, it is famous as the largest settlement of Black Loyalists and it was the largest free settlement of ethnic Africans in North America in the eighteenth century. The community was named after British Brigadier General Samuel Birch, an official who assisted in the evacuation of Black Loyalists from New York, Birchtown was first settled by Stephen Blucke, who has been referred to as the true founder of the Afro-Nova Scotian community. Birchtown was the settlement area of the African Americans known as Black Loyalists who escaped to the British lines during the American War of Independence. These were Africans who escaped slavery and fought for the British during the war. The majority of Nova Scotian settlers who immigrated to the new colony of Sierra Leone in 1792 were such African Americans who had lived first in Birchtown. Most Birchtown blacks entered Nova Scotia through the town of Port Roseway. Many of these African-American settlers were recorded in the Book of Negroes and they were issued passports which established their freedom, these were signed by General Birch, and became known as General Birch Certificates. The core of the settlement were five companies of the Black Pioneers who were Black Americans who helped the British forces during the American War of Independence, more than two thirds of the Blacks who immigrated to Canada were from the American South. Birchtown was acknowledged as being the largest settlement of free African Americans in the world by newspapers in New York City, birchtowns population grew further in July 1784 when free Blacks who lived in Shelburne were attacked by whites in the Shelburne Riots. Many blacks, such as the clergyman David George, fled to Birchtown for safety, poor land, inadequate supplies, harsh climate, discrimination and broken promises of assistance led many Birchtown residents to petition the British Government for a remedy, led by Thomas Peters. As a result of grievances, many Birchtown residents chose to accept Britains offer. The majority of blacks who left for Sierra Leone were from Birchtown, of the blacks who left for Sierra Leone,600 were from the Birchtown and Digby areas,220 were from Preston,200 were from New Brunswick, and 180 were from the Annapolis-Digby area. Fifty-five had been born into slavery in Virginia, although the population of Birchtown was greatly reduced by the migration to Sierra Leone, many settlers remained. They formed the basis of the Black Nova Scotian population of Shelburne County today. Employment opportunities in the town of Shelburne attracted many families to move to Shelburne in later years. Birchtown stayed as a rural community of a few hundred based on farming, fishing. A two-room schoolhouse was built in 1829, a new eight-room school was built in 1959
33.
Capture of USS Chesapeake
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The Chesapeake was captured in a brief but intense action in which over 80 men were killed. This was the only action of the war in which there was no preponderance of force on either side. Chesapeake suffered early in the exchange of gunfire, having her wheel and fore topsail halyard shot away, Lawrence himself was mortally wounded and was carried below. The American crew struggled to carry out their captains last order, but the British boarding party overwhelmed them. The battle was intense but of short duration, lasting ten to fifteen minutes. Shannons Captain Philip Broke was severely injured in fighting on the forecastle, Chesapeake and her crew were taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the sailors were imprisoned, the ship was repaired and taken into service by the Royal Navy. She was sold at Portsmouth, England in 1819 and broken up, surviving timbers were used to build the nearby Chesapeake Mill in Wickham and can be seen and visited to this day. Shannon survived longer, being broken up in 1859 and he had dispart sights fitted to his 18-pounder long guns, which improved aiming as they compensated for the narrowing of the barrels from the breech to the muzzle. The carronades were similarly treated, but the screws on these cannon were marked in paint. As the decks of contemporary ships curved upwards towards the stern and bows, fire from the whole battery could also be focused on any part of an enemy ship. Broke drilled his crew to a high standard of naval gunnery, he regularly had them fire at targets. Often these drills would be made into competitions to see which gun crew could hit the target and how fast they could do so. He even had his gun fire at targets blindfold to good effect. This constituted an early example of director firing. In addition to these gunnery drills, Broke was fond of preparing hypothetical scenarios to test his crew, for example, after all hands had been drummed to quarters, he would inform them of a theoretical attack and see how they would act to defend the ship. Though the use of cutlasses in training was avoided a method of training called singlestick was regularly practised. It soon developed quickness of eye and wrist, many of the crew became very expert. Commander Lawrence of the United States Navy returned from a successful war cruise having defeated the sloop HMS Peacock and he was promoted to captain for his victory, and received orders to take command of USS Chesapeake
34.
Libel trial of Joseph Howe
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The Libel trial of Joseph Howe was a court case heard 2 March 1835 in which newspaper editor Joseph Howe was charged with seditious libel by civic politicians in Nova Scotia. Howes victory in court was considered monumental at the time, in the first issue of the Novascotian following the acquittal, Howe claimed that the press of Nova-Scotia is Free. Scholars, such as John Ralston Saul, have argued that Howes libel victory established the basis for the freedom of the press in Canada. Historian Barry Cahill writes that the trial was significant in colonal legal history because it was a long delayed replay of the Zenger case. During the year 1834, Howe was starting to attract attention to due to his strong independent viewpoints in his editorials in the Novascotian. Howe had eventually reached his point and in late 1834 wrote in the Novascotian that he was going to start a campaign in the interest of bringing to light the wrongful actions of government. On January 1,1835, the piece of this campaign was published in the Novascotian. This letter accused the magistrates of, reprehensible irresponsibility, incompetence, specifically, in the letter Joseph Howe accused Halifax politicians and police of pocketing £30,000 over a thirty-year period. The crime of seditious libel had only been defined 200 years prior to the time of Howes trial and was seen by many as a crime as it could be as broad or as specific as the court chose. The trial took place in the present day library of Province House, Howe represented himself in the trial as no lawyer would defend him. Howe used as the basis of his argument the Libel Act 1792 and he presented for six and a quarter hours addressing the jury, citing case after case of civic corruption. He spoke eloquently about the importance of freedom, urging jurors to leave an unshackled press as a legacy to your children. Even though the judge instructed the jury to find Howe guilty, the victory of Howe in the court was considered monumental at the time. In the first issue of the Novascotian following the acquittal, Howe claimed that the press of Nova-Scotia is Free, beck asserts that the idea that Howes trial contributed to the freedom of the press in Canada is a, myth that has little basis in fact. In fact, eight years after the trial, Howes successor at the Novascotian Richard Nugent was charged, Nugent was imprisoned due to his inability to pay damages. Lyndsay M. Campbell argues that the trial did eventually change the law, Howe was the first in Nova Scotia to argue intent before a jury. Campbell also notes that while Howes defence did not persuade the presiding judge, Howe changed how the law was perceived by both the legal profession and by the general public. The timing of the trial was crucial to the effect it had on Canada
35.
Chesapeake Affair
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The Chesapeake–Leopard Affair was a naval engagement that occurred off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia, on 22 June 1807, between the British warship HMS Leopard and the American frigate USS Chesapeake. The crew of Leopard pursued, attacked, and boarded the American frigate, Chesapeake was caught unprepared and after a short battle involving broadsides received from Leopard, the commander of Chesapeake, James Barron, surrendered his vessel to the British. The Chesapeake had fired one shot. Four crew members were removed from the American vessel and were tried for desertion, Chesapeake was allowed to return home, where James Barron was court martialed and suspended from command. The Chesapeake–Leopard Affair created an uproar among Americans, there were strident calls for war with Great Britain, but these quickly subsided. President Thomas Jefferson initially attempted to use this widespread bellicosity to diplomatically threaten the British government into settling the matter, the United States Congress backed away from armed conflict when British envoys showed no contrition for the Chesapeake affair, delivering proclamations reaffirming impressment. Jeffersons political failure to coerce Great Britain led him toward economic warfare, in the spring of 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars, several British naval vessels were on duty on the North American Station, blockading two French third-rate warships in Chesapeake Bay. A number of Royal Navy seamen had deserted from their ships, one of the deserters, a Londoner named Jenkin Ratford, joined the crew of USS Chesapeake. Ratford had made himself conspicuous to British officers by shouting at them on the streets of Norfolk, Other deserters were reported to be at the Gosport Navy Yard, then commanded by Stephen Decatur. Decatur received a letter from the British consul ordering him to turn over three men alleged to have deserted from HMS Melampus. The consul claimed the men had enlisted in the U. S. Navy, berkeley ordered Leopards captain to search for deserters from HMS Belleisle, HMS Bellona, HMS Triumph, HMS Chichester, HMS Halifax, and the cutter HMS Zenobia. Chesapeake was off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia, commanded by Commodore James Barron, Barron was not alarmed, and received Lieutenant John Meade on board, who presented Barron with the search warrant. After an inconclusive discussion, Meade returned to Leopard, Captain Humphreys, using a hailing trumpet, ordered the American ship to submit. When Chesapeake did not, Humphreys fired a round across her bow and this was followed immediately by Leopard firing broadsides into the American ship. Her guns unloaded and her decks cluttered with stores in preparation for a long cruise, the humiliated Barron struck his colors and surrendered. Three of Chesapeakes crew had killed and 18 wounded, including Barron. However, Humphreys refused the surrender and sent a party to Chesapeake to search for deserters. The others were American citizens — two of them demonstrably non-British because they were African-Americans, but they had been serving on British warships, the brig Columbine brought the first dispatches to Halifax in early July
36.
Antigonish Movement
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A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father Moses Coady, Rev. Hugh MacPherson and A. B. MacDonald led this movement from a base at the Extension Department at St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. The credit union systems of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and PEI owe their origins to the Antigonish Movement, the Coady International Institute at St. F. X. has been instrumental in developing credit unions and in asset-based community development initiatives in developing countries ever since. As educators and priests, the leaders of the Antigonish Movement were primarily concerned with human, the title of Moses Coady’s only book – Masters of Their Own Destiny – encapsulates this desire to see ordinary Nova Scotians achieve economic and social freedom. However Coady argued that for reasons we consider it good pedagogy. That we may more readily attain the spiritual and cultural towards which all our efforts are directed, ordinary Nova Scotians he argued, had only themselves to blame for their poverty and vulnerability. They had permitted money and business to become mysterious forces outside of their control, fishers and farmers for example, were exploited by marketing middlemen. If they took the time to understand their circumstances and took the risks of co-operative action, they could achieve security and on that foundation greater freedom. The origins of co-operatives in Nova Scotia go back to a store in Stellarton. Co-operative creameries and fruit-growers co-ops were established by farmers to free them from exploitative middleman in the 1890s, many early co-ops failed due to poor management, domination by a few individuals and a lack of ongoing education. However, the British Canadian Co-operative Society, a store in Sydney Mines, Nova Scotia. By 1917 it has 1,220 members and over $500,000 in sales and that year, it organized a conference on co-ops. The conference, which featured Ontario co-operative pioneer George Keen as keynote speaker, renewed local energy, Father Jimmy Tompkins played a key role in concocting the intellectual dynamite that was later set off in almost every village in the Maritimes. Tompkins began teaching at St. F. X. in 1902, British Workers Educational Associations, the Danish Folk High Schools, and Swedish Discussion Circles particularly interested him. And in Canada, the University of Saskatchewans agricultural program, and Quebecs agricultural colleges and credit unions, caught his attention. Tompkins had trouble making his case with the administration, and in 1922, St. F. X. sent Tompkins into exile as village priest in Canso. This did not slow the determined priest down, however, beginning in 1924 Tompkins organized the first of a series of annual conferences bringing together farmers, educators, students, priests and rural development experts. In 1928, seeking a permanent organization, some of the leaders in this group launched a campaign that raised $100,000
37.
Anti-Confederation Party
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Anti-Confederation was the name used in what is now Atlantic Canada by several parties opposed to Canadian Confederation. The Anti-Confederation parties were opposed by the Confederation Party. In 1867 in Nova Scotia, Anti-Confederates won 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature, the Anti-Confederation Party was opposed by the Confederation Party of Charles Tupper. Prominent Anti-confederates included the noted shipbuilder William D. Lawrence, Alfred William Savary, federally, in the 1867 federal election, the Anti-Confederate party won 18 of Nova Scotias 19 seats in the Canadian House of Commons. Howe won the seat in Hants County, Nova Scotia. Britain, however, refused to allow Nova Scotia to secede, while many anti-confederationists threatened to secede and join the United States, Howe was a pragmatist and ultimately accepted Confederation as a fact. He was soon persuaded to join the Cabinet of Sir John A. Macdonald, there was also an Anti-Confederation Party in New Brunswick led by Albert J. Smith, whose coalition of Conservatives and Reformers won the 1865 election. It was, however, soundly defeated in the 1866 election by the Confederation Party led by Peter Mitchell, the legislature that resulted from that election approved Confederation by a margin of 38 to 1. In the 1867 federal election the Anti-Confederates won five of New Brunswicks fifteen seats in the Canadian House of Commons, while in Nova Scotia and elsewhere, opponents of confederation were predominantly Liberals and supporters were predominantly Tories, in New Brunswick the debate blurred party lines. Tilley later joined the government of Sir John A. Macdonald, both Anti-Confederate and Confederate forces were mixtures of Tories and Reformers. By 1870, the Confederate and Anti-Confederate parties had dissolved and were replaced by the old Liberal, joseph Howe, The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873. Kingston & Montreal, McGill-Queens University Press
38.
1869 Saxby Gale
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The Saxby Gale was the name given to a tropical cyclone which struck eastern Canadas Bay of Fundy region on the night of October 4–5,1869. Much of the devastation was attributed to a 2-metre storm surge created by the storm coincided with a perigean spring tide. The Saxby Gale storm surge produced a level which gave Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia. It is also thought to have formed the long beach that connects Partridge Island, Nova Scotia. Sailing ships in various harbors were tossed about and/or broken up against wharves, farmers trying to rescue livestock from fields along shorelines drowned after dykes were breached, over 100 people were killed in the Maritimes alone. The gale destroyed miles of the newly completed Windsor and Annapolis Railway along the Minas Basin near Horton and Wolfville, the storm was given the name Saxby in honor of Lieutenant Stephen Martin Saxby, Royal Navy, who was a naval instructor and amateur astronomer. Many newspapers took up Saxbys warning in the coming days, in a monthly weather column published October 5,1869, in Halifaxs The Evening Express, amateur meteorologist Frederick Allison relayed Lt. Saxbys warning for a devastating storm the following week. Despite the warning, many throughout the United Kingdom, Canada, Newfoundland. Lt. Saxbys predictions were considered quite lunatic at the time, some believed that his predictions were founded upon astrology, which was not the case
39.
William D. Lawrence (ship)
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William D. Lawrence was a full-rigged sailing ship built in Maitland, Nova Scotia, along the Minas Basin and named after her builder, the merchant and politician William Dawson Lawrence. William Lawrence was an opponent of Canadian Confederation which he predicted would bring ruin to Nova Scotias flourishing shipbuilding industry. Initially planning to build a vessel, he deliberately increased the size of William D. Lawrence to create a landmark vessel for the provinces shipping industry before it declined. The vessel defied critics who claimed that a vessel of its size would be unmanageable. After several profitable years, the ship was sold to Norwegian owners in 1883 and she was stranded in the English Channel in 1891 and converted to a barge, later sinking in Dakar, Africa. The ship has also commemorated by the Canada Post with a postage stamp. The vessels achievement is commemorated in Maitland by a National Historic Site monument at the home of her builder, Lawrence House. Maitland celebrates the launch of William D. Lawrence every September at a festival called Launch Days
40.
Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia
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Beinn Bhreagh is the name of the former estate of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, in Victoria County, Nova Scotia, Canada. It refers to a peninsula jutting into Cape Breton Islands scenic Bras dOr Lake approximately 3 km southeast of the village of Baddeck, the peninsula was known to the Mikmaq as Megwatpatek, roughly translated to Red Head due to the reddish sandstone rocks at the tip of the peninsula. In July 2005, the Nova Scotia Civic Address Project review changed the status of Beinn Bhreagh from a locality to a community. Along the way, due to the grounding of their passenger boat. Its landscape, climate, and Scottish traditions and culture were reminiscent of his birthplace in Edinburgh, the Bells lived increasingly on Beinn Bhreagh from about 1888 until Dr. Bells death in 1922, initially only in the summer and then later often year-round. Bell constructed a laboratory and boatyard on this property, conducting experiments in powered flight and hydrofoil technology, Bell, and built at Beinn Bhreagh. Designed as a chaser and powered by aircraft engines, their vessel set a world watercraft speed record of 71 miles per hour in 1919. Dr. Bell and his wife Mabel were both buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on the estate, overlooking Bras dOr Lake, the 242. 8-hectare estate owned by the Bells is on the peninsula at the end of Beinn Bhreagh Road. It is now owned by their descendants and not open to the public. Dr. and Mrs. Bells first residence on Beinn Bhreagh, the second and larger home, Beinn Bhreagh Hall was built in 1893. Both are visible from Baddeck, across Baddeck Bay, the Museum was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1952. Alexander Graham Bells father-in-law, Gardiner Greene Hubbard was the first president of the National Geographic Society, perhaps as a result, both Beinn Bhreagh or Baddeck, the nearest town, are prominently displayed in National Geographic maps of the area, despite their relatively small size
41.
Halifax Explosion
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The Halifax Explosion was a maritime disaster in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the morning of 6 December 1917. SS Mont-Blanc, a French cargo ship laden with explosives, collided with the Norwegian vessel SS Imo in the Narrows. A fire on board the French ship ignited her cargo, causing an explosion that devastated the Richmond district of Halifax. Approximately 2,000 people were killed by blast, debris, fires and collapsed buildings, the blast was the largest man-made explosion prior to the development of nuclear weapons, releasing the equivalent energy of roughly 2.9 kilotons of TNT. Mont-Blanc was under orders from the French government to carry her cargo of explosives from New York via Halifax to Bordeaux. At roughly 8,45 am, she collided at low speed – approximately one knot – with the unladen Imo, the resulting fire aboard the French ship quickly grew out of control. Approximately 20 minutes later at 9,04,35 am, nearly all structures within an 800-metre radius, including the entire community of Richmond, were obliterated. A pressure wave snapped trees, bent iron rails, demolished buildings, grounded vessels, hardly a window in the city proper survived the blast. Across the harbour, in Dartmouth, there was widespread damage. A tsunami created by the blast wiped out the community of Mikmaq First Nations people who had lived in the Tufts Cove area for generations, Relief efforts began almost immediately, and hospitals quickly became full. Rescue trains began arriving from across eastern Canada and the north-eastern United States, construction of temporary shelters to house the many people left homeless began soon after the disaster. The initial judicial inquiry found Mont-Blanc to have responsible for the disaster. There are several memorials to the victims of the explosion in the North End, the community of Dartmouth lies on the east shore of Halifax Harbour, while Halifax is on the west shore. After 1906, the Canadian Government took over the Halifax Dockyard from the Royal Navy and this dockyard later became the command centre of the Royal Canadian Navy upon its founding in 1910. Just before the First World War, the Canadian government began to make a determined, costly effort to develop the harbour, the outbreak of the war brought Halifax back to prominence. The population of Halifax/Dartmouth had increased to between 60,000 and 65,000 people by 1917, convoys carried soldiers, men, animals and supplies to the European theatre of war. The two main points of departure were in Nova Scotia at Sydney in Cape Breton and Halifax, Hospital ships brought the wounded to the city, and a new military hospital was constructed in the city. The success of German U-boat attacks on crossing the Atlantic Ocean led the Allies to institute a convoy system to reduce losses while transporting goods
42.
Local Council of Women of Halifax
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The Local Council of Women of Halifax is an organization in Halifax, Nova Scotia devoted to improving the lives of women and children. One of the most significant achievements of the LCWH was its 24-year struggle for right to vote. The core of the trained and progressive leadership was five women, Anna Leonowens, Edith Archibald, Eliza Ritchie, Agnes Dennis. Halifax business man George Henry Wright left his home in his will to the LCWH, educator Alexander McKay also was a significant supporter of the Council. In 1851 women were excluded from the vote in Nova Scotia, in 1870, Hannah Norris began to mobilize women into the public sphere through establishing the Woman’s Baptist Missionary Aid Society across the Maritimes. Following Frances Willards visit to Halifax in 1878, Nova Scotia women organized local unions, in 1884, the WCTU successfully lobbied for married women’s property legislation. In 1891 the WCTU officially endorsed the suffrage cause, the first major organization to support womens suffrage. Edith Archibald became the leader of the Maritime chapter of the WCTU the following year, two years later, in 1893, Edith Archibald and others made the first official attempt to have a suffrage bill for women property holders passed in Nova Scotia. The bill was passed by the legislature but quashed by Attorney General James Wilberforce Longley, the year following the defeat of the first suffrage bill, the Local Council was established in 1894 as the local chapter of the National Council of Women of Canada. On August 30,1894, the committee met for the first time at Government House. Emma MacIntosh serving as the first president, between 1892 and 1895, thirty-four suffrage petitions were presented to the Nova Scotia legislature, and six suffrage bills were introduced, the final one in 1897. On 22 February 1917 the LCWH presented a petition endorsed by forty-one womens organizations. When the Liberal Premier ignored the issue, irate members introduced a private member bill and its defeat marked the birth of the Nova Scotia Equal Franchise League in the spring of 1917. Veer, “Feminist Forebears, The Womans Christian Temperance Union in Canadas Maritime Provinces, prohibition and the Social Gospel in Nova Scotia. Mothers of the Municipality, Women, Work and Social Policy in Post-1945 Halifax edited by Judith Fingard, the Ritchie Sisters and Social Improvement in Early 20th Century Halifax. Journalof the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol.13,2010
43.
William Davis Miners' Memorial Day
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Davis Day originated in memory of William Davis, a coal miner who was killed during a mining strike near the town of New Waterford. In commemoration of Davis sacrifice, the United Mine Workers of America designated the day in his honour, Davis Day was renamed District Memorial Day in 1938 and in 1970, the date was changed to the second Monday in June. In 1974 this was reverted, with the name and the date being restored. For the remainder of the 20th century, the pledge of never working on June 11 was maintained and they did not proceed past first reading. In 2008 a private bill to officially designate June 11 as William Davis Miners Memorial Day was introduced and passed
44.
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
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It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference won jointly the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament, International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eatons death in 1979. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9,1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction. Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash and this was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed, aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but this was rejected. Eatons former invitation was taken up, the first conference was held at what became known as Thinkers Lodge in July 1957 in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. Cyrus Eaton, Eric Burhop, Ruth Adams, Anne Kinder Jones, many others were unable to attend, including co-founder Bertrand Russell, for health reasons. Pugwashs main objective is the elimination of all weapons of mass destruction and this is the main modus operandi of Pugwash. Officers include the president and secretary-general, formal governance is provided by the Pugwash Council, which serves for five years. There is also a committee that assists the secretary-general. Jayantha Dhanapala is the current president, Paolo Cotta-Ramusino is the current Secretary General. The four Pugwash offices, in Rome, London, Geneva, there are approximately fifty national Pugwash groups, organized as independent entities and often supported or administered by national academies of science. The International Student/Young Pugwash groups works with, but are independent from, pugwashs first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty, the Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union, in addition, Pugwash has been credited with being a groundbreaking and innovative transnational organization and a leading example of the effectiveness of Track II diplomacy. In 1980, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence received a report that the Pugwash Conference was used by Soviet delegates to promote Soviet propaganda, traditional Nuclear Disarmament, US-Russia nuclear disarmament, nuclear weapons in Europe,2. India and Pakistan nuclear relations, the effects of US India nuclear deal,4, regional security in regions where nuclear weapons exist or risks of nuclear proliferation are significant,1
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Springhill mining disaster
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These entities merged in 1884 to form the Cumberland Railway & Coal Company Ltd. which its investors sold in 1910 to the industrial conglomerate Dominion Coal Company Ltd. Following the third disaster in 1958, the operator Dominion Steel & Coal Corporation Ltd. then a subsidiary of the A. V, roe Canada Company Ltd. shut its mining operations in Springhill, and they were never reopened. Some of the victims were 10 to 13 years old, rescue efforts throughout that afternoon and evening were made easier by the lack of fire in No.1 and No. The song La Mine by the French Canadian folk group Le Vent du Nord on their 2009 album La part du feu relates to the 1891 explosion. The flow of air disturbed the dust on the train cars. Before the train reached the surface, several cars broke loose,4, derailing along the way and hitting a power line, causing it to arc and ignite the coal dust at the 5, 500-foot level. Heroically, Drägermen and barefaced miners entered the 6, 100-foot-deep No.4 to aid their colleagues,39 miners died, and 88 were rescued. Media coverage of the 1956 explosion was largely overshadowed by the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Suez Crisis, nevertheless, Canadian and local media gave extensive coverage to the 1956 disaster. After the rescue effort, the connected No.4 and No.2 collieries were sealed for several months to deprive the fires of oxygen, in January 1957, the bodies of the remaining casualties were recovered from the pit, and No.4 colliery closed forever. The 1958 bump, which occurred on October 23,1958, was the most severe bump in North American mining history. The 1958 bump devastated the people of Springhill for the casualties suffered, it also devastated the town. It is not exactly known what causes a bump and it could be the result of coal being totally removed from a bedrock unit or stratum. The resulting geological stresses upon overlying strata may cause the pillars to suddenly and catastrophically disintegrate, No.2 colliery was one of the deepest coal mines in the world. Sloping shafts 14,200 feet in length led to a vast labyrinth of galleries more than 4,000 feet below the surface. On October 23 a small bump occurred at 7,00 pm during the shift, it was ignored. However, just over an hour later, at 8,06 pm, the bump spread as three distinct shock waves, resembling a small earthquake throughout the region, alerting residents on the surface over a wide area to the disaster. Dräger teams and teams of barefaced miners entered No.2 colliery to begin the rescue effort and they encountered survivors at the 13, 400-foot level walking or limping toward the surface. Miners not saved by being either in side galleries or some other shelter were immediately crushed during the bump,75 survivors were on the surface by 4,00 am on October 24,1958
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