1.
Sardinia
–
Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
Sardinia
–
Cala Goloritzé,
Baunei
Sardinia
–
Sardinia Sardegna (
Italian) Sardìnnia (
Sardinian) Sardenya (
Catalan)
Sardinia
–
View of
Gennargentu, the highest massif of Sardinia
Sardinia
–
Lake Omodeo, the largest reservoir in Italy
2.
Nuragic civilization
–
The Nuragic civilization, born and developed in Sardinia, the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, lasted from the Bronze Age to the 2nd century AD. The civilizations name derives from its most characteristic monument, the nuraghe, today some 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape. No written records of civilization have been discovered. The only written information that we have comes from literature of the Greeks and Romans. In the Stone Age the island was inhabited by people who had arrived there in the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages from several parts of Europe, the most ancient settlements have been discovered both in central Sardinia and Anglona. Later several cultures developed on the island, such as the Ozieri culture, the economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing and trading with the mainland. With the diffusion of metallurgy, silver and copper objects and weapons also appeared on the island, according to some scholars, the similarity between this structure and those found in Mesopotamia are due to cultural influxes coming from the Eastern Mediterranean. The altar of Monte dAccoddi fell out of use starting from c.2000 BC, when the Beaker culture, the beakers appeared in Sardinia from two different geographical areas, firstly from Spain and southern France and then from Central Europe, through the Italian Peninsula. The Bonnanaro culture was the last evolution of the Beaker culture in Sardinia and these two cultures shared common features in the material culture such as pottery with axe-shaped handles. These influences may have spread to Sardinia via Corsica, where they absorbed new architectural techniques that were widespread on the island. New peoples coming from the mainland arrived on the island at time, bringing with them new cults, new technologies and new ways of life. The widespread diffusion of bronze brought numerous improvements to the used in agriculture, hunting. From this period dates the construction of the so-called proto-nuraghe, a structure that marks the first phase of the Nuragic Age. There has long been controversy among scholars, in ancient times, Greek historians and geographers tried to solve the mystery of the nuraghe and their builders. They described the presence of fabulous edifices, called daidaleia, from the name of Daedalus, perhaps for protection reasons, new towers were added to the original ones, connected by walls provided with slits forming a complex nuraghe. It has been suggested some of the current Sardinian villages trace their origin directly from Nuragic ones. The usually cited tin sources and trade in ancient times are those in the Iberian Peninsula or from Cornwall, the late Bronze Age saw a vast migration of the so-called Sea Peoples, described in ancient Egyptian sources. They destroyed Mycenaean and Hittite sites and also attacked Egypt, according to Giovanni Ugas the Sherden, one of the most important tribes of the sea peoples, are to be identified with the Nuragic Sardinians
Nuragic civilization
–
Su Nuraxi of
Barumini, included in the
UNESCO list of
World Heritage Sites since 1997
Nuragic civilization
–
Nuraghe Ruju in
Province of Sassari
Nuragic civilization
–
Domus de janas in
Lotzorai
Nuragic civilization
–
Pranu Mutteddu’s Necropolis (
Goni)
3.
Province of Sassari
–
The Province of Sassari is a province in the autonomous island region of Sardinia in Italy. Its capital is the city of Sassari, as of 2014, the province had a population of 334,413 people. In ancient times, between 1600 and 1500 BC, the Nuraghi civilization was at its peak in this area, during the Roman domination, the Logudoro region was one of the main grain suppliers of the Western Roman Empire, and was the seat of several legions. The numerous countryside Romanesque basilicas date from this period, after the conquest by the House of Aragon, Logoduro declined, but later, under the House of Savoy rule as part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, it grew in significance. In the 20th century the construction of roads and railways brought more prosperity, the modern University of Sassari dates to around the same time that the province was created. Since 1878 the province has been administered from the Palazzo della Provincia in Sassari, facing the Sardinian Sea to the north and west, the Province of Sassari is bordered to the south by the provinces of Nuoro and Oristano and east by the Province of Olbia-Tempio. It has an area of 4,282 square kilometres, there are 66 municipalities in the province, the largest of which are Sassari, Alghero, Porto Torres, Sorso, Ozieri, Ittiri and Sennori. Another town of note, Pattada, is known for its handmade knives. In this territory is one of the largest plains in Sardinia, the province contains some of the most famous resorts of Sardinia including Castelsardo, Porto Torres, Alghero, the Riviera del Corallo, Stintino and others. Stintino is located on the peninsula of the name, running from the Nurra plain to the Asinara Island. Among the notable beaches of the Province of Sassari is Balai in Porto Torres, Pelosa Beach in Stintino, and others such as Alghero il Lido, Maria Pia, Bombarde, and Mugoni. The inner part of the province in the traditional Logoduro region is characterized by a hilly and mountainous landscape, the town of Ozieri is its most important center for culture and history away from the coast, noted for its production of tools and pottery from ancient times. Media related to Province of Sassari at Wikimedia Commons Official website
Province of Sassari
–
The Palace of the Province of Sassari,
Sassari
4.
Polada culture
–
Other major sites are found in the area between Mantua, the Lake Garda and the Lake of Pusiano. It was succeeded in the Middle Bronze Age by the facies of the pile dwellings and of the dammed settlements. The Polada culture is usually assigned to the period from 2200 to 1500 BC, or according to A. F. Harding from 2400 to 1400 BC, according to the chronology proposed by Renato Perini, they correspond to the Bronzo Antico II and Bronzo Antico III. These clay objects can be dated in Italy in a period from 2050 BC to 1400/1300 BC, the settlement of Lavagnone 1 can be assigned to 2080/2050 BC. Lavagnone 2 existed for 65 years and Lavagnone 3 began around 1984 BC, there are some commonalities with the previous Bell Beaker Culture including the usage of the bow and a certain mastery in metallurgy. Apart from that, the Polada culture does not correspond to the Beaker culture nor to the previous Remedello culture, according to Barfield the appearance of Polada facies is connected to the movement of new populations coming from southern Germany and from Switzerland. Its influences are found in the cultures of the Early Bronze Age of Liguria, Romagna, Corsica. The settlements in the area of lakes and marshes of Moraine are stilt houses resting on drainage of horizontal trunks and they had a relatively limited extension, about a hectare, and a population between 200 and 300 people per village. The economy was based on breeding, hunting, farming, fishing, in a site of this culture, near Solferino, was found the oldest example of domesticated horse in Italy. If the pottery is still coarse, other human activities grow and develop, lithic industry, in bone and horn, wood, the Bronze tools and weapons show similarities with those of the Unetice Culture and other groups in the north of Alps including the Singen and Straubing groups. L. Barfield, Northern Italy Before Rome, london, Thames and Hudson,1971 B. Barich, Il complesso industriale della stazione di Polada alla luce dei più recenti dati, Bollettino di Paleotnologia Italiana,80,22, john M. Coles, A. F. Harding, The Bronze Age in Europe, an introduction to the prehistory of Europe, c. 2000-700 BC, Taylor & Francis,1979 - ISBN 0-416-70650-9 L. Fasani, Letà del Bronzo, in Veneto nellantichità, Preistoria e Protostoria, R. Peroni, Letà del bronzo nella penisola italiana I. Lantica età del bronzo, Florence, Olschki,1971
Polada culture
–
Polada pottery
Polada culture
–
Necklace
Polada culture
–
Reconstruction of a Polada stilt settlement
Polada culture
–
Plow
5.
Bell Beaker culture
–
The term was coined by John Abercromby, based on the cultures distinctive pottery drinking beakers. The Bell Beaker period marks a period of contact in Atlantic and Western Europe on a scale not seen previously. It has been suggested that the beakers were designed for the consumption of alcohol, beer and mead content have been identified from certain examples. However, not all Beakers were drinking cups, some were used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores, others have some organic residues associated with food, and still others were employed as funerary urns. They were used as status display amongst disparate elites, there have been numerous proposals by archaeologists as to the origins of the Bell Beaker culture, and debates continued on for decades. Several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, similarly, scholars have postulated various mechanisms of spread, including migrations of populations, smaller warrior groups, individuals, or a diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Recent analyses have made significant inroads to understanding the Beaker phenomenon and they have concluded that the Bell Beaker phenomenon was a synthesis of elements, representing “an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background. An overview of all sources from southern Germany concluded that Bell Beaker was a new and independent culture in that area. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around the Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. AOO and AOC Beakers appear to have evolved continually from a period in the lower Rhine and North Sea regions, at least for Northern. Furthermore, the ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites was intrusive into Western Europe. Such an arrangement is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions although, instead of battle-axes, the initial moves from the Tagus estuary were maritime. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica, the enclave established in southern Brittany was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, and across the Gâtinais valley to the Seine valley, and thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, another pulse had brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. But in contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, here Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as the polypod cup. These common ware types of pottery then spread in association with the bell beaker. From the Carpathian Basin Bell Beaker spread down the Rhine and eastwards into what is now Germany, by this time the Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone
Bell Beaker culture
–
The distinctive Bell Beaker pottery drinking vessels shaped like an inverted bell
Bell Beaker culture
–
3,500 years old, 40 cm (16 in) high "Giant Beaker of Pavenstädt",
Gütersloh town museum, Germany
Bell Beaker culture
–
Vessel from
Ciempozuelos (Spain) dated from the Bronze Age (
National Archaeological Museum of Spain,
Madrid)
Bell Beaker culture
–
Reconstruction of a Beaker burial, (
M.A.N.,
Madrid)
6.
Arzachena
–
Arzachena is a town and comune in the province of Olbia Tempio, northern Sardinia, Italy. Arzachena lies half way between the original Costa Smeralda resort and Porto Rafael, both founded in the late 1950s, after Olbia and Tempio Pausania, it is the third largest commune in Gallura by inhabitants. The frazione of Porto Cervo is the resort area of Costa Smeralda for summer tourism. Nearby there are archaeological sites from the Nuragic period, including those from a local sub-culture known as Arzachena culture. Located in an area inhabited by the Arzachena culture, the town has obscure origins. The region was known by the Romans as Turibulum, after a rock which is today the symbol of the town. The oldest mention is from a 1421 document, when king Alfonso IV of Aragon gave it as a fief to one Ramboldo de Cobaria
Arzachena
–
Arzachena Alzachena
Arzachena
–
The Albucciu
nuraghe near Arzachena.
7.
Nurra
–
The Nurra is a geographical region in the northwest of Sardinia, Italy. It is the second largest plain of the island, located between the towns of Sassari, Porto Torres and Alghero and it covers a surface of 700 km² and is bounded by the Sardinian Sea on the west and by the Gulf of Asinara on the north. Nurra was once an important mining center, with Argentiera being the principal village, in the Middle Ages Nurra was a curatoria in the Giudicato di Torres, rich with salt mills and silver mines. This was depopulated the area, and in 1347 many of the villages were reduced to ghost towns, in 1391 it was again invaded by Brancaleone Doria. In 1427 it was given to the free commune of Sassari. There is an example of industrial archaeology included in the Geological-Mining Park of Sardinia, today economy is based on agriculture, animal husbandry and tourism
Nurra
–
A view of the Nurra near Alghero.
Nurra
–
Map of Nurra.
Nurra
–
farmlands in Nurra
8.
Sulcis
–
Sulcis is a subregion of Sardinia, Italy, in the Province of South Sardinia. Part of the region are also the islands of San Pietro, the oldest traces of human presence in the Sulcis date back to the Mesolithic. To the Eneolithic belong the cultures of Monte Claro and of the Bell Beaker which were spread in the Sulcis. In the Middle Bronze Age also in the Sulcis spread the Nuragic civilization resulting in the construction of dozens of nuraghi, villages, holy wells, Sulcis is named after the ancient Phoenician city of Sulci, near the present-day SantAntioco. In the Middle Ages the Sulcis was part of a Curatoria of the giudicato of Cagliari which included the entire part of Sardinia. From 1258 to 1355, after the fall of the giudicato, it was under the rule of the pisan della Gherardesca family and then, from 1355, the medieval diocese of Sulcis retained its name until the move of the seat from Tratalias to Iglesias in 1506. In the 17th century there were only two inhabited villages in the entire Sulcis, Portoscuso and Teulada and this dynamic has therefore favored a colonization with a population dispersed in scattered settlements of small size, comparable to small modest farms but basically autonomous. The arrival of new families of settlers, over time, developed a tendency of furriadroxius to congregate around a church, the original settlements, following these enlargements, turned into an aggregated group of more housing units, called boddeu, similar to a village but with no roads. The region has rich deposits, commercially exploited since the 1850s. Coal mining has been the source of sustenance of the local population for many years. However, after hitting a peak during the Fascist regime with the foundation of Carbonia, today, Sulcis is one of the poorest places in Italy, characterized by sky-high unemployment and emigration
Sulcis
–
A coal mine in Sulcis.
9.
Campidano
–
Campidano is a plain located in the south-western area of Sardinia, Italy, covering approximately 100 kilometres between Cagliari and Oristano. Geologically, it is a graben, a structure formed in the mid-Pliocene/early Pleistocene. Later it was subject to large sedimentary deposition phenomena, creating an overall thickness of 600 m of sediments, the plain is crossed by the Tirso River, the longest in Sardinia. Agriculture has been successful in Campidano since the Neolithic, continuing on through the Punic and the Romans, dams of the large Sardinian rivers nourish the artichoke and wheat cultures, also typical products of this zone. Paddy fields are present near Oristano, anopheles mosquito was also introduced in Campidano in the 1st millennium BC, and infested the area with malaria for 2500 years until the mid-20th century reclamation. The present remaining marshes is home to a wildlife, including pink flamingo birds
Campidano
–
Campidano plain near Las Plassas.
10.
Masonry
–
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
Masonry
–
A mason laying mortar on top of a finished course of blocks, prior to placing the next course.
Masonry
–
Dry set masonry supports a rustic
log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will increase its service life).
Masonry
–
Masonry repair work done to a brick wall.
Masonry
–
Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial.
11.
Megalithic
–
A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word megalithic describes structures made of large stones without the use of mortar or concrete. For later periods, the monolith, with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used. The word megalith comes from the Ancient Greek μέγας and λίθος, megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has been used to describe buildings built by people from parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being sepulchral. The construction of these took place mainly in the Neolithic and continued into the Chalcolithic. At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the 9th millennium BC have been discovered and they belong to the incipient phases of agriculture and animal husbandry. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic orthostats are a feature, e. g. at Nevalı Çori. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, at Göbekli Tepe, four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across, as well as human figures, the stones carry a variety of carved reliefs depicting boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions. Dolmens and standing stones have been found in areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo. They can be encountered in Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Israel, Jordan, the largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley, however they are being threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age, megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and pirazmian in Iran, at Barda Balka in Iraq, and at Jaintapur in Bangladesh. A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam and it is a very early example, dating from the 7th millennium BC. The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in an area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, in Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, the standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times
Megalithic
–
Megalithic grave "
Harhoog " in
Keitum,
Sylt, Germany.
Megalithic
–
Clooneen wedge tomb,
the Burren, Co. Clare, Ireland
Megalithic
–
Stonehenge,
Wiltshire, United Kingdom, is one of the world's best known megalithic structures.
Megalithic
–
Megalithic structure at
Atlit Yam, Israel
12.
Nuraghi
–
The nuraghe is the main type of ancient megalithic edifice found in Sardinia, developed during the Nuragic Age between 1900 and 730 BCE. Today it has come to be the symbol of Sardinia and its distinctive culture, more than 7000 nuraghi have been found, though archeologists believe that originally there were not fewer than 10,000. A connection with the Semitic base of Arabic nūr light, fire, the Latin word murus may be related to it, as the old Italian word mora, as used by Dante in his Comedy. However, the derivation, murus–*muraghe–nuraghe is debated, another possible explanation is that Nuraghe came from the name of mythological hero Norax, and the root *nur would be an adaptation of the Indo-European root *nor. Some nuraghes are about 20 meters in height, the tallest one known, Nuraghe Arrubiu, the entrance leads into a corridor, on whose sides are often open niches, that leads to the round chamber. A spiral stone stair, leading to upper floors and/or to a terrace, was built within the thick walls, today, there are fewer than 7,000 nuraghes still existing in Sardinia, although their number was originally larger. Nuraghes are most prevalent in the northwest and south-central parts of the island, some of the nuraghes are, however, located in strategic places – such as hills– from which important passages could be easily controlled. They might have something between a status symbol and a passive defence building, meant to be a deterrent for possible enemies. Nuraghes could also have been the symbol of the Nuragic peoples. Small-scale models of nuraghe have often been excavated at religious sites, nuraghes may have just connoted wealth or power, or they may have been an indication that a site had its owners. In 2002, Juan Belmonte and Mauro Zedda measured the entrance orientations of 272 simple nuraghes, the data revealed clear peaks corresponding to orientations pointing to the sunrise at winter solstice and to the Moon at its southernmost rising position. These alignments remained constant throughout the history of nuraghe, the most common declinations revealed were of around −43° for the earlier nuraghes, shifting to just −45½° for the later. Zedda has suggested that the target is likely a star, quite possibly Alpha Centauri and this type is distinguished by the restorations made in later times, supposedly due to a change of the Protonuraghi design, or for other needs. Its the Nuraghe par excellence and represent the most diffused typology, the single tower, of a truncated conical shape, accommodates within itself one or more superimposed chambers, covered by a Tholoi. In addition to the circular rooms, in their inside can be found other smaller environments such as niches. Also called Nuragic royal palaces, the polylobed Nuraghi are the least frequent typology, very elaborate and often designed in a unified manner, constituted veritable fortress with several towers linked by high ramparts, whose function was to protect the central tower. These Megalithic castles were surrounded by walls, sometimes also provided with towers. Nuraghes are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, other famous nuraghi are near Alghero, Macomer, Abbasanta, Orroli, Gonnesa and Villanovaforru
Nuraghi
–
Nuraghe Losa
Nuraghi
–
Central tower of the
Nuraghe at Sant'Antine of Torralba
Nuraghi
–
Tholos of Sant'Antine nuraghe
Nuraghi
–
Nuraghe Ruju,
Chiaramonti
13.
Domus de janas
–
Domus de Janas are a type of pre-Nuragic chamber tombs found in Sardinia. They consist of several chambers quarried out by the people of the San Ciriaco through Ozieri cultures and subsequent cultures, built mostly between 3400 and 2700 BC, they date to the late Neolithic, Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age. A necropolis of them at the site of Anghelu Ruju, near Alghero, other large sites are those of Montessu, near Villaperuccio, and of SantAndrea Priu at Bonorva. Many other domus de janas can be throughout the island. The shape of the internal chambers can vary from that of a hut with conical or triangular ceiling. The walls are decorated with reliefs or etchings depicting magical and religious symbols such as spirals, zig-zag motifs. The corpses, painted with red ochre like the walls, were buried together with common life objects. Enchanted Moura Domus de Janas on the Atlas Obscura, giovanni Lilliu, La civiltà dei Sardi dal neolitico alletà dei nuraghi, Torino, Edizioni ERI,1967 AA. VV. La civiltà in Sardegna nei secoli, Torino, Edizioni ERI AA. VV, Sardegna dalle origini alletà classica, Milano,1981 Alberto Moravetti, Guide archeologiche Sardegna 2,1995
Domus de janas
–
Entrance of the domus de janas of Genna Salixi,
Ruinas.
Domus de janas
–
Interior of one of the domus de janas of Sant'Andrea Priu,
Bonorva.
Domus de janas
–
Bull's horns,
necropolis of Su Crucifissu Mannu,
Porto Torres
Domus de janas
–
Domus de Janas in
Lotzorai
14.
Cist
–
A cist is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. Examples can be found across Europe and in the Middle East, a cist may have been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or long barrow. Several cists are sometimes found close together within the cairn or barrow. Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual
Cist
–
Kistvaen on the southern edge of
Dartmoor in
Drizzlecombe (England) showing the capstone and the inner cist structure.
Cist
–
Cist
15.
Trepanning
–
It may also refer to any burr hole created through other body surfaces, including nail beds. It is often used to relieve pressure beneath a surface, a trephine is an instrument used for cutting out a round piece of skull bone. In ancient times, holes were drilled into a person who was behaving in what was considered a way to let out what they believed were evil spirits. Evidence of trepanation has been found in human remains from Neolithic times onward. Cave paintings indicate that people believed the practice would cure epileptic seizures, migraines, the bone that was trepanned was kept by the prehistoric people and may have been worn as a charm to keep evil spirits away. Such injuries were typical for primitive weaponry such as slings and war clubs, there is some contemporary use of the term. In modern eye surgery, an instrument is used in corneal transplant surgery. The procedure of drilling a hole through a fingernail or toenail is also known as trephination, trepanation is perhaps the oldest surgical procedure for which there is archaeological evidence, and in some areas may have been quite widespread. At one burial site in France dated to 6500 BC,40 out of 120 prehistoric skulls found had trepanation holes, many prehistoric and premodern patients had signs of their skull structure healing, suggesting that many of those subjected to the surgery survived. Another skull with a hole was found at burial site Chalaghantepe dated to the 5th millennium BC. More than 1500 trephined skulls from the Neolithic period have been uncovered throughout the world – from Europe, Siberia, China, most of the trephined crania belong to adult males, but women and children are also represented. It has also found in the Muisca Confederation and the Inca Empire. Its prevalence among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least judging from the comparatively few trepanated crania that have been uncovered, several Mesoamerican cultures used a skull-rack, on which skulls were impaled in rows or columns of wooden stakes. Even so, some evidence of trepanation in Mesoamerica has survived. Later studies documented cases identified from a range of sites in Oaxaca and central Mexico, such as Tilantongo, Oaxaca, two specimens from the Tlatilco civilizations homelands indicate the practice has a lengthy tradition. Instead, the pre-Columbian Maya apparently used a technique that ground away at the back of the skull, thinning the bone and sometimes perforating it. Trepanation was also practiced in the classical and Renaissance periods, hippocrates gave specific directions on the procedure from its evolution through the Greek age, and Galen also elaborates on the procedure. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, trepanation was practiced as a cure for ailments, including seizures
Trepanning
–
Detail from
The Extraction of the Stone of Madness, a painting by
Hieronymus Bosch depicting trepanation (c.1488-1516).
Trepanning
–
Trepanated skull,
Neolithic. The perimeter of the hole in the skull is rounded off by ingrowth of new bony tissue, indicating that the patient survived the operation.
Trepanning
–
Trepanated skull from Chalaghantepe (
Aghdam),
5th millennium BC.
Museum of History of Azerbaijan,
Baku.
Trepanning
–
13th century trepanation
16.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
17.
Cagliari
–
Cagliari is an Italian municipality and the capital of the island of Sardinia, an autonomous region of Italy. Cagliaris Sardinian name Casteddu literally means castle and it has about 150,000 inhabitants, while its metropolitan city has more than 431,000 inhabitants. According to Eurostat, the population of the Functional urban area, Cagliari is the 26th largest city in Italy and the largest city on the island of Sardinia. An ancient city with a history, Cagliari has seen the rule of several civilisations. Under the buildings of the city there is a continuous stratification attesting to human settlement over the course of some five thousand years. Cagliari was the capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1324 to 1848, today the city is a regional cultural, educational, political and artistic centre, known for its diverse Art Nouveau architecture and several monuments. It is also the seat of the University of Cagliari, founded in 1607, the Cagliari area has been inhabited since the Neolithic. It occupies a position between the sea and a fertile plain and is surrounded by two swamps. There are high mountains nearby, to people could evacuate if the settlement had to be given up. Relics of prehistoric inhabitants were found in the hill of Monte Claro, krly was established around the 8th/7th century BC as one of a string of Phoenician colonies in Sardinia, including Tharros. Its founding is linked to its position along communication routes with Africa as well as to its excellent port, the Phoenician settlement was located in the Stagno di Santa Gilla, west of the present centre of Cagliari. This was also the site of the Roman Portus Scipio, other Phoenician settlements have been found at Cape SantElia. In the late 6th century BC Carthage took control of Sardinia, Cagliari was a fortified settlement in what is now the modern Marina quarter, with an annexed holy area in the modern Stampace. Sardinia and Cagliari came under Roman rule in 238 BC, shortly after the First Punic War, at other times it was also the Romans chief naval station on the island, and the residence of the praetor. The Romans built a new settlement east of the old Punic city, the two urban agglomerations merged gradually during the second century B. C. to this process is perhaps attributable the plural form Carales. A few years later, when Sardinia fell into the hands of Menas, the lieutenant of Sextus Pompeius, Caralis was the city which offered any resistance. Cagliari continued to be regarded as the capital of the island under the Roman Empire, remains of Roman public buildings were found to the west of Marina in Piazza del Carmine. There was an area of housing near the modern Via Roma
Cagliari
–
Descending, from top: St. Anne's Church, view of the
port, Bastione of Saint Remy, statue of
King Charles Felix of Sardinia and Cala Fighera
Cagliari
–
Necropolis of Tuvixeddu
Cagliari
–
Karalitan ship owners and traders, mosaic in
Ostia Antica
Cagliari
–
Is Centu Scalas ("a hundred steps"), the Roman amphitheatre of Cagliari
18.
Pre-Nuragic Sardinia
–
The Pre-Nuragic period refers to the prehistory of Sardinia from the Paleolithic till the middle Bronze age, when the Nuragic civilization flourished on the island. The discovery of Paleolithic lithic workshops indicate a presence in Sardinia in the period between 450,000 and 10,000 years ago. During the last ice age sea levels were lower than 130 meters, at that time Sardinia and Corsica formed a large island. The oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Sardinia date back to the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic human remains have been found at the Su Coloru cave of Laerru, in northern Sardinia. The material culture suggest that people came in Sardinia from the Italian peninsula after a difficult navigation with rudimentary boats. The oldest complete skeleton was found in 2011 in the territory of Arbus, it dates back to about 9,000 years ago. The culture of Su Carroppu represents the earliest phase of the Neolithic in Sardinia. There were also found the remains of ancient meals, with the discovery of bones of animals such as deer, Prolagus sardus, wild boar, the presence of two human skeletons, along with ornaments made of shells, according to the researchers witnessed the customs of burial cave. The Grotta Verde culture is named after a cave located at Capo Caccia near Alghero and it is dated back to the second phase of the Early Neolithic in the mid-fifth millennium BC. This culture was present in the north-west part of Sardinia and was characterized by the production of refined pottery, on a vase found in the cave, the handles depicted, in a stylized manner, human heads with small nose, eyes and mouth played. According to archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, this would be the first anthropomorphic representation of Sardinian prehistory, on a wall inside the cave were also found particular graffiti, another singular testimony of these people. In 1971 the priest and caver Renato Loria found in the territory of Mara, the cave was subsequently investigated by archaeologists VR Switsur and David H. Trump, they discovered a series of different cultures that embraced in a very long period of time. The oldest has been dated to the fifth millennium BC, findings show that this culture was developed by people dedicated to agriculture, husbandry. The researchers noted the almost complete disappearance of the forms of pottery decoration and the appearance of big greenstone rings, also commons in Corsica. The Bonuighinu culture prevailed from 4000 BC up to 3400 BC and it spread widely throughout most of the island and one of the most important villages was that of Puisteris in Mogoro. The artifacts related to the village and necropolis of Cuccuru SArrius show a well-organized society, the site Cuccuru SArrius is indicated by many scholars belonging to the culture of San Ciriaco. The San Ciriaco culture characterizes the end of the Middle Neolithic and it is regarded by archaeologists as a cultural link between the Bonuighinu and the Ozieri and is currently undergoing an exact definition. It takes its name from the Church of St Cyriacus of Terralba, during this phase were built the first Domus de Janas, a type of hypogean tomb that will spread throughout the island, with the exception of Gallura
Pre-Nuragic Sardinia
–
Mother Goddess from Cuccuru s'Arrius,
Cabras
Pre-Nuragic Sardinia
–
Menhir of monte Corru Tundu,
Villa Sant'Antonio
Pre-Nuragic Sardinia
–
Circular graves at Li Muri,
Arzachena
Pre-Nuragic Sardinia
–
Pottery of the Ozieri culture
19.
History of Sardinia
–
Archaeological evidence of prehistoric human settlement on the island of Sardinia is present in the form of nuraghes and others prehistoric monuments, which dot the land. The recorded history of Sardinia begins with its contacts with the people who sought to dominate western Mediterranean trade in Classical Antiquity, Phoenicians, Punics. Initially under the political and economic alliance with the Phoenician cities, it was conquered by Carthage in the late 6th century BC. The island was included for centuries in the Roman province of Corsica et Sardinia, included in 3rd and this led to the birth of four kingdoms called Giudicati in the 8th through 10th centuries. The Kingdom was to last until 1718, when it was ceded to the Piedmontese House of Savoy, later, in 1861, the oldest trace in Sardinia of the anthropomorphic prehistoric primate called Oreopithecus bambolii is dated to 8.5 million years ago. In 1996 a hominid finger bone, dated up to 250.000 BC, was found in a cave in the Logudoro region. Modern humans appeared in the island during the Upper Paleolithic, a phalanx dated to 18000 BC had been found in the Corbeddu cave, mesolithic human remains had been discovered at Su Coloru cave of Laerru but also in the south. Already in the Stone Age, Monte Arci played an important role, the old volcano was one of the central places where obsidian was found and worked for cutting tools and arrowheads. Even now the volcanic glass can be found on the sides of the mountain, the Neolithic began in Sardinia in the 6th millennium BC with the Cardial culture. The dolmens culture, around the end of the 3rd millennium BC, prehistoric and Pre-nuragic monuments and constructions that characterise the Sardinian landscapes are the Domus de Janas, the menhir and Statue menhir and the dolmens. Archeological cultures of Sardinia in the period, Bronze Age Sardinia is characterised by stone structures called nuraghes. The most famous is the complex of Barumini in the province of Medio Campidano, the nuraghes were mainly built in the period from about 1800 to 1200 BC, though many were used until the Roman period. Characteristics of this period are also the holy well temples, the megara temples, the Nuragics also produced a vast collection of bronze statuettes and the so-called giants of Monte Prama, perhaps the first anthropomorphic statues of Europe. It is known that the Sardinians had contact with the Myceneans, contact with powerful cities of Crete, such as Kydonia, is clear from pottery recovered in archaeological excavations in Sardinia. The name Sardinia could result from that of Sardus, a hero of the nuragic pantheon. The majority of the inhabitants in these cities were of indigenous nuragic stock while the Phoenician element was, although culturally predominant, the Phoenicians came originally from what is now Lebanon and founded a vast trading network in the Mediterranean. Sardinia had a position because it was central in the Western Mediterranean between Carthage, Spain, the river Rhône and the Etruscan civilization area. The mining area of the Iglesiente was important for the metals lead, after the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians took over control in this part of the Mediterranean, around 510 BC, after that a first attempt of conquest of the island in 540 BC ends in failure
History of Sardinia
–
Statue menhir from
Laconi
History of Sardinia
–
Prehistoric temple of
Monte d'Accoddi, one of the
oldest buildings in the world.
History of Sardinia
–
Dolmen of
Mores dated to the 3rd millennium BC
History of Sardinia
–
Nuraghe Losa
