1.
Bodleian Libraries
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Together, the libraries hold 11 million printed items, as well as numerous other objects and artefacts. Its busiest library is the Social Sciences Library, which, at its peak, founded in February 2000 as Oxford University Library Services, the organisation was renamed on 2 March 2010. The group now cares for some 11 million items on 117 miles of shelving and it is the second largest library in the UK. The continued growth of the library has resulted in a shortage of storage space. Over 1.5 million items are stored in locations outside Oxford. However, this application was unsuccessful and the new Book Storage Facility was instead constructed at a site on the outskirts of Swindon, Bodleian Library Book storage New Bodleian Library University of Oxford Weston Library
2.
Academic library
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It is unknown how many academic libraries there are internationally. An academic and research portal maintained by UNESCO links to 3,785 libraries, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, there are an estimated 3,700 academic libraries in the United States. The support of teaching and learning material for class readings. In the past, the material for class readings, intended to supplement lectures as prescribed by the instructor, has been called reserves, in the period before electronic resources became available, the reserves were supplied as actual books or as photocopies of appropriate journal articles. Academic libraries must determine a focus for development since comprehensive collections are not feasible. Librarians do this by identifying the needs of the faculty and student body, as well as the mission, when there are particular areas of specialization in academic libraries, these are often referred to as niche collections. These collections are often the basis of a special department and may include original papers, artwork. There is a deal of variation among academic libraries based on their size, resources, collections. The Harvard University Library is considered to be the largest academic library in the world and has the third largest collection in the United States, another notable example is the University of the South Pacific which has academic libraries distributed throughout its twelve member countries. The first colleges in the United States were intended to train members of the clergy, the libraries associated with these institutions largely consisted of donated books on the subjects of theology and the classics. In 1766, Yale had approximately 4,000 volumes, second only to Harvard, access to these libraries was restricted to faculty members and a few students, the only staff was a part-time faculty member or the president of the college. The priority of the library was to protect the books, not to allow patrons to use them, in 1849, Yale was open 30 hours a week, the University of Virginia was open nine hours a week, Columbia University four, and Bowdoin College only three. Students instead created literary societies and assessed entrance fees in order to build a collection of usable volumes often in excess of what the university library held. Around the turn of the century, this began to change. The American Library Association was formed in 1876, with members including Melvil Dewey, Libraries re-prioritized in favor of improving access to materials, and found funding increasing as a result of increased demand for said materials. Academic libraries today vary in regard to the extent to which they accommodate those who are not affiliated with their parent universities, some offer reading and borrowing privileges to members of the public on payment of an annual fee, such fees can vary greatly. The privileges so obtained usually do not extend to such services as computer usage, other than to search the catalog, alumni and students of cooperating local universities may be given discounts or other consideration when arranging for borrowing privileges. On the other hand, access to the libraries of universities is absolutely restricted to students, faculty
3.
Broad Street, Oxford
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Broad Street is a wide street in central Oxford, England, located just north of the old city wall. The street is known for its bookshops, including the original Blackwells bookshop at number 50, locally, the street is traditionally known as The Broad. Located in Broad Street are Balliol College, Trinity College, Exeter College, the question is often asked Where is the University. These buildings form the nearest equivalent to the centre of the University, to the west, the street continues as George Street, with Magdalen Street to the north and Cornmarket Street to the south. To the east, the street continues as Holywell Street, with Parks Road to the north, the first city wall was built south of the street in 911. The street was the site where the Protestant Oxford Martyrs, Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, a cobbled cross in the road opposite Balliol College marks the location. Not far away in St Giles, the events are commemorated with a Victorian stone monument, the Old Ashmolean Building was built in 1683 to house Elias Ashmoles collection. It was the worlds first museum to open to the public, the Clarendon Building was built 1711–1715 to house the Oxford University Presss printing operations. It was designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor, considered Christopher Wrens best pupil, the academic and physician Henry Acland lived in the street at number 40 on the site of the new Weston Library, part of Oxford Universitys Bodleian Library. His daughter, Sarah Angelina Acland, the photography pioneer, was born here. Boswells, now the largest independent department store in Oxford, was established in 1738, thorntons Bookshop, also on the south side of the street at No. 11, was founded by Joseph Thornton in 1835, but closed its shop at the end of 2002, the Victorian photographer Henry Taunt had a shop and studio at 9–10 Broad Street, moving here from Cornmarket Street in 1874. He also established a business in Boxalls Yard, behind the premises. The lease expired in 1894 and he was forced to file for bankruptcy, Blackwells bookshop, on the north side of the street, was founded by Benjamin Henry Blackwell, the son of the first city librarian, in 1879. The shop was only twelve feet square, but quickly grew to include space upstairs, in the cellar. It is now Oxfords most famous and leading bookshop, with other specialist branches elsewhere in Broad Street, the first Oxfam charity shop together with its office were established by Cecil Jackson-Cole at 17 Broad Street in 1947. There is still an Oxfam shop here and a plaque has been placed on the outside wall of the building. Media related to Broad Street, Oxford at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Book
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A book is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other materials, fastened together to hinge at one side, with text and/or images printed in ink. A single sheet within a book is a leaf, and each side of a leaf is a page, a set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format for reading on a computer screen, smartphone or e-reader device is known as an electronic book, or e-book. The term books may refer the body of works of literature. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals, in novels and sometimes other types of books, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books. An avid reader or collector of books or a lover is a bibliophile or colloquially. A shop where books are bought and sold is a bookshop or bookstore, Books are also sold in some department stores, drugstores and newspaper vendors. Books can also be borrowed from libraries, google has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 distinct titles had been published. In some wealthier nations, printed books are giving way to the usage of electronic or e-books, the word book comes from Old English bōc, which in turn comes from the Germanic root *bōk-, cognate to beech. Similarly, in Slavic languages буква is cognate with beech, in Russian and in Serbian and Macedonian, the word букварь or буквар refers specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood, similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense, originally meant block of wood. When writing systems were created in ancient civilizations, a variety of objects, such as stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets, the study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy, the Ancient Egyptians would often write on papyrus, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from other and there was no punctuation. Texts were written right to left, left to right. The technical term for that last type of writing is boustrophedon, a tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also stylus, the instrument used to write on a tablet, clay tablets were flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a stylus. They were used as a medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age. Tablets were used by traders to record sales of such as bushels of grain
7.
Academic journal
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An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and they are usually peer-reviewed or refereed. Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, the term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields, this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals. Upon receipt of an article, editors at the journal determine whether to reject the submission outright or begin the process of peer review. In the latter case, the submission becomes subject to review by scholars of the editors choosing who typically remain anonymous. Though these reports are confidential, some journals and publishers also practice public peer review. The editors either choose to reject the article, ask for a revision and resubmission, even accepted articles are often subjected to further editing by journal editorial staff before they appear in print. The peer review can take several weeks to several months. Review articles, also called reviews of progress, are checks on the published in journals. Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles, some contain a few in each issue, such reviews often cover the research from the preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms, some are devoted to specific topics, some to general surveys. Some journals are enumerative, listing all significant articles in a subject, others are selective. Yet others are evaluative, judging the state of progress in the subject field, some journals are published in series, each covering a complete subject field year, or covering specific fields through several years. Unlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions and they are typically relied upon by students beginning a study in a given field, or for current awareness of those already in the field. Reviews of scholarly books are checks upon the books published by scholars, unlike articles. Journals typically have a book review editor determining which new books to review. If an outside scholar accepts the book review editors request for a book review, publishers send books to book review editors in the hope that their books will be reviewed. The length and depth of research book reviews varies much from journal to journal, as does the extent of textbook, an academic journals prestige is established over time, and can reflect many factors, some but not all of which are expressible quantitatively. In each academic discipline there are dominant journals that receive the largest number of submissions, yet, not only the largest journals are of excellent quality
8.
Newspaper
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A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
9.
Magazine
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A magazine is a publication, usually a periodical publication, which is printed or electronically published. Magazines are generally published on a schedule and contain a variety of content. They are generally financed by advertising, by a price, by prepaid subscriptions. At its root, the magazine refers to a collection or storage location. In the case of written publication, it is a collection of written articles and this explains why magazine publications share the word root with gunpowder magazines, artillery magazines, firearms magazines, and, in French, retail stores such as department stores. By definition, a magazine paginates with each issue starting at three, with the standard sizing being 8 3/8 ×10 7/8 inches. However, in the sense a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, an example being the Journal of Accountancy, academic or professional publications that are not peer-reviewed are generally professional magazines. That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense, magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. The subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories. In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a basis or by subscription. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics and this means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed and this is the model used by many trade magazines distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. This allows a level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertisers target audience. This latter model was used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, for the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International. The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, the Gentlemans Magazine, first published in 1731, in London was the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The Gentlemans Magazine under the pen name Sylvanus Urban, was the first to use the term magazine, founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated magazine
10.
Sound recording and reproduction
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Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording, prior to the development of analog recording, there were mechanical systems for reproducing instrumental music, such as wind-up music boxes and later, in the late 19th century, player pianos. Analog sound reproduction is the process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitization. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a variety of media. Whereas successive copies of an analog recording tend to degrade in quality, as noise is added. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound, long before sound was first recorded on cylinders or records, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices. Fowler, this. cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. The Banu Musa brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine, according to Fowler, the automata were a robot band that performed. more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection. In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder, similar designs appeared in barrel organs, musical clocks, barrel pianos, and musical boxes. A music box is a musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books, the player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the rolls were hand-played, meaning that the roll represented the actual performance of an individual. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904, piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A1908 U. S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, the use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air was the phonautograph, the earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it
11.
Map
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A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes. Many maps are static, fixed to paper or some other durable medium, although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word map comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth, thus, map became the shortened term referring to a two-dimensional representation of the surface of the world. Cartography or map-making is the study and practice of crafting representations of the Earth upon a flat surface, in addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc. The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the compass directions in reality. The word orient is derived from Latin oriens, meaning East, in the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with East at the top. Today, the most common – but far from universal – cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map, several kinds of maps are often traditionally not oriented with North at the top, Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the top, labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head. Medieval European T and O maps such as the Hereford Mappa Mundi were centred on Jerusalem with East at the top, indeed, prior to the reintroduction of Ptolemys Geography to Europe around 1400, there was no single convention in the West. Portolan charts, for example, are oriented to the shores they describe, Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top. Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe, polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole, the direction North would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively. Typical maps of the Arctic have 0° meridian towards the bottom of the page, reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the North is up convention and have south at the top. Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion maps are based on a projection of the Earths sphere onto an icosahedron, the resulting triangular pieces may be arranged in any order or orientation. Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, compass decimal degrees can be converted to math degrees by subtracting them from 450, if the answer is greater than 360, subtract 360. The scale statement may be taken as exact when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, over larger regions where the curvature cannot be ignored we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth to the plane. Thus for map projections we must introduce the concept of point scale, which is a function of position, although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for all but the most precise of measurements. Large scale maps, say 1,10,000, cover relatively small regions in detail and small scale maps, say 1,10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions, there is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100,000 might well be considered as a medium scale
12.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
13.
Drawing
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Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, the most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything, the medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas, the wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks, dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a medium, applied with brushes or pens. Drawing is often exploratory, with emphasis on observation, problem-solving. Drawing is also used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies, there are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania. A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch, in fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called drawings even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression and these drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express ones creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise, initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings
14.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
15.
Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003
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The Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which regulates the legal deposit of publications in the United Kingdom. The bill for this Act was a members bill. This Act was passed to update the legislation on legal deposit to reflect the digital age, the previous provisions covering legal deposit in the United Kingdom were under the Copyright Act 1911. They covered published paper products of almost all types, excluding only ephemera such as diaries, by the beginning of the 21st century many publications appeared in electronic form, either exclusively or in addition to their print form. As under the legislation there are six libraries entitled to printed works. The British Library is entitled to a copy of printed work published in the United Kingdom. A publisher must send a copy to the British Library within a month of the work being published, the copy sent to the British Library must be of the same quality as the best copies published in the UK at the time. However, the five libraries have the right to send a publisher a request for a work within twelve months of the publication of the work. The publisher must deliver a copy within a month of receipt of the request, the quality of works sent to any of the five libraries must be of the same quality as the largest number of copies of the work published in the UK at the time of the request. Each of these five libraries sends requests via the Agency for the Legal Deposit Libraries, publishers may also send copies to the Agency in advance of a request being submitted to them. The 2003 Act includes provisions for the deposit of non-print publications such as CD-ROMs, the Secretary of State is given powers to make regulations governing the deposit of non-print publications. Those restrictions include copying the material, adapting a computer program or database, lending the material, even the using of the material is prohibited subject to regulations stating otherwise. Section 16 of the 2003 Act and the power to make regulations came into force upon Royal Assent of the 2003 Act, the rest of the Act was brought into force on 1 February 2004 by article 2 of the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 Order 2004. The 2003 Act extends to the whole of the United Kingdom, halsburys Statutes, The Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003, as amended from the National Archives. The Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003, as originally enacted from the National Archives, explanatory notes to the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003
16.
Divinity School, Oxford
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The Divinity School is a medieval building and room in the Perpendicular style in Oxford, England, part of the University of Oxford. Built between 1427 and 1483, it is the oldest surviving purpose-built building for university use, specifically for lectures, oral exams and discussions on theology. It is no used for this purpose, although Oxford does offer degrees in divinity taught by its Faculty of Theology. The ceiling consists of very elaborate lierne vaulting with bosses, designed by William Orchard in the 1480s, the building is physically attached to the Bodleian Library, and is opposite the Sheldonian Theatre where students matriculate and graduate. At the far end from the Bodleian Library entrance, a door leads to Convocation House, gallery of images Map sources for Divinity School, Oxford Historic England
17.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
18.
Richard Ovenden
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Richard Ovenden is a British librarian and author. He currently serves as Bodleys Librarian in the University of Oxford, Ovenden also serves as the Director of the Bodleian Librarys Centre for the Study of the Book and holds a Professorial Fellowship at Balliol College. Ovenden is a trustee of the Chawton House Library and vice-chair of the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation, in 2009, he was elected chair of the Digital Preservation Coalition, replacing Dame Lynne Brindley in a post he held until 2013. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2015 and he is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, having been elected in 2008. Ovenden was educated at Deal Parochial and Sir Roger Manwoods School, Kent and at St Chads College, Durham University, in 2003 he became Keeper of Special Collections and Western Manuscripts at the Bodleian Libraries and in 2011 was appointed Deputy Librarian. Ovenden is the author of John Thomson, photographer, a study of the Scottish photographer, interview with Ovenden about the Bodleian Librarys digitisation programs and its partnerships with Google
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Library
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A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
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British Library
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The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom and the second largest library in the world by number of items catalogued. It holds well over 150 million items from many countries, as a legal deposit library, the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and Ireland, including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK. The Library is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. The Librarys collections include around 14 million books, along with holdings of manuscripts. In addition to receiving a copy of every publication produced in the UK and Ireland, the Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9.6 kilometres of new shelf space. Prior to 1973, the Library was part of the British Museum, the Euston Road building is classified as a Grade I listed building, of exceptional interest for its architecture and history. The British Library was created on 1 July 1973 as a result of the British Library Act 1972. Prior to this, the library was part of the British Museum. In 1983, the Library absorbed the National Sound Archive, which holds many sound and video recordings, with over a million discs, the core of the Librarys historical collections is based on a series of donations and acquisitions from the 18th century, known as the foundation collections. From 1997 to 2009 the main collection was housed in this new building. Construction work on the Newspaper Storage Building was completed in 2013, the collection has now been split between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites. The British Library Document Supply Service and the Librarys Document Supply Collection is based on the site in Boston Spa. Collections housed in Yorkshire, comprising low-use material and the newspaper and Document Supply collections, the Library previously had a book storage depot in Woolwich, south-east London, which is no longer in use. The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect Colin St John Wilson, facing Euston Road is a large piazza that includes pieces of public art, such as large sculptures by Eduardo Paolozzi and Antony Gormley. It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the 20th century, in December 2009 a new storage building at Boston Spa was opened by Rosie Winterton. The building was Grade I listed on 1 August 2015, in England, Legal Deposit can be traced back to at least 1610. The other five libraries are, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the University Library at Cambridge, the Trinity College Library at Dublin, in 2003 the Ipswich MP Chris Mole introduced a Private Members Bill which became the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003. The Act extends United Kingdom legal deposit requirements to electronic documents, such as CD-ROMs, the Library also holds the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections which include the India Office Records and materials in the languages of Asia and of north and north-east Africa
21.
Colleges of the University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford has 38 Colleges and six Permanent Private Halls of religious foundation. These colleges are not only houses of residence, but have substantial responsibility for student teaching, generally tutorials and classes are the responsibility of colleges, while lectures, examinations, laboratories, and the central library are run by the university. Most colleges take both graduates and undergraduates, but several are for graduates only, undergraduate and graduate students may name preferred colleges in their applications. For the Department of Physics, reallocation is done on a random basis after a shortlist of candidates is drawn upon, for graduate students, many colleges express a preference for candidates who plan to undertake research in an area of interest of one of its fellows. St Hughs College, for example, states that it accepts students in most subjects. College buildings range from the medieval to modern buildings, but most are made up of interlinked quadrangles,2008 saw the first modern merger of colleges, with Green College and Templeton College merging to form Green Templeton College. This reduced the number of Colleges of the University from 39 to 38, the number of PPHs also reduced in 2008, when Greyfriars closed down. The University of Oxfords collegiate system arose because the university came into existence through the agglomeration of independent institutions in the city of Oxford. The first academic houses were monastic halls, of the dozens that were established in Oxford during the 12th to 15th centuries, none survived the Reformation. The modern Dominican permanent private hall of Blackfriars is a descendant of the original, as the University took shape, friction between the hundreds of students living where and how they pleased led to a decree that all undergraduates would have to reside in approved halls. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Often generously endowed and with permanent teaching staff, the colleges were originally the preserve of graduate students, however, once they began accepting fee-paying undergraduates in the 14th century, the halls days were numbered. The fourth oldest college is Exeter, which was founded in 1314 and the fifth is Oriel, the most recent new foundation is Kellogg College, founded in 1990, while the most recent overall is Green Templeton College,2008. Women entered the university for the first time in 1878, becoming members of the University in 1920, womens colleges before integration were Somerville College, Lady Margaret Hall, St Annes, St Hildas, and St Hughs. In 1974 the first mens colleges to admit women as members were Brasenose, Hertford, Jesus College, St Catherines, however, the Hall had begun to admit female postgraduate students from Michaelmas 2014. Some colleges, such as Kellogg, Linacre, Nuffield, St Antonys, St Cross, all Souls College admits only Fellows. Harris Manchester College is intended specifically for students with a minimum age of 21. Each college and permanent private hall has its own arms, although in some cases these were assumed rather than granted by the College of Arms, the blazons below are taken from the Oxford University Calendar unless otherwise indicated
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Duke Humfrey's Library
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Duke Humfreys Library is the oldest reading room in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford. It consists of the medieval section, the Arts End. It houses collections of maps, music, Western manuscripts, and theology and it is the main reading room for researchers of codicology, bibliography, and local history. It is also the location of the University Archives and the Conservative Party Archive, the library is on the first floor and forms an H-shape with the later parts as the uprights. Arts End is above the Proscholium and is attached at two corners to the Old Schools Quadrangle, the medieval section is above the Divinity School and Selden End is above the Convocation House. A drawing of the section with Divinity School below in isolation is used as the emblem of the Bodleian Library. Duke Humfreys Library is named after Humphrey of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Gloucester and he was a connoisseur of literature and commissioned translations of classical works from Greek into Latin. When he died in 1447, he donated his collection of 281 manuscripts to the University of Oxford, Oxford built Duke Humfreys Library as a second story to the Divinity School in order to house his collection in 1450-80. Today, only three of Humfreys original books remain in the library, in 1550 the Kings Commissioners despoiled it of books and in 1556 the furniture was removed by the university. It was refitted and restored from 1598 by Sir Thomas Bodley, the west wing followed 20 years later. The books in the oldest part are accommodated in oak bookcases which are at angles to the walls on either side with integral readers desks. The ceiling consists of panels painted with the arms of the university
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Clarendon Building
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The Clarendon Building is an early 18th-century neoclassical building of the University of Oxford. It is in Broad Street, Oxford, England, next to the Bodleian Library and it was built between 1711 and 1715 and is now a Grade I listed building. Until the early 18th century the printing presses of the Oxford University Press were in the basement of the Sheldonian Theatre and this meant that the compositors could not work when the Theatre was in use for ceremonies. The University therefore commissioned a new building to house the OUP, nicholas Hawksmoor produced a neoclassical design, construction started in 1711 and it was completed in 1715. In the 1820s the OUP moved to new premises in Walton Street, in 1975 the building was transferred to the Bodleian Library, for which it now provides office and meeting space for senior members of staff. On 22 January 2009 student demonstrators occupied part of the Clarendon Building for seven hours, the demonstrators called for the University to condemn Israels role in the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict and to cancel a lecture series at Balliol College inaugurated by Shimon Peres. They ended their protest after an agreement with the Senior Proctor, Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press
24.
Radcliffe Camera
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The Radcliffe Camera is a building of Oxford University, England, designed by James Gibbs in neo-classical style and built in 1737–49 to house the Radcliffe Science Library. It is sited to the south of the Old Bodleian, north of St. Marys Church, the Librarys construction and maintenance was funded from the estate of John Radcliffe, a notable doctor, who left £40,000 upon his death in 1714. According to the terms of his will, construction began in 1737. The exterior was complete in 1747 and the interior finished by 1748, upon completion, Francis Wise was appointed as its first librarian. Until 1810, the Library housed books covering a range of subjects. Williams brought the Library from a state of neglect up to date and it was at this point that the building became known as the Radcliffe Camera, serving as a reading room for the Bodleian. John Radcliffe attended University College from the age of thirteen, becoming a fellow of Lincoln College at eighteen and he had a successful career in medicine, serving a number of high-profile, wealthy patients including William III and Queen Anne. He built up a fortune and died childless. He is buried in St. Marys Church, Oxford and it was known that he intended to build a library in Oxford at least two years before his death in 1714. It was thought that the new building would be an extension westwards of the Selden End of the Bodleian Library, Radcliffe also dedicated £100 a year to furnishing his proposed library with books. Plans were prepared by Nicholas Hawksmoor and are now held in the Ashmolean Museum, by 1714, however, Radcliffe had settled on a different site for his new library, to the south of the existing Bodleian. William Pittis, Radcliffes first biographer, ascribes the change of heart to excessive demands from the Rector, Radcliffe died on 1 November 1714. It also provided £100 a year to maintain the new library, the first payment was to be made after the death of Radcliffes two sisters, Hannah Redshaw and Millicent Radcliffe. The latter lived until 1736, although it appears between the death of Redshaw in 1716 and Millicent Radcliffe in 1736, much work was done acquiring the site for the library. A number of tenement houses fronting Catte Street, built right up to the Schools, some gardens, Brasenose College outbuildings, a number of colleges became involved in the development of the site. An added problem was that Brasenose required an amount of land fronting High Street in return for the land they were being asked to give up. As a consequence, the Trustees had to negotiate with the owners, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1720 that enabled any corporations within the University to sell ground for building a library. The negotiations dealing with Catte Street took over twenty years, with the payments being made to Oriel, Magdalen
25.
Weston Library
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From 1937 to 1940, Sir Giles Gilbert Scott worked on the New Bodleian Library, in Broad Street, Oxford. It is not generally considered his finest work and his biographer A. S. G. Butler commented, In an attempt to be polite to these – which vary from late Gothic to Victorian Tudor – Scott produced a not very impressive neo-Jacobean design. Nikolaus Pevsner dismisses it as one thing nor the other. The building was constructed of Bladon stone with Clipsham dressings and was opened by King George VI, the Rockefeller Foundation donated 60% of the £1 million cost for the new library building. It included administrative and reading rooms, together with an 11-storey bookstack beneath the building and this was connected with the original Bodleian Library underground by an conveyor belt system for books. It is still possible to walk underground between the Radcliffe Camera and the new library building and it reopened to readers as the Weston Library on 21 March 2015. Richard Ovenden awarded the Bodley Medal to Professor Stephen Hawking and Sir David Attenborough as part of the opening ceremony. The transformed library has been generally well-received, being described as a hey presto moment for the city by The Independent newspaper, in July 2016, the building was shortlisted for the Stirling Prize for excellence in architecture
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Bodleian Law Library
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The Bodleian Law Library is an academic library in Oxford, England. It is part of Oxford University, the Bodleian Libraries and is also the library of the Faculty of Law and it is situated in part of the Grade II*-listed St Cross Building on St Cross Road in the parish of Holywell, on the corner of Manor Road. The library is one of the largest open-access law libraries in Europe, the BLL benefits from the Bodleians status as a library of legal deposit, by which the BLL has the right to claim a copy of any printed legal material published in the United Kingdom or Ireland. The BLL serves a wide and expanding range of university and external readers, at the same time, and because of its legal deposit status, the BLL is also used extensively by legal firms, lawyers, and individual researchers from both home and abroad. The BLL collection supports the teaching and research of Law at the University of Oxford, the BLL collection has been built up over a period of four centuries, both from the legal deposit intake, and from specific purchases based on recommendations from academics and researchers alike. The BLL holds full sets of previous editions of major UK legal monographs on the open shelves and it receives over 2,000 serial titles per annum, including law reports, legislation, journals and looseleaf services from all the jurisdictions held in the collection. The BLL holds several collections, including rare books, the Viner collection, the Bandar Collection of Islamic Law. Readers have access to all leading UK legal databases, together with a number of foreign legal databases. Network printing, scanning and photocopying are provided, the BLL was designed to hold the law collection of the Bodleian Library on open access shelves, ensuring ready access at all times to scholars. Seating is provided for 430 readers, with one third of seats reserved for postgraduate student use. There is a Graduate Reading Room and this area occupies a separate wing, and provides students with ethernet access, several PCs, and wireless access for laptops. The BLL has a total of 40 PCs for reader use, the PCs in the Freshfields IT room on the lower floor and in the Gallery computer room require readers to log in, but there are a few PCs for searching the catalogue on each floor. Wireless access for laptop computers is provided throughout most areas of the library and is accessed using the same login as the library PCs, the Baker McKenzie room is available for student use for group discussion, as well as carrel facilities which are offered on a shared basis. The Law Library staff provide a teaching programme to all postgraduate and undergraduate students. Legal information guides to countries and to legal subjects is available in leaflet form
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South Parks Road
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South Parks Road is a road in Oxford, England. It runs east-west past the main Science Area of the University of Oxford, many of the university science departments are located nearby or face the road, including parts of the geography, zoology, chemistry, psychology and physiology departments. Also on the road is Rhodes House, to the west, the road adjoins Parks Road at a T junction with the Radcliffe Science Library just to the north. To the east, the road bends sharply south at Linacre College, a cycle route continues east towards New Marston, crossing the River Cherwell. About halfway along South Parks Road, Mansfield Road adjoins to the south, Mansfield College is close to South Parks Road in this section. The road has been the scene of protests by animal rights protesters because of a new testing facility that has been built here. Pro-Test has been formed in reaction to the activities of the animal rights movement, halifax House was located at 8 South Parks Road on the corner with Mansfield Road from 1961, a social club for people associated with Oxford University. The building has since been demolished to make way for new facilities for the University. Evidence of Bronze Age barrows together with later prehistoric and early Roman field systems has been found on the site, hooke Library Isis Innovation Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory Sir William Dunn School of Pathology Radcliffe Science Library Rhodes House
28.
South Marston
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South Marston is a village and civil parish in the Borough of Swindon, Wiltshire, England. The village is about 3 miles northeast of central Swindon, the earliest documentary evidence for continuous settlement in the parish is from the 13th century, but there is fragmentary evidence for earlier occupation from as far back as the Bronze Age. It is claimed there were Roman remains just outside South Marston on a field of Rowborough Farm. Ermin Way, the major Roman road linking Silchester and Gloucester, ran close to the southwest side of the village, there was a Roman station at Durocornovium one mile south of the village. The name Marston derives from a common Old English toponym meaning marsh farm and this suggests the village was founded prior to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, but it is not recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. Documentary evidence exists from about 1280, when the village is mentioned as part of Highworth Hundred. Early in the Second World War, a Ministry of Aircraft Production shadow factory and airfield were built for Phillips & Powis Aircraft Ltd, Short Brothers Ltd also used another part of the airfield for final assembly and testing of locally-built Short Stirling bombers. Vickers-Armstrongs-Supermarine acquired the site later in the war and produced Supermarine aircraft including Spitfire, Seafire, Attacker, Swift, in 1985 Honda bought and closed the airfield and reassigned it to car manufacture. Alfred Williams, poet and steam-hammer operator at Swindon Railway Works, a large residential development was built on the site of the Manor House in the mid-1980s. This article summarises the history section of the web site. Parish website A history of South Marstons aircraft industry Media related to South Marston at Wikimedia Commons
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Swindon
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Swindon is a large town in Wiltshire, South West England, midway between Bristol,35 miles to the west and Reading,35 miles to the east. London is 78 miles to the east, and Cardiff is 78 miles to the west, at the 2011 census, it had a population of 185,609. Swindon became an Expanded Town under the Town Development Act 1952, Swindon railway station is on the line from London Paddington to Bristol. Swindon Borough Council is an authority, independent of Wiltshire Council since 1997. Residents of Swindon are known as Swindonians, the town and wider borough also has the headquarters of the Nationwide Building Society and a Honda car manufacturing plant. The original Anglo-Saxon settlement of Swindon sat in a position atop a limestone hill. It is referred to in the Domesday Book as Suindune, believed to be derived from the Old English words swine and dun meaning pig hill or possibly Sweyns hill, Swindon was a small market town, mainly for barter trade, until roughly 1848. This original market area is on top of the hill in central Swindon, the Industrial Revolution was responsible for an acceleration of Swindons growth. It started with the construction of the Wilts and Berks Canal in 1810, the canals brought trade to the area and Swindons population started to grow. Between 1841 and 1842, Isambard Kingdom Brunels Swindon Works was built for the repair, the GWR built a small railway village to house some of its workers. The Steam Railway Museum and English Heritage, including the English Heritage Archive, in 1878 the fund began providing artificial limbs made by craftsmen from the carriage and wagon works, and nine years later opened its first dental surgery. In his first few months in post the dentist extracted more than 2000 teeth, from the opening in 1892 of the Health Centre, a doctor could also prescribe a haircut or even a bath. The cradle-to-grave extent of service was later used as a blueprint for the NHS. The Mechanics Institute, formed in 1844, moved into a building looking rather like a church and included a covered market, on 1 May 1855. The New Swindon Improvement Company, a co-operative, raised the funds for this path self-improvement and it was a groundbreaking organisation that transformed the railways workforce into some of the countrys best-educated manual workers. It had the UKs first lending library, and a range of improving lectures, access to a theatre, the Institute also nurtured pioneering trades unionists and encouraged local democracy. During the second half of the 19th century, Swindon New Town grew around the line between London and Bristol. In 1900, the market town, Old Swindon, merged with its new neighbour at the bottom of the hill to become a single town
30.
Bishop of Worcester
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The Bishop of Worcester is the head of the Church of England Diocese of Worcester in the Province of Canterbury, England. The title can be traced back to the foundation of the diocese in the year 680, from then until the 16th century, the bishops were in full communion with the Roman Catholic Church. During the Reformation, the church in England broke away from the authority of the Pope, since the Reformation, the Bishop and Diocese of Worcester has been part of the Church of England and the Anglican Communion. The diocese covers most of the county of Worcestershire, the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley, the Episcopal see is in the city of Worcester where the bishops throne is located at the Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary. The bishops official residence is the Bishops Office, The Old Palace, Deansway, Worcester, the bishops had two residences outside the city, Hartlebury Castle near Kidderminster from the 13th century to 2007 and a palace at Alvechurch until it was pulled down in the 17th century. From the elevations of Saint Oswald of Worcester in 961 at Worcester and 972 at York, the current Bishop of Worcester is the Right Reverend John Inge, who signs + John Wigorn
31.
Chained library
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This would prevent theft of the librarys materials. However, it led to crowding and awkwardness when readers had to stand side by side. The practice was usual for reference libraries from the Middle Ages to approximately the 18th century, however, since the chaining process was also expensive, it was not used on all books. Only the more valuable books in a collection were chained and this included reference books and large books. It is standard for chained libraries to have the chain fitted to the corner or cover of a book and this is because if the chain were to be placed on the spine the book would suffer greater wear from the stress of moving it on and off the shelf. Because of the location of the attached to the book the books are housed with their spine facing away from the reader with only the pages fore-edges visible. This is so that book can be removed and opened without needing to be turned around. To remove the book from the chain, the librarian would use a key, the library still exists and can justifiably claim to be the forerunner of later public library systems. Marshs Library in Dublin, built 1701, is another non institutional library which is housed in its original building. Here it was not the books that were chained, but rather the readers were locked into cages to prevent rare volumes from wandering, there is also an example of a chained library in the Royal Grammar School, Guildford as well as at Hereford Cathedral. While chaining books was a practice throughout Europe, it was not used in all libraries. The practice of chaining library books became popular as printing increased. Wimborne Minster in Dorset, England is yet another example of a Chained Library and it is one of the first in England and the second largest. Recently, there has increased interest in reconstructing chained libraries. Worldwide, only five chained libraries have survived with their furniture, chains. This includes the library built in the Church of Saint Walpurga and this library was built in 1564. The library is now part of a museum that allows visitors to tour and view the original books, furniture. Another chained library is the Malatestiana Library in Cesena near Bologna in Italy, built over 900 years ago, the library fell into disrepair and faced destruction
32.
University Church of St Mary the Virgin
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The University Church of St Mary the Virgin is an Oxford church situated on the north side of the High Street. It is the centre from which the University of Oxford grew and its parish consists almost exclusively of university and college buildings. St Marys possesses an eccentric baroque porch, designed by Nicholas Stone, facing High Street, radcliffe Square lies to the north and to the east is Catte Street. When Adam de Brome became rector in 1320 the churchs fortune became linked to what would later become Oriel College. Brome diverted the revenues of the church to his college, which thereafter was responsible for appointing the vicar, early provosts of the college were inducted into their stall in the church, and until 1642 fellows were required to attend services on Sundays and holy days. St Marys was the site of the 1555 trial of the Oxford Martyrs, when the bishops Latimer and Ridley and the Archbishop Cranmer, were tried for heresy. The martyrs were imprisoned at the former Bocardo Prison near St Michael at the Northgate in Cornmarket Street, a cross set into the road marks that location on what is now Broad Street, the nearby Martyrs Memorial, at the south end of St Giles, commemorates the events. Until the 17th century, the church was used not only for prayers but also for increasingly rowdy graduation, thereafter, the church was reserved for religious worship only. In 1828 John Henry Newman became vicar and his sermons became popular with undergraduates, the influence of the movement spread and affected the practice and spirituality of the Church of England. By 1843, Newman became disillusioned with Anglicanism and resigned from St Marys, the Decorated spire with its triple-gabled outer pinnacles, inner pinnacles, gargoyles and statues was added in the 1320s. Only one of the statues is original, the others were by George Frampton. The original statues can now be found in the cloister of New College, the tower is plainer, having long three light bell openings with intersecting tracery. The architect is unknown, though the master mason in 1275 was Richard of Abingdon, the south porch was built in 1637 and was designed by Nicholas Stone, master mason to Charles I. It was a gift from Dr Morgan Owen, chaplain to Archbishop Laud and it is highly ornate, with spiral columns supporting a curly pediment framing a shell niche with a statue of the Virgin and Child, underneath a gothic fan vault. The gate piers are original and the iron gates are early 18th century. The bullet holes in the statue were made by Cromwellian troopers, around 1328 a chapel was added, now the outer north aisle, by the rector, Adam de Brome. The north wall of de Bromes chapel and the house were remodelled in the Perpendicular style around 1510. Around the same time, St Thomas chantry, now a vestry, was added, the nave and aisle windows have panel tracery and flamboyant battlemented parapets with gargoyles and pinnacles
33.
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester
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Humphrey of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Gloucester, 1st Earl of Pembroke, KG was an English nobleman. Mettled and courageous, he was a foil for the beautiful Jacqueline of Hainaut and his learned, widely read, scholarly approach to the early renaissance cultural expansion demonstrated the quintessential well-rounded princely character. He was an exemplar for Oxford, accomplished, diplomatic, with political cunning, unlike his brothers, he was not naturally brave, but opinionated, fervent and judgmental. He exaggerated his own achievements, but idolized his brother Henry V and he was the youngest in a powerful quadrumvirate of brothers, who were very close companions, on 20 March 1413, Henry and Humphrey had been at their dying fathers bedside. Thomas, John and Humphrey had all been knighted in 1399 and they joined the Order of the Garter together in 1400. The place of his birth is unknown, but he was named after his grandfather, Humphrey de Bohun. During the reign of Henry IV, Humphrey received a scholars education, following his fathers death he was created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, and Chamberlain of England, and he took his seat in Parliament. In 1415 he became a member of the Privy Council, before embarking for France, the army camped at Southampton, where the Earl of Cambridge failed in an assassination plot to kill the king. Humphrey and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, led an Inquiry of Lords to try Lords Cambridge, during Henry Vs campaigns in France, Humphrey gained a reputation as a successful commander. His knowledge of warfare, gained from his classical studies. During the Battle of Agincourt Humphrey was wounded, as he fell, the king sheltered his body, for his services, Humphrey was granted offices including Constable of Dover, Warden of the Cinque Ports on 27 November, and Kings Lieutenant. His tenure in government was peaceful and successful and this period commenced with Emperor Sigismunds peace mission. At Paris in March 1416, the Emperor was arrested on the beach by Duke Humphrey, the Treaty of eternal friendship signed at Canterbury on 15 August served only to anticipate renewed hostility from France. Upon the death of his brother in 1422, Humphrey became Lord Protector to his young nephew Henry VI and he also claimed the right to the regency of England following the death of his elder brother, John, Duke of Bedford. Humphreys claims were contested by the lords of the kings council. Henry Vs will, rediscovered at Eton College in 1978, actually supported Humphreys claims, in 1436 Philip, Duke of Burgundy, attacked Calais. Duke Humphrey was appointed garrison commander, the Flemings assaulted from the landward but the English resistance was stubborn. Humphrey marched the army to Baillieul, taking the English to safety, Humphrey was consistently popular with the citizens of London and the Commons
34.
Henry V of England
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Henry V was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 36 in 1422. He was the second English monarch who came from the House of Lancaster, after his fathers death in 1413, Henry assumed control of the country and embarked on war with France in the ongoing Hundred Years War between the two nations. His military successes culminated in his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt and he was the son of 20-year-old Henry of Bolingbroke, and 16-year-old Mary de Bohun. He was also the grandson of the influential John of Gaunt, at the time of his birth, Richard II of England, his cousin once removed, was king. As he was not close to the line of succession to the throne and his grandfather, John of Gaunt, was the guardian of the king at that time. Upon the exile of Henrys father in 1398, Richard II took the boy into his own charge, the young Henry accompanied King Richard to Ireland, and while in the royal service, he visited Trim Castle in County Meath, the ancient meeting place of the Irish Parliament. He was created Prince of Wales at his fathers coronation, and Duke of Lancaster on 10 November 1399 and his other titles were Duke of Cornwall, Earl of Chester, and Duke of Aquitaine. A contemporary record notes that during that year Henry spent time at The Queens College, Oxford, under the care of his uncle Henry Beaufort, from 1400 to 1404, he carried out the duties of High Sheriff of Cornwall. It was there that the prince was almost killed by an arrow that became stuck in his face. An ordinary soldier might have died from such a wound, the operation was successful, but it left Henry with permanent scars, evidence of his experience in battle. The Welsh revolt of Owain Glyndŵr absorbed Henrys energies until 1408, then, as a result of the kings ill health, Henry began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry Beaufort and Thomas Beaufort – legitimised sons of John of Gaunt – he had control of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he differed from the king, the quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had discussed the abdication of Henry IV, and their opponents certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that the tradition of Henrys riotous youth, immortalised by Shakespeare, is due to political enmity. Henrys record of involvement in war and politics, even in his youth, the most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief justice, has no contemporary authority and was first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff originated in Henrys early friendship with Sir John Oldcastle, shakespeares Falstaff was originally named Oldcastle, following his main source, The Famous Victories of Henry V. However, his descendants objected, and the name was changed. That friendship, and the political opposition to Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury. If so, their disappointment may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers like Thomas Walsingham that Henry, after Henry IV died on 20 March 1413, Henry V succeeded him and was crowned on 9 April 1413 at Westminster Abbey, London, Kingdom of England
35.
Edward VI
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Edward VI was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine, the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was Englands first monarch to be raised as a Protestant. During his reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority, the Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and then by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, from 1551 Duke of Northumberland. Edwards reign was marked by problems and social unrest that, in 1549, erupted into riot. An expensive war with Scotland, at first successful, ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne-sur-Mer in exchange for peace, the transformation of the Church into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters. Although his father, Henry VIII, had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, in February 1553, at age 15, Edward fell ill. When his sickness was discovered to be terminal, he and his Council drew up a Devise for the Succession, Edward named his first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. This decision was disputed following Edwards death, and Jane was deposed by Mary nine days after becoming queen, during her reign, Mary reversed Edwards Protestant reforms, which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559. Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mothers room inside Hampton Court Palace and he was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, te Deums were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes. The Queen, however, fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications, Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that Divine Providence. Hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness, Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset. His father was delighted with him, in May 1538, Henry was observed dallying with him in his arms, and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people. That September, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Audley, reported Edwards rapid growth and vigour, the tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians. At the age of four, he fell ill with a quartan fever. Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan, lady mistress of the princes household and she was succeeded by Blanche Herbert, Lady Troy. Until the age of six, Edward was brought up, as he put it later in his Chronicle, the formal royal household established around Edward was, at first, under Sir William Sidney, and later Sir Richard Page, stepfather of Edward Seymours wife, Anne Stanhope
36.
Thomas Bodley
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Sir Thomas Bodley was an English diplomat and scholar, founder of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Thomas Bodley was born at Exeter in the second-to-last year of the reign of Henry VIII and his father, John Bodley, was a Protestant merchant who went to live abroad rather than stay in England under the Roman Catholic government of Mary. There, Thomas had the opportunity to study at John Calvins newly erected Academy and he attended lectures in Divinity given by Theodore Beza and Calvin himself and attended services led by John Knox. He learned Greek from Mattheus Beroaldus and Hebrew from Antoine Chevallier, the study of these languages remained enduring passions for Bodley throughout his life. After Marys death in 1558 and the accession of Queen Elizabeth, the returned to England. In 1563 he took his B. A. degree, and was thereafter, in 1564. He began lecturing at Merton and in April 1565 was formally appointed as the colleges first Lecturer in Ancient Greek and he served in many college offices, in 1569 he was elected as one of the Universitys junior proctors and for some time after was deputy Public Orator. Leaving Oxford in 1576 with a license to study abroad and a grant from his college of £6, Bodley toured France, Italy, and the Holy Roman Empire, visiting scholars and adding French, Italian, and Spanish to his repertoire of languages. It has been suggested that during his tour in Italy he was in initiated in Forlì in some form of Pythagorean initiation in a platonic academy. On his return to England Bodley was appointed a gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth, in 1585 he was entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II of Denmark and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre, the future Henry IV of France. He was next dispatched on a mission to France. The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the intrigues of the ministers at home. G. H. Martin speculates that the inspiration to restore the old Duke Humphreys library may have come from the renewal of Bodleys contact with Henry Savile, once his proposal was accepted, he devoted the rest of his life to the library project. He was knighted on 18 April 1604 and he died in 1613 and was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel. His monument of black and white marble, complete with pillars representing books and allegories of learning, Bodleys greatest achievement was the re-founding of the library at Oxford. However, during the Reformation of the 1550s, the library had been stripped and abandoned, the library was later named the Bodleian Library in his honour. He determined, he said, to take his farewell of state employments, in 1598 his offer to restore the old library was accepted by the university. Bodley began his book collection effort in 1600, using the site of the former library above the Divinity School, although Bodley lived over 400 years ago, modern libraries benefit from some of his ideas and practices
37.
Merton College, Oxford
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Merton College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. The important feature of Walters foundation was that this college was to be self-governing, the hall and the chapel and the rest of the front quad were complete before the end of the 13th century. Notable alumni and academics past and present include four Nobel Laureates and writer J. R. R. Tolkien who was Merton Professor of English Language, Merton is one of the wealthiest colleges in Oxford and had a financial endowment of £212.8 million as of July 2014. Merton has a reputation for academic success, having regularly ranked first in the Norrington Table in recent years. Merton College was founded in 1264 by Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor and it has a claim to be the oldest college in Oxford, although this claim is disputed between Merton College, Balliol College and University College. The substance of Mertons claim is that it was the first college to be provided with statutes, Mertons statutes date back to 1264, whereas neither Balliol nor University College had statutes until the 1280s. Merton was also the first college to be conceived as a community working to achieve academic ends, Merton has an unbroken line of wardens dating back to 1264. Of these, many had great influences over the development of the college, Henry Savile was one notable leader whose vision led the college to flourish in the early 17th century. St Alban Hall was an independent academic hall owned by the convent of Littlemore until it was purchased by Merton College in 1548 following the dissolution of the convent and it continued as a separate institution until it was finally annexed by the college in 1881. During the English Civil War, Merton was the only Oxford college to side with Parliament, the reason for this was Mertons annoyance with the interference of their Visitor William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This included the Kings French wife, Queen Henrietta Maria, who was housed in or near what is now the Queens Room, the room above the arch between Front and Fellows Quads. Differences were quickly settled after the war, however, and a portrait of Charles I hangs near the Queens Room as a reminder of the role it played in his court. The college was consolidated on this site by 1274, when Walter made his final revisions to the college statutes, the initial acquisition included the parish church of St John and three houses to the east of the church which now form the north range of Front Quad. Walter also obtained permission from the king to extend from these properties south to the old city wall to form a square site. The college continued to other properties as they became available on both sides of Merton Street. At one time, the college owned all the land from the site that is now Christ Church to the eastern corner of the city. The land to the east eventually became the current Fellows garden, by the late 1280s the old church of St John the Baptist had fallen into a ruinous condition, and the college accounts show that work on a new church began in about 1290. The present choir, with its enormous east window, was complete by 1294, the window is an important example of how the strict geometrical conventions of the Early English Period of architecture were beginning to be relaxed at the end of the 13th century
38.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
39.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
40.
Thomas James
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Thomas James was an English librarian, first librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. He was born about 1573 at Newport, Isle of Wight, in 1586 he was admitted a scholar of Winchester College, matriculated at New College, Oxford on 28 January 1592, and was fellow of his college from 1593 to 1602. He graduated B. A. on 3 May 1595, M. A. on 5 February 1599, James became a fellow of New College, Oxford in 1593. At the same time, he was rector of St Aldates Church. In 1605, he compiled a catalogue of the books in the Bodleian Library. The arrangement in 1610, whereby the Stationers Company undertook to supply the Bodleian with every book published, was Jamess suggestion and he assisted in framing a complete body of the ancient statutes and customs of the university. He was also skilled in deciphering manuscripts and in detecting forged readings, Bodley had fixed upon James as his library keeper, and the appointment was confirmed by the university in 1602. On 14 September of that year he became rector of St. Aldate. His salary as librarian was initially £5 13s, quarterly, but he threatened forthwith to resign unless it was raised to £30 or £40 a year. At the same time he demanded permission to marry, Bodley, who had made celibacy a condition in his statutes, expostulated with James, but eventually allowed him to take a wife. In December 1610 the library began to receive copies of all published by the members of the Stationers Company. In 1614 James, through Bodleys interest, was preferred to the sub-deanery of Wells, at the beginning of May 1620 he was obliged through ill-health to resign the librarianship. His proposal not meeting with much encouragement, he set about the task himself, ill health compelled him to resign his post in 1620, he died at Oxford in August 1629, and was buried in New College Chapel. He next edited Richard de Burys The Philobiblon, Oxford,1599, as the result of his researches in college libraries he published Ecloga Oxonio-Cantabrigiensis, tributa in libros duos, London,1600, a work commended by Joseph Scaliger. The Index Alphabeticus the first catalog compiled by James, which consisted of 8,700 entries and it was dedicated to Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, at the suggestion of Bodley. It includes both printed books and manuscripts, arranged alphabetically under the four classes of theology, medicine, law, a continuation of this classified index, embracing writers on arts and sciences, geography and history, is to be found in Rawlinson MS. 730, drawn up by James after quitting the library, an alphabetical catalogue prepared by him in 1613 was not printed, but remained in the library. A second edition of the catalogue appeared in 1620 and it abandoned the classified arrangement of the former catalogue, and adopts only one alphabet of names
41.
John Selden
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John Selden was an English jurist and a scholar of Englands ancient laws and constitution and scholar of Jewish law. He was known as a polymath showing true intellectual depth and breadth and he was born at Salvington, in the parish of West Tarring, West Sussex, and was baptised at St Andrews, the parish church. The cottage in which he was survived until 1959 when it was destroyed by a fire caused by an electrical fault. His father, another John Selden, had a small farm, Selden was educated at the free grammar school at Chichester, The Prebendal School, and in 1600 he went on to Hart Hall, Oxford. In 1603 he was admitted to Cliffords Inn, London, in 1604 he moved to the Inner Temple, and in 1612 he was called to the bar. His earliest patron was Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, the antiquary, for some reason, Selden very rarely practised in court, but his practice in chambers as a conveyancer and consulting counsel was large and apparently lucrative. In 1618, his History of Tithes appeared, although it had passed censorship and licensing, this dissertation on the historical basis of the tithe system caused anxiety among the bishops and provoked the intervention of the king. The author was summoned before the Privy Council and was compelled to retract his opinions, also, his work was suppressed, and he was forbidden to reply to anyone who might come forward to answer it. This all seems to have caused Seldens entry into politics and he and several others were imprisoned, at first in the Tower and later under the charge of Sir Robert Ducie, sheriff of London. In 1623 he was returned to the House of Commons for the borough of Lancaster and he was also nominated reader of Lyons Inn, an office he declined to undertake. For this the benchers of the Inner Temple fined him £20, nevertheless, after a few years, he became a master of the bench. In the first parliament of Charles I, it appears from the returns of members printed in 1878 that contrary to the assertion of all his biographers, he had no seat. In Charless second parliament, he was elected for Great Bedwyn in Wiltshire, in the following year, in Darnells Case, he was counsel for Sir Edmund Hampden in the Court of Kings Bench. In 1628 he was returned to the parliament of Charles for Ludgershall, Wiltshire. There he remained for eight months, deprived for a part of the time of the use of books and he was then removed, under less rigorous conditions, to the Marshalsea, until Archbishop Laud arranged for him to be freed. Some years before, he had been appointed steward to the Earl of Kent, to seat, Wrest in Bedfordshire. He was not elected to the Short Parliament of 1640, but to the Long Parliament, summoned in the autumn, he was returned without opposition for Oxford University. He opposed the resolution against episcopacy which led to the exclusion of the bishops from the House of Lords and he was equally opposed to the court on the question of the commissions of lieutenancy of array and to the parliament on the question of the militia ordinance
42.
Radcliffe Square
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Radcliffe Square is a square in central Oxford, England. It is surrounded by historic Oxford University and college buildings, the square is cobbled, laid to grass surrounded by railings in the centre, and is pedestrianised except for access. The centrepiece of the square is the circular and imposing Radcliffe Camera and this is part of the Bodleian Library, the main building of which is situated immediately to the north of the square. The two are connected by a tunnel and there are many books stored under the square. These books may be requested by readers, there used to be a small underground railway to transport books between the Radcliffe Camera and the main Bodleian site. To the west is Brasenose College, one of Oxfords older colleges, to the east is All Souls College, which only has fellows and no students, and is thus largely dedicated to research. A good view can be had through the leading to the square, since although these are normally locked. The eastern side of the forms part of Catte Street. At the southern side of the square is the University Church of St Mary the Virgin and this is the official church of Oxford University and is where the Oxford Martyrs were tried for heresy. A good view of Radcliffe Square and the rest of central Oxford is available from the tower, the square is widely regarded as the most beautiful in Oxford, and is very popular with tourists. There are no buildings to be seen, so it is also used as a setting for period films. The square was part of the venue for the Brasenose Quincentenary Ball in 2009 which celebrated 500 years of the college
43.
Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
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. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
