1.
Japanese archipelago
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It consists of islands from the Sakhalin island arc and the Northeastern Japan arc. The term Home Islands was used at the end of World War II to define the area of Japan to which its sovereignty, the term is also commonly used today to distinguish the archipelago from Japans colonies and other territories in the first half of the 20th century. The archipelago consists of 6,852 islands, of which 430 are inhabited, the four main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, Honshu is the largest and referred to as the Japanese mainland. Sakhalin, part of the Russian Federation, is considered to be geographically part of the Japanese archipelago. Changes to the Japanese archipelago over time, Geography of Japan List of islands of Japan 37°30′52″N 137°42′44″E, center of mass
2.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
3.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
6.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
7.
Mile
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The mile is an English unit of length of linear measure equal to 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards, and standardised as exactly 1,609.344 metres by international agreement in 1959. The Romans divided their mile into 5,000 feet but the importance of furlongs in pre-modern England meant that the statute mile was made equivalent to 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread to the British-colonized nations who continue to employ the mile, the US Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes but legacy data from its 1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separate US survey mile continues to see some use. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated as mph, mpg. The modern English word mile derives from Middle English myl and Old English mīl, the present international mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified term mile. When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, in British English, the statute mile may refer to the present international miles or to any other form of English mile since the 1593 Act of Parliament which set it as a distance of 1,760 yards. Under American law, however, the statute mile refers to the US survey mile, the mile has been variously abbreviated—with and without a trailing period—as m, M, ml, and mi. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi in order to avoid confusion with the SI metre and millilitre. Derived units such as miles per hour and miles per gallon, however, continue to be abbreviated in the United States, United Kingdom, the BBC style holds that There is no acceptable abbreviation for ‘miles’ and so it should be spelt out when used in describing areas. The Roman mile consisted of a thousand paces as measured by every other step—as in the distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times. The ancient Romans, marching their armies through uncharted territory, would push a carved stick in the ground after each 1000 paces. Well-fed and harshly driven Roman legionaries in good weather thus created longer miles, the distance was indirectly standardised by Agrippas establishment of a standard Roman foot in 29 BC, and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet, surveyors and specialized equipment such as the decempeda and dioptra then spread its use. In modern times, Agrippas Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,481 metres in length, in Hellenic areas of the Empire, the Roman mile was used beside the native Greek units as equivalent to 8 stadia of 600 Greek feet. The mílion continued to be used as a Byzantine unit and was used as the name of the zero mile marker for the Byzantine Empire. The Roman mile also spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units below, also arising from the Roman mile is the milestone. All roads radiated out from the Roman Forum throughout the Empire –50,000 miles of stone-paved roads, at every mile was placed a shaped stone, on which was carved a Roman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the center of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one knew how far one was from Rome
8.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
9.
Uninhabited
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The list of uninhabited regions includes a number of places around the globe. The list changes year over year as human beings migrate into formerly uninhabited regions, as a group, the list of uninhabited places are called the nonecumene. This is a special geography term which means the area of the world. St Kilda Tetepare Island Tibets upper alpine zone and nival zone, tinakula Tritonia Tumucumaque National Park in northwest Brazil Desert island List of ghost towns Private island Terra Nullius
10.
Chichijima
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Chichijima, formerly known as Peel Island and in the 19th century known to the English as part of the Bonin Islands, is the largest island in the Ogasawara archipelago. Chichi-jima is approximately 240 kilometres north of Iwo Jima, the island is within the political boundaries of Ogasawara Town, Ogasawara Subprefecture, Tokyo, Japan. 2,000 people live on its area of 24 km2. Chichijima is located at 27°4′0″N 142°12′30″E, there are currently around 2,000 people living on the island, and the islands area is about 24 km2. On English maps from the early 19th century, the chain was known as the Bonin Islands. The name Bonin comes from a French cartographers corruption of the old Japanese word munin, which no man. The climate of Chichijima is on the boundary between a tropical savanna climate. Temperatures are warm to hot and humid all year round, and have never fallen below 7.8 °C or risen above 34.1 °C owing to the currents from the North Pacific gyre that surround the island. Occasionally very heavy rain will fall, as on 7 November 1997 when the island received its record daily rainfall of 348 millimetres. The first European discovery of the Bonin Islands is said to have taken place in 1543, archeological excavations show that Micronesian people lived on the island in the past, though no details are yet known. The Tokugawa Shogunate dispatched an expedition in 1675 and made a map of the island and it remained uninhabited until May 1830. S. Expedition to Japan in 1853, Naturalist William Stimpson of the Rodgers-Ringgold North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition came in 1854. Two shipwrecked sailors who were picked up by Beechey in 1827 suggested that the island would make a stopover station for whalers due to natural springs found on the island. The first settlement on the island was established in May 1830 by thirty-six-year-old Massachusetts native Nathaniel Savory along with four other whites, descendants of Nathaniel Savory continue to live on the island to this day. Commodore Perrys flagship USS Susquehanna anchored for three days in Chichijimas harbor on June 15,1853 on the way to his visit to Tokyo Bay to open up the country to western trade. On behalf of the US government, Perry purchased 50 acres from Savory, on January 17,1862, a Tokugawa Shogunate ship entered a harbor at Chichijima and officially proclaimed Japanese sovereignty over the Ogasawara Islands. Japanese immigrants were introduced from Hachijōjima under the direction of the Tokugawa Shogunate, forty members of the Savory colony were allowed to stay on the island. Following the Meiji restoration, a group of 37 Japanese colonists arrived on the island under the sponsorship of the Japanese Home Ministry in March 1876, the island was officially incorporated into Tokyo Metropolis on October 28,1880
11.
Hahajima
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Hahajima is the second-largest island of the Ogasawara Islands or Bonin Islands south of the Japanese main island chain. It is about 21 km2 in area with a population of 440, the highest points are Chibusayama, approximately 462 metres, and Sakaigatake,443 metres. The largest island of the group, Chichijima is located approximately 50 km to the north, together with nearby smaller islands like Anejima and Imōtojima and Mukōjima, Hahajima forms the Hahajima Rettō, or in former times, the Baily Group. The island is within the boundaries of Ogasawara Village, Ogasawara Subprefecture, Tokyo. The first European discovery of the Bonin Islands is said to have taken place in 1543, by the Spanish explorer, Hahajima was originally called Coffin Island or Hillsborough Island and settled by Europeans before becoming part of Japan. In World War II, the Japanese government removed the locals and fortified the island, what is left of the defense works is now one of the tourist attractions of the island. The island can be reached by ferry in about two hours from Chichijima, the economy of Hahajima is based on commercial fishing, as well as a state-run rum distillery. Today Hahajima has a population of 450, but the population was 1546 in 1904 and 1905 in 1940. There is one road from the village of Kitamura at the end of the island to the village of Okimura - formerly Newport at the southern end of the island. Ogasawara Village operates the public elementary and junior high schools. Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education operates Ogasawara High School on nearby Chichijima, Hahajima is of considerable interest to malacologists because of its endemic land snail fauna, including the eponymous Lamprocystis hahajimana. Due to the presence of invasive species including goats and rodents, flatworms. But most if not all of the land snail species seem to persist on the remote Higashizaki peninsula on the eastern coast. This is a quite pristine expanse of ground, scenic but very hard to reach and it consists of sheer seacliffs surrounding a plateau with Chinese fan palm, pandanus and broadleaf forest, and appears to be untouched by invasive species at present. It has been proposed that access to the area should be monitored, all of these snails are endemic at least to the Ogasawara Islands. The extinct Bonin grosbeak is sometimes said to have occurred in the Hahajima Group, columba janthina nitens, the Ogasawara subspecies of the Japanese wood-pigeon, used to occur on Haha-jima. While it is not precisely known when it vanished from this island, chiba, Satoshi, Davison, Angus & Mori, Hideaki, Endemic Land Snail Fauna on a Remote Peninsula in the Ogasawara Archipelago, Northwestern Pacific
12.
Ogasawara, Tokyo
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Ogasawara is a village in Ogasawara Subprefecture, Tokyo Metropolis, Japan, that governs the Bonin Islands, Volcano Islands and three remote islands. 700 km further south is Okino Torishima, and 1,900 km further east is Minamitorishima, the population of the municipality resides on Chichi-jima and Haha-jima. The administration and village hall is located in the village of Omura on Chichi-jima, in addition, there is an air base with 400 soldiers on Iwojima of the Volcano Islands. Ogasawara Village operates the public elementary and junior high schools. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education operates Ogasawara High School on Chichi-jima, Tokyo portal Official website Ogasawara subtropical moist forests. The Bonin Islands Language and Culture Site at the Wayback Machine Ogasawara Channel website Ogasawara-mura maps/photos – Tokyo Metropolitan Government
13.
Ogasawara Subprefecture
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Ogasawara Subprefecture is a subprefecture of Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. The subprefecture covers the Bonin Islands and includes the village of Ogasawara, and the government maintains a main office on Chichijima. The subprefecture covers 104.41 square km and 2,415 people, the Ogasawara Islands refer to a scattered group of islands in the Northwest Pacific south of the Japanese main island of Honshū. They consist of the Ogasawara archipelago, the Volcano Islands and several isolated islands, until 1830, the Ogasawara Islands were uninhabited and thus called Muninjima. This Japanese name was transliterated or transformed into the widely known English name—the Bonin Islands. Okinotorishima was added to the subprefecture in 1930, the current Japanese administrative structure has its historical organizational roots in the post-war occupation of these strategically positioned Pacific islands. In the 23 years that UN Trust Territory was administered by the Americans, prior to repatriation in 1968, this military strategic area remained under the control of U. S. military occupation forces. The three main groups which comprise the Bonin Islands are at the end of the archipelago. All the islands together comprise only 61 square kilometers, and they are, bride Island Groom Island Go-Between Island. Plus a few outcrops, the most remote northerly one is North Island Father Islands —the middle cluster, Father Island Elder Brother Island Younger Brother Island Grandchild Island. Plus islets known only as East Island West Island South Island the Mother Islands —the southern-most cluster, Mother Island Elder Sister Island Younger Sister Island Niece Island. The ecosystem fragility is well documented, and it suggests comparisons with the development history of the Galapagos. Subprefectures of Japan Ogasawara, Tokyo Bonin Islands Volcano Islands Kita Iwo Jima Iwo Jima Minami Iwo Jima Freeman, dilemmas of Development on The Ogasawara Islands, JPRI Occasional Paper, No.15
14.
Volcano Islands
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Not to be confused with volcanic island. The Volcano Islands or Ioretto is a group of three Japanese islands south of the Bonin Islands that belong to the municipality of Ogasawara, the islands are all active volcanoes lying atop an island arc that stretches south to the Marianas. They have an area of 32.55 square kilometres and a population of 380 and it is located in the village of Minami. Other than that, the islands are uninhabited, the first recorded sighting by Europeans was in October 1543 by Spanish navigator Bernardo de la Torre on board of carrack San Juan de Letrán when trying to return from Sarangani to New Spain. Iwo Jima was charted as Sufre, the old Spanish term for sulphur, the islands were uninhabited until 1889, when the two northern islands were settled by Japanese settlers from the Izu Islands. They were annexed by Japan in 1891, the population was about 1,100 in 1939, distributed among five settlements, Higashi, Minami, Nishi, Kita and Motoyama on Iwo Jima, and two settlements on Kita Iwo Jima, Ishino-mura and Nishi-mura. The municipal administration office was located in Higashi until 1940, when the municipality was integrated into the administration of Ogasawara, Iwo Jima was the site of the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II, and the island group came under the United States administration. The Volcano Islands were reverted to the Japanese administration in 1968, media related to Volcano Islands at Wikimedia Commons Nanpō Islands Geography of Japan
15.
Orient
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The Orient is the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the term Orient derives from the Latin word oriens meaning east. Also, many ancient temples, including temples and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, were built with their main entrances facing the East. This tradition was carried on in Christian churches, to situate them in such a manner was to orient them in the proper direction. When something was facing the direction, it was said to be in the proper orientation. Another explanation of the stems from Rome during the Roman Empire, specifically the Eastern Roman Empire, or the Roman Orient. Although the original East-West line was the Italian Peninsulas East Coast, the opposite term Occident derives from the Latin word occidens, meaning west. This term meant the west but has fallen into disuse in English, over time, the common understanding of the Orient has continually shifted eastwards, as European people traveled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call the Far East and these shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where the Orient and Oriental have kept their older meanings, travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. In European historiography, the meaning of the Orient changed in several times. Originally, the referred to Egypt, the Levant. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, by the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered the Orient as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term Orient often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa, today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and peninsular Southeast Asia. Throughout the history of the sense of the term, the Orient was never equivalent to Asia as a whole. The Orient being largely a term, large parts of Asia—Siberia most notably—were excluded from the scholarly notion of the Orient. Equally valid terms for the Orient still exist in the English language in such collocations as Oriental studies, the adjectival term Oriental has been used by the West to mean cultures, peoples, countries, Asian rugs, and goods from the Orient. It is a designation for anything belonging to the Orient or East
16.
Giant squid
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The giant squid is a deep-ocean dwelling squid in the family Architeuthidae. The mantle is about 2 m long, and the length of the squid excluding its tentacles rarely exceeds 5 m, claims of specimens measuring 20 m or more have not been scientifically documented. The number of different giant squid species has been debated, in 2004, Japanese researchers took the first images of a live giant squid in its natural habitat, and in July 2012, a live adult was first filmed in its natural habitat off Chichi-jima. Like all squid, a giant squid has a mantle, eight arms, the arms and tentacles account for much of the squids great length, making it much lighter than its chief predator, the sperm whale. Scientifically documented specimens have masses of hundreds, rather than thousands, the inside surfaces of the arms and tentacles are lined with hundreds of subspherical suction cups,2 to 5 cm in diameter, each mounted on a stalk. The circumference of these suckers is lined with sharp, finely serrated rings of chitin, the perforation of these teeth and the suction of the cups serve to attach the squid to its prey. It is common to find circular scars from the suckers on or close to the head of sperm whales that have attacked giant squid, each tentacular club is divided into three regions – the carpus, manus and dactylus. The carpus has a cluster of cups, in six or seven irregular. The manus is broader, closer to the end of the club, the bases of all the arms and tentacles are arranged in a circle surrounding the animals single, parrot-like beak, as in other cephalopods. Giant squid have small fins at the rear of their mantles used for locomotion, like other cephalopods, they are propelled by jet – by pulling water into the mantle cavity, and pushing it through the siphon, in gentle, rhythmic pulses. They can also move quickly by expanding the cavity to fill it with water, Giant squid breathe using two large gills inside the mantle cavity. The circulatory system is closed, which is a characteristic of cephalopods. Like other squid, they contain dark ink used to deter predators, the giant squid has a sophisticated nervous system and complex brain, attracting great interest from scientists. It also has the largest eyes of any living creature except perhaps the colossal squid – up to at least 27 cm in diameter, large eyes can better detect light, which is scarce in deep water. The giant squid probably cannot see colour, but it can discern small differences in tone. Giant squid and some other large squid species maintain neutral buoyancy in seawater through an ammonium chloride solution which is found throughout their bodies and is lighter than seawater and this differs from the method of flotation used by most fish, which involves a gas-filled swim bladder. The solution tastes somewhat like salmiakki and makes giant squid unattractive for general human consumption, like all cephalopods, giant squid use organs called statocysts to sense their orientation and motion in water. The age of a giant squid can be determined by growth rings in the statocysts statolith, much of what is known about giant squid age is based on estimates of the growth rings and from undigested beaks found in the stomachs of sperm whales
17.
Very-long-baseline interferometry
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Very-long-baseline interferometry is a type of astronomical interferometry used in radio astronomy. In VLBI a signal from a radio source, such as a quasar, is collected at multiple radio telescopes on Earth. The distance between the telescopes is then calculated using the time difference between the arrivals of the radio signal at different telescopes. This allows observations of an object that are made simultaneously by many radio telescopes to be combined, Data received at each antenna in the array include arrival times from a local atomic clock, such as a hydrogen maser. At a later time, the data are correlated with data from other antennas that recorded the same radio signal, the resolution achievable using interferometry is proportional to the observing frequency. VLBI is most well known for imaging distant cosmic radio sources, spacecraft tracking, using VLBI in this manner requires large numbers of time difference measurements from distant sources observed with a global network of antennas over a period of time. Some of the results derived from VLBI include, High resolution radio imaging of cosmic radio sources. Variations in the Earths orientation and length of day, the most sensitive VLBI array in the world is the European VLBI Network. This is an array which brings together the largest European radiotelescopes for typically week-long sessions. The combination of the EVN and VLBA is known as Global VLBI, VLBI has traditionally operated by recording the signal at each telescope on magnetic tapes or disks, and shipping those to the correlation center for replay. Recently, it has become possible to connect VLBI radio telescopes in close to real-time, while employing the local time references of the VLBI technique. The image to the shows the first science produced by the European VLBI Network using e-VLBI. The data from 6 telescopes were processed in time at the European Data Processing centre at JIVE. The Netherlands Academic Research Network SURFnet provides 6 x 1 Gbit/s connectivity between JIVE and the GEANT2 network, in the quest for even greater angular resolution, dedicated VLBI satellites have been placed in Earth orbit to provide greatly extended baselines. Experiments incorporating such space-borne array elements are termed Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry, another space VLBI mission, Spektr-R, was launched in July 2011. In VLBI interferometry, the digitized antenna data are recorded at each of the telescopes. The antenna signal is sampled with a precise and stable atomic clock that is additionally locked onto a GPS time standard. Alongside the astronomical data samples, the output of this clock is recorded on the tape/disk media, the recorded media are then transported to a central location
18.
National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
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The National Astronomical Observatory of Japan is an astronomical research organisation comprising several facilities in Japan, as well as an observatory in Hawaii. In the 2004 reform of national organizations, NAOJ became a division of the National Institutes of Natural Sciences. Kimura Museum Okayama Astrophysical Observatory 188cm telescope, 91cm telescope, 65cm Coude-Type solar telescope VERA 20m radio telescopes Mizusawa Ogasawara, ALMA, ASTE SELENE VSOP, VSOP-2 Hinode SPICA JASMINE Hubble Origins Probe List of astronomical observatories National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Japan Mitaka Campus Official website
19.
Nishinoshima (Ogasawara)
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Nishi-no-shima is a volcanic island located around 940 km south-southeast of Tokyo, that is part of the Volcano Islands arc. Originally the above-water part of the ridge of an underwater caldera, another eruption that began in November 2013 further enlarged the island and attracted worldwide attention. A volcanic cone formed, raising to an estimated height of 142 m by July 2016. The eruptions ceased by November 2015, though emissions of volcanic gases continued for months afterwards. It has also known as Rosario Island. As of 2016, the island is now about 2.7 km² in size and is undergoing colonization by various plants, the island was named Rosario Island when it was discovered by the Spanish ship Rosario in 1702. That was the name until 1904 when the Japanese term Nishinoshima was made the official name. When a new island was formed in the 1973 eruption, that was called Nishinoshima Shintō, but due to erosion and shifting sands, during the early stages of the 2013 eruption, a new volcanic island was formed about southeast from the original Nishinoshima. The island was not given a name but was mentioned in Japanese reports as new island. Government officials said the island would be named after it is stable, as the island has now merged with Nishinoshima, there is little possibility it will be named as a separate entity. Prior to 1974, Nishinoshima formed a small, green island which had no eruptions in the past 10,000 years, the island was merely the tip of an undersea volcano some 3,000 m in height and 30 km wide at the base. Its main period of activity was from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene, the volcano takes the form of a caldera, with the original Nishinoshima and some nearby rocks forming part of the northwest ridge of a caldera about 1 km in diameter. The island was originally about 650 m long and 200 m wide, a 1911 survey determined the caldera was 107 m at its deepest. The volcano has many large, submarine, satellite cones to the south, the southern cone rises to within 196 m of the surface, around 9 km SSE of Nishinoshima. Prior to 1973, no eruptions had ever recorded at Nishinoshima. On 30 May 1973, the crew of a passing ship noted that, at around 11,00, an aerial inspection the next day said that the eruption was taking place 400 m east of the island. Yellow-green sea water and floating pumice were seen 5 km north of the site, another crew discovered that two black rocks were rising from the sea. In July, the continued to erupt water fountains every few minutes with white smoke rising to 100 m above sea level
20.
Okinotorishima
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The Okinotori Islands is a Japanese uninhabited atoll with a total area of 8,482 m2. Its dry land area is made up by three concrete encasings and there is a 100 by 50 m platform in the lagoon housing a research station. It is located on the Palau-Kyushu Ridge in the Philippine Sea,534 km southeast of Oki Daitō and 567 km west-southwest of Minami Iwo Jima of the Ogasawara Islands or 1,740 km south of Tokyo, Japan. The atoll is the southernmost part of Japan and the only Japanese territory in the tropics, the English meaning of the name is remote bird islands. The atoll has multiple designations in English and its original name was Parece Vela, Spanish for it looks like a sail. This name has retained in English as well, especially to designate the geological formations of the islets. It was possibly first sighted by the Spanish sailor Bernardo de la Torre in 1543, certainly by Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565, in 1789, William Douglas arrived with the British ship Iphigenia and, in 1790, the place was named Douglas Reef. The existence of the atoll might not have known by the Japanese until 1888. In 1922 and 1925, the Japanese navy ship Manshu investigated the area, during 1939 and 1941 a foundation was completed for a lighthouse and a meteorological observation site but construction was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. After Japans defeat, the United States assumed sovereignty over the Ogasawara islands, for the purpose of this Agreement, the term Nanpo Shoto and other islands means Nanpo Shoto south of Sofu Gan and Parece Vela and Marcus Island, including their territorial waters. Funding for full repairs was finally allocated in early 2016, on March 16,2007, a light beacon was installed by the Japan Coast Guard. The beacon is plotted on the hydrographic chart, geologically, the islets are a coral atoll, built on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge, the westernmost part of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc System. The name Parece Vela has been given to the extinct back-arc basin that lies immediately to the east and this back-arc basin was formed by seafloor spreading between the late Oligocene and Miocene. The Parece Vela Basin contains the longest megamullion in the world, the original Spanish name of the islets is normally used for the geological formations, hence, Parece Vela megamullion, Parece Vela ridge, Parece Vela rift or Parece Vela basin. The waters around the reefs are rich in oil and other mineral and fisheries resources. At high tide, one area of the reefs is 1.58 square meters, roughly the size of a twin bed, the other is 7.86 square metres, the size of a small bedroom, and rises 16 centimetres, about twice as high. The entire reef consists of approximately 7.8 square kilometers, the area has three tiny individual islets, Higashi-Kojima Kita-Kojima, nevertheless rather in the West Minami-Kojima Minami-Kojima is a completely artificial islet created in shallow water. But also the two original islets appear completely artificial today, with little if any trace of the two rocks that still appear on photographs of 1987
21.
Minami-Tori-shima
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The closest island to Minami-Tori-shima is East Island in the Mariana Islands, which is 1,015 kilometres to the west-southwest. The meaning of its Japanese name is Southern Bird Island and it is the easternmost territory belonging to Japan, and the only Japanese territory on the Pacific Plate, past the Japan Trench. Although very small and without a population, it is of strategic importance. It is also the easternmost territory of Tokyo, being part of Ogasawara village. Minami-Tori-shima is triangular in shape, and unusual in that it has a saucer-like profile, the central area of the island is 1 metre below sea level. Outside the reef, the ocean depths quickly plunge to over 1,000 metres, the island has a total land area of 1.2 square kilometres. The island also has the highest average temperature in Japan, the first discovery and mention of an island in this area was made by a Spanish Manila Galleon captain, Andrés de Arriola in 1694. It was charted in Spanish maps as Sebastian López, after the Spanish Admiral Sebastian López and its exact location was left unrecorded until further sightings in the early 19th century. The island was mentioned again in 1864 by the ship Morning Star, belonging either to the United States or the Kingdom of Hawaii and its position was recorded by a United States survey ship in 1874, and first landed on by a Japanese national, Kiozaemon Saito in 1879. On June 30,1886, a Japanese named Shinroku Mizutani led a group of 46 colonists from Haha-jima in the Ogasawara Islands to settle on Marcus Island, the settlement was named Mizutani after the leader of the expedition. The Empire of Japan officially annexed the island July 24,1898, the island was officially named Minami-Tori-shima and placed administratively under the Ogasawara Subprefecture of Tokyo. Sovereignty over the island before World War I was apparently disputed as various sources from the move the island from the American to Japanese domain without specific explanation. In 1902, the United States dispatched a warship from Hawaii to enforce its claims, in 1914, William D. Boyce included Marcus Island as an obviously American island in his book, The Colonies and Dependencies of the United States. In 1933, by orders of the Japanese government, the inhabitants of Minami-Tori-shima were evacuated. In 1935, the Imperial Japanese Navy established a station on the island. The United States Navy bombed it repeatedly in 1942 and in 1943, the island was taken by American forces on May 12,1945. Though isolated, the Japanese were able to resupply the garrison by submarine and that channel is still visible today. The Treaty of San Francisco transferred the island to American control, the island was returned to Japanese control in 1968, but the Americans retained control of the airstrip and LORAN station
22.
North Iwo Jima
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North Iwo Jima is the northernmost island of the Volcano Islands group of the Ogasawara Islands,80 km north of Iwo Jima. It is 1170 km south of Tokyo,207 km SSW of Chichi-jima, the island consists of the heavily eroded peak of a stratovolcano, which rises 792 m above sea level. The peak is called Sakagi-ga-mine, with peak at Shimizu-ga-mine. Its area is 5.57 km², and shore length 8.0 km and it is part of Ogasawara municipality and is uninhabited. Its Japanese name was changed to Kita-Iōtō on June 18,2007, first sighting by Europeans was in October 1543 by Spanish navigator Bernardo de la Torre on board of carrack San Juan de Letrán, when trying to return from Sarangani to New Spain. It was first settled by settlers from the Izu Islands in 1889, at the start of World War II, the population was 103. The civilian population was evacuated during the war, unincorporated until 1940, it became part of the newly created municipality of Iōtō in 1940, which was included in Ogasawara-mura in 1968 upon the return of the islands by the United States to Japan. Four men, flying a United States Navy S-3B Viking jet from the U. S. aircraft carrier John C, stennis, died when their aircraft crashed on August 10,2004 on Kita Iwo Jima during a naval exercise over the Pacific. Scott A. Zellem,35, of Indiana, Pennsylvania, Lt. Patrick S. Myrick,31, of Seattle, Lt. James J. Pupplo,34, of Selden, New York, Petty Officer 2nd Class Joshua B. During the solar eclipse of July 22,2009, the island had nearly six and a half minutes of totality, longer than any other land mass
23.
Kanbun
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Kanbun, a method of annotating Classical Chinese so that it can be read in Japanese, was used from the Heian period to the mid-20th century. Much Japanese literature was written in style, and it was the general writing style for official and intellectual works throughout the period. As a result, Sino-Japanese vocabulary makes up a portion of the Japanese lexicon. The corresponding system in Korean is gugyeol, the Japanese writing system originated through adoption and adaptation of Written Chinese. Japans oldest books and dictionaries were written in kanbun, other Japanese literary genres have parallels, the Kaifūsō is the oldest collection of Kanshi Chinese poetry composed by Japanese poets. Burton Watsons English translations of kanbun compositions provide an introduction to this literary field. Samuel Martin coined the term Sino-Xenic in 1953 to describe Chinese as written in Japan, Korea and he explains how in the Japanese kanbun reading tradition a Chinese text is simultaneously punctuated, analyzed, and translated into classical Japanese. It operates according to a canon of Japanese forms and syntactic structures which are treated as existing in a one-to-one alignment with the vocabulary. Hannas points out the linguistic hurdles involved in kanbun transformation, Kanbun, literally Chinese writing, refers to a genre of techniques for making Chinese texts read like Japanese, or for writing in a way imitative of Chinese. For a Japanese, neither of these tasks could be accomplished easily because of the two different structures. As I have mentioned, Chinese is an isolating language and its grammatical relations are identified in subject–verb–object order and through the use of particles similar to English prepositions. Inflection plays no role in the grammar, morphemes are typically one syllable in length and combine to form words without modification to their phonetic structures. According to John Timothy Wixted, scholars have disregarded kanbun, a promising new development in kanbun studies is the Web-accessible database being developed by scholars at Nishōgakusha University in Tokyo. The Japanese word kanbun originally meant Classical Chinese writings, Chinese classic texts, compositions written in kanbun used two common types of Japanese kanji readings, Sino-Japanese onyomi borrowed from Chinese pronunciations and native Japanese kunyomi from Japanese equivalents. For example, 道 can be read as dō adapted from Middle Chinese /dấw/ or as michi from the indigenous Japanese word meaning road, Kanbun – as opposed to Wabun meaning Japanese text, composition written with Japanese syntax and predominately kunyomi readings – is subdivided into several types. Classical Chinese, which, as we have seen, had long ceased to be a spoken language on the mainland, has been in use in the Japanese archipelago longer than the Japanese language itself. The oldest written remnants found in Japan are all in Chinese, inasmuch as Classical Chinese was originally unpunctuated, the kanbun tradition developed various conventional reading punctuation, diacritical, and syntactic markers. Two are syntactic symbols, the | tatesen linking mark denotes phrases, for written English, these kaeriten would correspond with 1,2,3, I, II, III, A, B, C, etc
24.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
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Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a preeminent daimyō, warrior, general, samurai, and politician of the Sengoku period who is regarded as Japans second great unifier. He succeeded his former lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Warring States period. The period of his rule is called the Momoyama period. After his death, his young son Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu, Hideyoshi is noted for a number of cultural legacies, including the restriction that only members of the samurai class could bear arms. He financed the construction, restoration and rebuilding of many temples standing today in Kyoto, Hideyoshi played an important role in the history of Christianity in Japan when he ordered the execution by crucifixion of twenty-six Christians. Very little is known for certain about Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and his autobiography starts in 1577 but in it Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past. According to tradition, he was born in Owari Province, the home of the Oda clan and he was born of no traceable samurai lineage, being the son of a peasant-ashigaru named Yaemon. He had no surname, and his given name was Hiyoshi-maru although variations exist. Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, under the name Kinoshita Tōkichirō, he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named Matsushita Yukitsuna. He traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, daimyō of Suruga Province, in 1558 he joined the Oda clan, now headed by Oda Nobunaga, as an ashigaru. According to his biographers, he supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a described as apocryphal. In 1561, Hideyoshi married One who was Asano Nagakatsus adopted daughter and he carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger brother Toyotomi Hidenaga and the bandits Hachisuka Masakatsu and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshis efforts were well received because Sunomata was in enemy territory and he constructed a fort in Sunomata, according to legend overnight, and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba after which much of the garrison surrendered. Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator, in 1564, he managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clans strategist, the new surname included two characters, one each from Odas two other right-hand men, Niwa Nagahide and Shibata Katsuie. Hideyoshi led troops in the Battle of Anegawa in 1570 in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans and he participated in the 1573 Siege of Nagashima. In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, initially based at the former Azai headquarters in Odani, Hideyoshi moved to Kunitomo, and renamed the city Nagahama in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, from there he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura
25.
Isaac Titsingh
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Isaac Titsingh FRS was a Dutch surgeon, scholar, merchant-trader and ambassador. During a long career in East Asia, Titsingh was an official of the Dutch East India Company. He represented the European trading company in exclusive official contact with Tokugawa Japan, traveling to Edo twice for audiences with the shogun and he was the Dutch and VOC governor general in Chinsura, Bengal. Titsingh worked with his counterpart, Charles Cornwallis, who was general of the British East India Company. In China, Titsingh effectively functioned as ambassador for his country at the time as he represented the Dutch East India Company as a trade representative. Isaac Titsingh was born in Amsterdam, the son of Albertus Titsingh and his baptism took place at the Amstelkerk in Amsterdam on 21 January 1745. His father, Albertus Titsingh was a successful and prominent Amsterdam surgeon and he thus possessed the means for Isaac Titsingh to be brought up with an ‘enlightened education’ of the 18th century. Isaac Titsingh became a member of the Amsterdam Chirurgijngilde and received the degree of a Doctor of Law from Leiden University in January 1765, in March 1764 Titsingh was appointed as a freeman and 1766 went within his employment to Batavia. Titsingh was the commercial Opperhoofd or chief factor in Japan between 1779-1780, 1781–1783, and in 1784, the singular importance of the head of the VOC in Japan during this period was enhanced by the Japanese policy of sakoku—imposed isolation. The sole exception to this door was the VOC factory on the island of Dejima in Nagasaki Bay. During this period of seclusion, Titsingh is believed to have been the first Freemason in Japan, in this highly controlled context, the traders became the sole official conduit for trade and for scientific-cultural exchanges between Europe and Japan. The VOC Opperhoofd was accorded the status of a tributary of the Shogun, nevertheless, the average Opperhoofd was not interested in the customs or culture of the Japanese. Titsingh showed an almost incredible interest and distinguished himself as an observer of Japanese civilization for a European of his time when compared to his colleagues in Dejima. Titsingh arrived in Nagasaki on 15 August 1779, where he took over the factory from Arend Willem Feith. During his first audience with Ieharu in Edo from 25 March 1780 until 5 April 1780 and he became incredibly prominent within the elite society of Edo and became friends with several daimyōs and retired daimyōs of the area. After a short return to Batavia in 1780, Titsingh returned to Nagasaki on 12 August 1781, there were no Dutch shipments from Batavia in 1782 due to the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War and thus the trading post in Dejima was cut off from communication with Java during this year. Titsingh stayed a total of three years and eight months in Japan before finally leaving Nagasaki at the end of November 1784 to return to Batavia, in 1785, Titsingh was appointed director of the trading post at Chinsura in Bengal. Titsingh was described by William Jones, the philologist and Bengal jurist, Titsingh’s return to Batavia led to new positions as Ontvanger-Generaal and later as Commissaris ter Zee
26.
Hayashi Shihei
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Hayashi Shihei was a Japanese military scholar and a retainer of the Sendai Domain. His name is sometimes misread as Rin Shihei, Shihei was born the second son of Hayashi Gonhyoue Yoshimichi, a hatamoto who served the Tokugawa shogunate. However Yoshimichi was expelled for some reason, some argue it was the result of a conflict with his colleagues, after that, Shihei was brought up by his uncle Hayashi Jyugo, a physician. He spent most of his life in his bedroom and he wrote a poem called Six Nos, which reads, I have no parents, no wife, no son, no block for printing, no money, and I wish for no death. His elder brother, Hayashi Kazen became one of the Sendai domains official doctors, years before Commodore Perry sailed into Japan in 1853, Shihei was pushing for Japan to adopt Western military science and the re-education of the samurai. He complained of the lack of organized drill exercises, and stressed the importance of chōren, or teamwork drill and he gave a lot of technical descriptions about shipbuilding, cannons and other military designs. He published these thoughts in his work titled Kaikoku Heidan, printed without permission of the bakufu in the year 1791, the printing blocks were confiscated soon afterwards. Another famous work is Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu, printed in 1786, together with Takayama Hikokurō and Gamō Sanbei, Hayashi is known as one of the Three Excelling Men of the Kansei Period. A plaque commemorating his accomplishments can also be found at the site of Sendai Castle, Japanese Wiki article on Hayashi Japanese Wiki article on the Kansei no san-kijin Dore, Ronald P. Boxer, C. R. Rin Shihei and his picture of a Dutch East-India ship,1782, lederer, Friedrich Diskurs über die Wehrhaftigkeit einer Seenation München, Iudicium,2002 First Translation of Kaikoku Heidan in a foreign language, i. e. German
27.
Bonin Islands
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The Bonin Islands, also known as the Ogasawara Islands, are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands, some 1,000 kilometres directly south of Tokyo, Japan. The name Bonin Islands comes from the Japanese word bunin, meaning no people or uninhabited, the only inhabited islands of the group are Chichi-jima, the seat of the municipal government, and Haha-jima, which includes Ogasawara Village. Ogasawara Municipality and Ogasawara Subprefecture take their names from the Ogasawara Group, geographically speaking, all of these islands are part of the Nanpō Islands. A total population of 2,440, comprising 2,000 on Chichi-jima and 440 on Haha-jima, lives in the Ogasawara Group, because the Ogasawara Islands have never been connected to a continent, many of their animals and plants have undergone unique evolutionary processes. This has led to the nickname of the The Galápagos of the Orient. The giant squid was filmed off the Ogasawara Islands for the first time in the wild on September 27,2005, and was captured in December 2006. The Bonin Islands consist of three subgroups, which are listed below along with their islands, Muko-jima Group - formerly Parry Group. Nakōdo-jima or Nakadachi-jima, Kita-no-jima, Mae-jima - formerly the Ears, Chichi-jima Group - formerly Beechey Group, ani-jima - formerly Hog I. /Buckland I. Otōto-jima - formerly North I. /Stapleton I, mago-jima, Higashi-jima Nishi-jima - formerly Goat I. Haha-jima Group - formerly Baily Group or Coffin Islands, Haha-jima - formerly Hillsborough I, hira-jima or Taira-jima Ane-jima - formerly Perry I. Mei-jima Administratively, the Volcano Islands, Nishinoshima, Okinotorishima and Minamitorishima, are part of Ogasawara municipality. Geographically, they are not traditionally considered part of the Bonin Islands, which are the Mukojima, Chichijima, in other words, the historical range of the Bonin Islands is not the precise equivalent of the Japanese governmental unit. The Bonin Islands is a term excluding the other islands which are today associated within the boundaries of a collective term. The first recorded visit by Europeans to the islands happened on 2 October 1543, when the Spanish explorer Bernardo de la Torre sighted Haha-jima, at that time, the islands were not populated. Japanese discovery of the islands occurred in Kanbun 10 and was followed by an expedition in Enpō3. The islands were claimed as a territory of Japan and they were then referred to as Bunin jima, literally the uninhabited islands. In 1727, Ogasawara Sadato, a ronin, claimed that the islands were discovered by his ancestor Ogasawara Sadayori, in 1593, and the territory was granted as a fief by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. However, investigation of the found that it was a fraud
28.
Archbishop
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In Christianity, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In some cases, like the Lutheran Church of Sweden, it is the denomination leader title, an archbishop may be granted the title, or ordained as chief pastor of a metropolitan see or another episcopal see to which the title of archbishop is attached. Episcopal sees are generally arranged in groups in which the bishop who is the ordinary of one of them has certain powers and he is known as the metropolitan archbishop of that see. As well as the more numerous metropolitan sees, there are 77 Roman Catholic sees that have archiepiscopal rank. In some cases, such a see is the one in a country, such as Luxembourg or Monaco. In others, the title of archdiocese is for reasons attributed to a see that was once of greater importance. Some of these archdioceses are suffragans of a metropolitan archdiocese, an example is the Archdiocese of Avignon, which is a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Marseille, Another such example is the Archdiocese of Trnava, Slovakia. Others are immediately subject to the Holy See and not to any metropolitan archdiocese and these are usually aggregated to an ecclesiastical province. An example is the Archdiocese of Hobart in Australia, associated with the Metropolitan ecclesiastical province of Melbourne, the ordinary of such an archdiocese is an archbishop, however, especially in the Anglican Communion, not all archbishops dioceses are called archdioceses. Since then, the title of Coadjutor Archbishop of the see is considered sufficient, the rank of archbishop is conferred on some bishops who are not ordinaries of an archdiocese. They hold the rank not because of the see that they head, the bishop transferred is then known as the Archbishop-Bishop of his new see. An example is Gianfranco Gardin, appointed Archbishop-Bishop of Treviso on 21 December 2009, the title borne by the successor of such an archbishop-bishop is merely that of Bishop of the see, unless he also is granted the personal title of Archbishop. The distinction between metropolitan sees and non-metropolitan archiepiscopal sees exists for titular sees as well as for residential ones, the Annuario Pontificio marks titular sees of the former class with the abbreviation Metr. and the others with Arciv. Many of the sees to which nuncios and heads of departments of the Roman Curia who are not cardinals are assigned are not of archiepiscopal rank. In that case the person who is appointed to such a position is given the title of archbishop. They are usually referred to as Archbishop of the see, not as its Archbishop-Bishop, until 1970, such archbishops were transferred to a titular see. There can be several Archbishops Emeriti of the see, the 2008 Annuario Pontificio listed three living Archbishops Emeriti of Taipei. There is no Archbishop Emeritus of a see, an archbishop who holds a titular see keeps it until death or until transferred to another see
29.
Pedro Moya de Contreras
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He was the 6th Viceroy, governing from September 25,1584 to October 16,1585. During this interval he held all three positions, Moya de Contreras received the degree of doctor of canon law from the University of Salamanca. Later he became head of the school in the Canary Islands. In 1571 he became the first inquisitor general of New Spain and he established the Tribunal del Santo Oficio in Mexico City in 1571. He celebrated the first auto-da-fé in New Spain in 1571, two years later, on June 15,1573, Moya de Contreras was chosen Archbishop of Mexico and consecrated bishop on November 21,1573 by Antonio Ruíz de Morales y Molina, Bishop of Tlaxcala. He served until 1591, the year of his death, in 1585 he convoked and presided at the Third Provincial Council of the Church in Mexico, which established standards for the Church that endured to the end of the colonial era. This council banned the enslavement of the Indians, as both archbishop and viceroy, one of his major concerns was education of the Indians. He founded the Seminary of the Indies, to teach them Christian doctrine, reading, writing, singing, philip named Moya, then the sitting Archbishop of Mexico. As visitador, he took up the accusations against the corrupt oidores and he dismissed the former and punished the latter, some by hanging. In a letter reporting to the king, he praised those officials who had met their obligations. Suárez de Mendoza died in June,1583, the Audiencia was formally in charge of the colony for 16 months, until the installation of the new viceroy. However, Moya de Contreras continued in the position of visitador during the interregnum, in 1584, he was named viceroy to succeed Suárez. He took up the new position on September 25,1584 and he now held the three most important positions in the colony. With this concentration of power, he was able to remedy many of the prevalent abuses and this resulted in much enmity among the governing class, but the lower classes proclaimed him as their defender. He was able to increase rents and payments to Spain considerably, in 1584 he resigned as viceroy, but retained his other positions for a little longer while he wound up his affairs before returning to Spain. Upon his return, he became president of the Council of the Indies, Moya de Contreras died in Spain in December,1591, so poor that the Crown paid for his funeral. His body was interred in the church of Santiago, in Madrid. He left various writings which were collected in the book Cartas de Indias, luis de Villanueva y Zapata, interim viceroy who preceded Moya de Contreras Moya de Contreras, Pedro, Enciclopedia de México, v.10
30.
Colonization
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Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means to inhabit, Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed a majority of the population. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand and these colonies were occasionally called neo-Europes. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, who were dominant in their places of settlement. When Britain started to settle Australia, New Zealand and various smaller islands. Terra nullius meaning empty land in Latin, due to the absence of European farming techniques, the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited, despite the presence of indigenous populations. In the 19th century, laws and ideas such as Mexicos General Colonization Law, in ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia often established colonies to farm what they believed was uninhabited land. Land suitable for farming was often occupied by migratory barbarian tribes who lived by hunting and gathering, to ancient Greeks and Phoenicians, these lands were regarded as simply vacant. However, this did not mean that conflict did not exist between the colonizers and local/native peoples, Greeks and Phoenicians also established colonies with the intent of regulating and expanding trade throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Another period of colonization in ancient times was during the Roman Empire, the Roman Empire conquered large parts of Western Europe, North Africa and West Asia. In North Africa and West Asia, the Romans often conquered what they regarded as civilized peoples, as they moved north into Europe, they mostly encountered rural peoples/tribes with very little in the way of cities. In these areas, waves of Roman colonization often followed the conquest of the areas, the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. During this period there were the movements of peoples establishing new colonies all over western Europe. The events of time saw the development of many of the modern day nations of Europe like the Franks in France and Germany. In West Asia, during Sassanid Empire, some Persians established colonies in Yemen, the Vikings of Scandinavia also carried out a large-scale colonization. The Vikings are best known as raiders, setting out from their homelands in Denmark, southern Norway and southern Sweden. In time, the Vikings began trading, and established colonies, the Vikings discovered Iceland and established colonies before moving onto Greenland, where they briefly held some colonies
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Frederick William Beechey
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Frederick William Beechey was an English naval officer and geographer. He was the son of Sir William Beechey RA, and was born in London, in 1806, he entered the Royal Navy, saw active service during the wars with France and America. In 1818, he served under Lieutenant John Franklin in David Buchans Arctic expedition, in the following year he accompanied Lieutenant W. E. Parry in HMS Hecla. In 1821, he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, in 1825, Beechey was appointed to command the HMS Blossom. His task was to explore the Bering Strait in concert with Franklin, the whole voyage lasted more than three years and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape Prince of Wales. In July 1826, he named the three islands in the Bering Strait, two were the Diomede Islands that Vitus Bering had named in 1728, Ratmanoff Island and Krusenstern Island. Beechey called the uninhabited third islet Fairway Rock, which is still its contemporary name, one of his crew, Petty Officer John Bechervaise, gave a detailed account of the voyage in his Thirty-six Years of a Seafaring Life by an Old Quartermaster, published privately in 1839. In 1831, there appeared Beecheys Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Berings Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions, 1825-1828. In 1835, and the following year Captain Beechey was employed on the coast survey of South America and he was appointed in 1850 to preside over the Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In 1854, he was made rear-admiral, and in the year was elected president of the Royal Geographical Society. Beechey Island, where Sir John Franklin wintered, is named after him and his daughter was the painter Frances Anne Hopkins who lived in Canada for twelve years and painted many scenes of canoe travel. Three of his brothers were painters, the admiral and painter Richard Brydges Beechey, the portraitist Henry William Beechey, european and American voyages of scientific exploration —. Proceedings Of The Expedition To Explore The Northern Coast Of Africa, From Tripoly Eastward, In MDCCCXXI and MDCCCXXII Comprehending An Account of The Greater Syrtis And Cyranaeica. Narrative Of A Voyage To The Pacific And Beerings Strait, To Co-Operate With The Polar Expeditions Performed In His Majestys Ship Blossom, Under The Command Of Captain F. W. Beechey, in The Years 1825,26,27,28. A Voyage Of Discovery Towards The North Pole, Performed In His Majestys Ships Dorothea And Trent, Under The Command Of Captain David Buchan and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Beechey, Frederick William. The Botany of Captain Beecheys voyage
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HMS Blossom (1806)
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HMS Blossom was an 18-gun Cormorant-class sloop-of-war. She was built in 1806 and is best known for the 1825–1828 expedition under Captain Beechey to the Pacific Ocean and she explored as far north as Point Barrow, Alaska, the furthest point into the Arctic any non-Inuit had been at the time. She was finally broken up in 1848, on 26 February 1808 Blossom was in company with Eclipse when they captured the Sally and Hetty, William Fleming, Master. Blossom was in company with Jamaica when they recaptured the American brig Iris, in the mid-morning of 23 February 1812, Blossom was five leagues off Cabrera when a strange schooner sailed towards her, mistaking her for a merchantman. When the schooner realized her mistake a five-hour chase followed before Blossom was able to capture the schooner Jean Bart, Jean Bart was of 147.5 tons and had been launched in Marseilles only five weeks earlier. She was armed with five 12 and two 6-pounder guns, and had a crew of 106 men under the command of Jean Francis Coulome and she had made no captures but within the previous five days her excellent sailing had enabled her to evade two British frigates and a brig. On 18 August 1812, shortly after the outbreak of war with America, Blossom, Blossom was re-rated as a 24-gun sixth rate in February 1817. Between July 1824 and August 1825, she was at Deptford, in January 1825 Commander Frederick Beechey commissioned her for exploration of the Pacific Northwest. Blossom was paid off in May 1828, between April and August 1829 she was at woolwich being fitted as a survey ship. In May Richard Owen recommissioned her for the Jamaica station and she remained there until some point in 1832. While she was there the 1-gun schooner Monkey served as Blossoms ships tender until Monkey wrecked in 1831, the Navy then purchased a second schooner to function as a tender for Blossom, and renamed the tender Monkey. The Navy sold Monkey after Blossom returned to Britain in 1832, Blossom was hulked as a lazarette at Sheerness in January 1833, and was broken up at Chatham in August 1848. European and American voyages of scientific exploration Sources References Beechey, Frederick William. Narrative of A Voyage To The Pacific And Beerings Strait, To Co-Operate With The Polar Expeditions Performed In His Majestys Ship Blossom, Under The Command Of Captain F. W. Beechey, in The Years 1825,26,27,28. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, the Sail and Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815–1889. Ships of discovery and exploration, by Lincoln P. Paine Earliest Records of the Islands Their Discovery by Captain Beechey, Blossom Mid-Victorian RN vessel HMS Blossom
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Nathaniel Savory
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Nathaniel Savory was one of the first American colonists who is said to have settled on the Bonin Islands. He eventually became governor, and played a role in government before. Nathaniel Savory was born in Bradford, Massachusetts and eventually relocated to Hawaii, in 1830 he headed out for an adventure expedition, led by Matteo Mazzaro, and accompanied by a small group of Americans, British, and Hawaiians who all eventually settled in Ōgiura, Chichi-jima. After a shift in power and the death of Matteo Mazzaro, in April 1853, Admiral Matthew Perry made a stop at the island on the way to Japan established a colonial government plan, and chose Savory as the leader of the immigrants. In December 1861, when Tadakuni Mizuno and others landed on the island, in 1862 the islands were claimed by Japan, but Savory was left in charge of the islanders. Nathaniel Savory is a prominent character in the 1943 novel Bonin by Robert Standish
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Devon
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Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
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Dubrovnik
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Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea, in the region of Dalmatia. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations in the Mediterranean Sea, a seaport, in 1979, the city of Dubrovnik joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. After repair and restoration works in the 1990s and early 2000s, the names Dubrovnik and Ragusa co-existed for several centuries. The name Dubrovnik of the Adriatic city is first recorded in the Charter of Ban Kulin. It is mostly explained as a Slavic name of the type, referring to an oak grove or oak forest. The historical name Ragusa is recorded in the Greek form Ῥαούσιν in the 10th century and it was recorded in various forms in the medieval period, Rausia, Lavusa, Labusa, Raugia, Rachusa. Various attempts have been made to etymologize the name, a connection to the name of Sicilian Ragusa has also been proposed. The classical explanation of the name is due to Constantine Porphyrogenituss De Administrando Imperio, the name is explained as a corruption of Lausa, the name of the rocky island on which the city was built. Excavations in 2007 revealed a Byzantine basilica from the 8th century, the size of the old basilica clearly indicates that there was quite a large settlement at the time. There is also evidence for the presence of a settlement in the pre-Christian era, after the fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, the town came under the protection of the Byzantine Empire. Dubrovnik in those medieval centuries had a Roman population, after the Crusades, Dubrovnik came under the sovereignty of Venice, which would give its institutions to the Dalmatian city. After a fire destroyed almost the whole city in the night of August 16,1296, by the Peace Treaty of Zadar in 1358, Dubrovnik achieved relative independence as a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Hungary. Between the 14th century and 1808, Dubrovnik ruled itself as a state, although it was a vassal from 1382 to 1804 of the Ottoman Empire. The Republic reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, for centuries, Dubrovnik was an ally of Ancona, the other Adriatic maritime republic rival of Venice, which was the Ottoman Empires chief rival for control of the Adriatic. Ancona and Dubrovnik developed a trade route to the Venetian, starting in Dubrovnik it went on to Ancona, through Florence. The Republic of Ragusa received its own Statutes as early as 1272, statutes which, among other things, codified Roman practice, the Statutes included prescriptions for town planning and the regulation of quarantine. An almshouse was opened in 1347, and the first quarantine hospital was established in 1377, slave trading was abolished in 1418, and an orphanage opened in 1432. A20 km water supply system, instead of a cistern, was constructed in 1438 by the Neapolitan architect and he completed the aqueduct with two public fountains
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Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
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Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
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Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
