1.
Salt pan (geology)
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Natural salt pans or salt flats are flat expanses of ground covered with salt and other minerals, usually shining white under the Sun. They are found in deserts, and are natural formations, a salt pan forms by evaporation of a water pool such as a lake or pond. This happens in climates where the rate of water exceeds the rate of precipitation. If the water drain into the ground, it remains on the surface until it evaporates. Over thousands of years, the minerals accumulate on the surface and these minerals reflect the Suns rays and often appear as white areas. The crust of salt can conceal a quagmire of mud that can engulf a truck, the Qattara Depression in the eastern Sahara desert contains many such traps which served as strategic barriers during World War II. The Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, where land speed records have been set, is a well-known salt pan in the arid regions of the western United States. The Etosha pan, in the Etosha National Park in Namibia, is another prominent example of a salt pan, the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is the largest salt pan in the world. It contains 50%-70% of the worlds lithium reserves, dry lake Pan Sabkha Salt evaporation pond Salt lake Sink Solonchak Briere, Peter R. Playa, playa lake, sabkha, Proposed definitions for old terms. Lowenstein, Tim K. Lawrence A. Hardie, criteria for the recognition of salt-pan evaporites
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Utah
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Utah is a state in the western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the U. S. on January 4,1896, Utah is the 13th-largest by area, 31st-most-populous, and 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Utah has a population of more than 3 million, approximately 80% of whom live along the Wasatch Front, Utah is bordered by Colorado to the east, Wyoming to the northeast, Idaho to the north, Arizona to the south, and Nevada to the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast, approximately 62% of Utahns are reported to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or LDS, which greatly influences Utahn culture and daily life. The LDS Churchs world headquarters is located in Salt Lake City, Utah is the only state with a majority population belonging to a single church. The state is a center of transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, in 2013, the U. S. Census Bureau estimated that Utah had the second fastest-growing population of any state. St. George was the metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah also has the 14th highest median income and the least income inequality of any U. S. state. A2012 Gallup national survey found Utah overall to be the best state to live in based on 13 forward-looking measurements including various economic, lifestyle, the name Utah is derived from the name of the Ute tribe. It means people of the mountains in the Ute language, according to other sources Utah is derived from the Apache name Yudah which means Tall. These Native American tribes are subgroups of the Ute-Aztec Native American ethnicity and were sedentary, the Ancestral Pueblo people built their homes through excavations in mountains, and the Fremont people built houses of straw before disappearing from the region around the 15th century. Another group of Native Americans, the Navajo, settled in the region around the 18th century, in the mid-18th century, other Uto-Aztecan tribes, including the Goshute, the Paiute, the Shoshone, and the Ute people, also settled in the region. These five groups were present when the first European explorers arrived, the southern Utah region was explored by the Spanish in 1540, led by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, while looking for the legendary Cíbola. A group led by two Catholic priests—sometimes called the Dominguez-Escalante Expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the coast of California, the expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. The Spanish made further explorations in the region, but were not interested in colonizing the area because of its desert nature, in 1821, the year Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, the region became known as part of its territory of Alta California. European trappers and fur traders explored some areas of Utah in the early 19th century from Canada, the city of Provo, Utah was named for one, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah was named after Peter Skene Ogden, in late 1824, Jim Bridger became the first known English-speaking person to sight the Great Salt Lake. Due to the salinity of its waters, Bridger thought he had found the Pacific Ocean
4.
Tooele County, Utah
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Tooele County /tuːˈɪlə/ is a county located in the U. S. state of Utah. As of the 2010 census, the population was 58,218 and its county seat and largest city is Tooele. The county was created in 1850 and organized the following year, Tooele County is part of the Salt Lake City, UT Metropolitan Statistical Area. A2008 CNNMoney. com article identified Tooele as the U. S. county experiencing the greatest job growth since 2000. Evidence of several indigenous Native American groups has found in Tooele County. The Goshutes traditional territory includes most of modern Tooele County, the Great Salt Lake Desert, which comprises much of the northern portion of the county, provided a major stumbling block for the ill-fated Donner-Reed Party in 1846. Its crusty sand slowed the groups wagons to such an extent that the spent six days crossing its 80-mile length. In 1849 the first white settlers established permanent roots in the Tooele Valley and they were members of the Latter-day Saint emigration group which had arrived in 1847. Building a sawmill, the settlement was called E. T, City after LDS leader E. T. Benson. The territorial legislature first designated Tooele County—initially called Tuilla—in January 1850 with significantly different boundaries and it is speculated that the name derives from a Native American chief, but controversy exists about whether such chief lived. Alternate explanations hypothesize that the name comes from tu-wanda, the Goshute word for bear, or from tule, Tooele was one of the six original counties in Deseret, which would become Utah Territory. By 1852, Grantsville, Batesville, and Pine Canyon were settled, in 1855 the town of Richville was designated county seat, but it soon became clear that Tooele was much larger. In 1861 the territorial legislature allowed the county to select a new seat, tension with native Goshutes plagued settlement in early Tooele County. In response to cattle thefts, a contingent of at least 50 men pursued Goshutes and attacked their camp in 1851, similar attacks occurred throughout the 1850s with natives typically being on the losing side. Jarvis, a U. S. Bureau of Indian Affairs representative, the results looked promising, but Jarvis resigned in 1860 and support for the project disappeared, causing the farm to be abandoned. Twenty-two overland stagecoach outposts were built in Goshute territory, often on the sites of natural springs. Goshute attacks on mail outposts escalated in 1860, resulting in dozens of deaths in alternating waves of raids, Connor acted ruthlessly toward the natives. He killed over 300 Shoshone in Southern Idaho in 1863, connors men attacked Native American camps, sometimes indiscriminately, but through 1863 stage coach companies had lost 16 men and over 150 horses to depredations
5.
Great Salt Lake Desert
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The Great Salt Lake Desert is a large dry lake in northern Utah, United States between the Great Salt Lake and the Nevada border which is noted for white evaporite Lake Bonneville salt deposits. On the western edge of the desert, just across the border with Nevada, the desert is cool during the winter and includes unusual plants adapted to the dry conditions. Most of the desert receives less than 8 inches of annual precipitation, the salt crust covering the desert reforms each year when the rain evaporates. The militarys Utah Test and Training Range is in the portion of the desert. The lowest part of Juab County is located just south of the Dugway Proving Grounds, the 1846 Donner Party difficulties in making the crossing contributed to their becoming snowbound in the Sierra Nevada. Howard Stansbury explored the desert in 1849, in 1956, I-80 replaced the Wendover Cut-off across the desert, including a straight east-west section for ~50 miles between the Cedar Mountains to the east and Wendover on the Utah/Nevada border. Following a railway completed across the deserts Bonneville Salt Flats in 1910, the world records for highest land speeds are regularly broken here. The Great Salt Lake Desert experiences a climate with hot summers. The desert is an excellent example of a desert climate. The deserts elevation,4,250 feet above sea level, makes temperatures cooler than lower elevation deserts, due to the high elevation and aridity, temperatures drop sharply after sunset. Winter highs are generally above freezing, and winter nights are bitterly cold, media related to Great Salt Lake Desert at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Interstate 80 in Utah
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Interstate 80 is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from San Francisco, California, to Teaneck, New Jersey. The portion of the highway in the U. S. state of Utah is 196. 35-mile-long, from west to east, I-80 crosses the state line from Nevada in Tooele County and traverses the Bonneville Salt Flats—which are a part of the larger Great Salt Lake Desert. It continues alongside the Wendover Cut-off—the corridor of the former Victory Highway—U. S, Route 40 and the Western Pacific Railroad Feather River Route. After passing the Oquirrh Mountains, I-80 enters the Salt Lake Valley, a short portion of the freeway is concurrent with I-15 through Downtown Salt Lake City. I-80 was built along the corridor of the Lincoln Highway and the Mormon Trail through the Wasatch Range, the easternmost section also follows the historical routes of the First Transcontinental Railroad and US-30S. Construction of the highway began in the 1950s, and by the late 1970s most of the freeway across the state of Utah had been completed. The four-and-a-half-mile-long section of I-80 between Utah State Route 68 and the Salt Lake City International Airport was the last piece of the nearly 2, 900-mile-long freeway to be completed. Average daily traffic volumes in 2012 ranged between 6,765 vehicles using the freeway at SR-58 and 121,205 vehicles using the freeway at the Spaghetti Bowl in Downtown Salt Lake City, throughout the state, the highway is also known as the Purple Heart Trail. Out of the states which I-80 passes through, the 196. 34-mile-long segment in Utah is the fourth shortest. The longest stretch of I-80 in a state is the 455. 32-mile-long segment in Nebraska. As part of the Interstate Highway System, the route is listed on the National Highway System, a system of roads that are important to the nations economy, defense. Every year, the Utah Department of Transportation conducts a series of surveys on its highways to measure traffic volumes and this measure is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic, a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year. Between seven and 58 percent of the traffic recorded consisted of trucks and these counts are for the portion of the freeway in Utah. The freeway enters Utah from Nevada in the city of Wendover on the edge of the Bonneville Salt Flats, the cities of West Wendover, Nevada and Wendover are accessible by I-80s only business loop in Utah, whose interchange is just south of Danger Cave. Bonneville Speedway, home to land speed records, is accessible from I-80. In the middle of the flats is a concrete sculpture, Metaphor, The Tree of Utah. Bounded on each sides by military training grounds, the I-80 corridor is overflown by commercial airliners traveling west from Salt Lake City International Airport, the freeway veers north around the Cedar Mountains in a small gap between them and the Lakeside Mountains. Further east, the passes the Stansbury Mountains, which are located in the Wasatch-Cache National Forest
7.
West Wendover, Nevada
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West Wendover is a small city in Elko County, Nevada, United States. The population was 4,410 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Elko micropolitan area. West Wendover is located on the border of Nevada and the western edge of the Great Salt Lake Desert and is contiguous with Wendover, Utah. Interstate 80 runs just north of the cities, while Interstate 80 Business runs through the two cities, West Wendover began to develop in the 1930s and 1940s with the introduction of legalized gambling in the State of Nevada. William Bill Smith founded a small service station that provided a needed rest to weary travelers crossing the desert terrain of western Utah. Today this facility is known as the Wendover Nugget, through the 1970s and 1980s, West Wendover began to emerge as a destination resort. Additional business arrived constructing more casinos, hotels and other establishments as well as recreational venues such as the Toana Vista Golf Course. As growth continued to spiral up, the citizens of West Wendover, Nevada, then a township of Elko County, on July 1,1991, the city of West Wendover, Nevada, came into existence. Amber S Holt named the city seal of West Wendover encouraging people to, in October 1999, the U. S. Department of Transportation moved West Wendover out of the Pacific Time Zone due to the strong economic ties between West Wendover and neighboring Utah. This made the city of West Wendover the only portion of Nevada legally in the Mountain Time Zone, the unincorporated towns of Jackpot, Jarbidge, Mountain City, and Owyhee in northern Elko County also observe Mountain Time, but only on an unofficial basis. West Wendover has thrived under a lucrative gambling industry in Nevada, meanwhile, just footsteps away, Wendover, Utah has decayed with almost no business tax base. Residents in both cities have voted to annex Wendover into Nevada, saying they are one community that has been divided for too long, some politicians in both the State of Utah and the State of Nevada have endorsed the idea. However, the politicians in Wendover, Utah, placed a permanent halt to the process through a vote on November 15,2006. The motion made was to halt the annexation process, the vote was a tie with two Council Members voting to halt the process and two Council Members supporting the continuation of the process. The tie vote was broken up by a vote of Wendover, previously, West Wendover had decided to halt any further work after Wendover, Utah, indicated they were going to discuss and make a decision on proceeding. Article IV, Section 3 of the U. S, constitution requires that any change in state boundaries be approved by the U. S. Congress as well as by the two state legislatures. West Wendover is located at 40°44′22″N 114°4′11″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 sq mi, all land. As of the 2010 United States census West Wendover had a population of 4,410, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,721 people,1,363 households, and 1,046 families residing in the city
8.
Bonneville Speedway
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Bonneville Speedway is an area of the Bonneville Salt Flats near Wendover, Utah, that is marked out for motor sports. It is particularly noted as the venue for numerous speed records. The salt flats were first used for sports in 1912. A reduction of available racing surface and salt thickness has led to the cancellation of events at Bonneville, available racing surface is much reduced with just 2.5 miles available instead of the 9 mile courses traditionally used for Speed Week. Historically, the speedway was marked out by the Utah Department of Transportation at the start of each summer, since at least the 1990s, track preparations have been the responsibility of the event organizers. Days or weeks in advance, the track preparers identify an area best suited for their track layouts, surveyors are brought in to survey the timing trap distances. A day before racing begins, the markers are added. Originally, the straightaway was marked with a black line down its center. This was eventually changed to lines down either side, as the line wore out too quickly. As the costs for painting the lines has gone up, organizations have switched to flags, the last event to use black lines was Speed Week, August 2009. The number of tracks and the sections for each track are set according to what is most beneficial for each event. Large public meets such as Speed Week run as many as four tracks with several timed miles, usually starting with the second mile and running to the fifth mile. Smaller meets that typically only run world record attempts will utilize a single track, with one timed mile, additional marks and cones indicate the end of the track and the position of timing equipment. The annual Speed Week was cancelled in both 2014 and 2015, as were many land-speed racing events, due to deteriorating track conditions, heavy rains caused a layer of mud from surrounding mountains to flow onto the flats, covering approximately 6 mi of the track. Although another section of the flats would normally be used, nearby mining operations had reduced the size of the alternative track. The depth of the salt crust at Bonneville has also been decreasing, measured at as much at 3 ft in the 1940s and 50s, it has been reduced to just 0.17 ft in 2015. Though recent studies have made, the causes of this deterioration are not clear. Some strategies were devised to revert the decreasing salt surface, such as pumping back salt, in late August, the BUB Motorcycle Speed Trials are held
9.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
10.
Northern Basin and Range ecoregion
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The Northern Basin and Range ecoregion is a Level III ecoregion designated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in the U. S. states of Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and California. It contains dissected lava plains, rolling hills, alluvial fans, valleys, although arid, the ecoregion is higher and cooler than the Snake River Plain to the north and has more available moisture and a cooler climate than the Central Basin and Range to the south. Its southern boundary is determined by the highest shoreline of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville, the western part of the region is internally drained, its eastern stream network drains to the Snake River system. The valleys support sagebrush steppe or saltbush vegetation, mollisol soils are common, in contrast to the aridisols of the Central Basin. Juniper-dominated woodland occurs on rugged, stony uplands, the mountain ranges are covered in mountain sagebrush, Idaho fescue, Douglas-fir, subalpine forests, or aspen. Today, most of the region is used for livestock grazing, dryland and irrigated cropland are found in some areas, but in general the soils are less suitable for agriculture than those in the Columbia Plateau and the Snake River Plain ecoregions. Most public lands in the region are managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion has been subdivided into fourteen Level IV ecoregions, as described below. Level IV mapping is not yet complete in California, and the information below includes only the sections in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah. The Dissected High Lava Plateau ecoregion is a broad to gently rolling basalt plateau cut by deep, sheer-walled canyons, with perennial, Elevation varies from 4,000 to 7,300 feet. The region is less wooded, lower, and more arid than neighboring subregions in the Northern Basin and it differs from sagebrush-dominated regions in the Central Basin and Range in having higher precipitation and colder winters. Juniper-pinyon woodlands grow on rocky and gravelly uplands, understory species are denser and biological soil crusts tend to be more extensive and in better condition than at similar elevations in the Central Basin and Range. Cheatgrass has replaced depleted bunchgrasses in overgrazed areas and it is primarily used for rangeland and wildlife habitat. Contiguous areas in California have not been mapped yet, the Semiarid Hills and Low Mountains ecoregion is higher and more rugged than the sagebrush plains and basins of neighboring regions. It is composed of unglaciated mountain slopes, hills, and alluvial fans at an elevation of 4,600 to 9,000 feet, scattered juniper woodlands grow on shallow and rocky soils. These hills represent the limit for both pinyon and Utah juniper, western juniper replaces them to the west and north. Groves of aspen grow on alluvial fans and along stream networks, with lodgepole pine. Geyer willow and Booth willow are also present in riparian areas, the region includes streams that have been designated for protection as critical or high priority habitat for Yellowstone cutthroat trout and other fish. Water quality has been lightly to moderately degraded by human activities, such as gold mining and livestock grazing
11.
Nevada State Route 447
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State Route 447 is a state highway in the U. S. state of Nevada. The highway is almost entirely within Washoe County but does for a brief time enter Pershing County, the state maintained portion ends at Gerlach, however the highway continues as Washoe County Route 447 from Gerlach north to the California state line near Cedarville. A4. 5-mile portion of highway, along with portions of SR445. The route begins at a junction with Old US40 in Wadsworth, the highway proceeds north following the path of the Truckee River, and passes along the east side of the rivers terminus at Pyramid Lake near Nixon. The highway continues north following the edge of Winnemucca Lake. During this portion the highway straddles the Washoe/Pershing County line, the highway enters the Black Rock Desert just before arriving at Empire, a city founded on processing gypsum extracted from the desert. The highway ends 0.375 miles north of crossing the Union Pacific Railroads Feather River Route in Gerlach, the State highway officially ends here, becoming CR447 where the roadbed continues as a Washoe county road to the California State Line near the Lassen/Modoc county line. This road is called the Gerlach-Cederville Road. Some maps erroneously list this road as part of State Route 447, all junctions are located in Washoe County
12.
Mountain Time Zone
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The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time at the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States, the specification for the location of time zones. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called Mountain Time. Specifically, it is Mountain Standard Time when observing standard time, the term refers to the fact that the Rocky Mountains, which range from northwestern Canada to the US state of New Mexico, are located almost entirely in the time zone. In Mexico, this zone is known as the Pacific Zone. In the United States and Canada, the Mountain Time Zone is one ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone. Sonora in Mexico and most of Arizona in the United States do not observe daylight saving time, and during the spring, summer, and autumn months they are on the same time as Pacific Daylight Time. The Navajo Nation, most of which lies within Arizona, does observe DST, although the Hopi Nation, as well as some Arizona state offices lying within the Navajo Nation, the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone is Phoenix, Arizona. TV broadcasting in the Mountain Time Zone is typically tape-delayed one hour, sonora – no daylight saving time, always on MST. Sinaloa Revillagigedo Islands, three of the four islands have the time as Mountain Time Zone, Isla Socorro, San Benedicto Island. The following states or areas are part of the Mountain Time Zone, Arizona – no daylight saving time, always on MST, except on the Navajo Nation. Colorado Idaho – southern half, south of the Salmon River Kansas – only the counties of Sherman, Wallace, Greeley and Hamilton, the remaining three counties that border Colorado, Cheyenne, Morton and Stanton, observe Central Time, as do all other Kansas counties. However, the state of Oklahoma is officially in the Central Time Zone. Additionally, northwestern Culberson County, Texas unofficially observes Mountain Time
13.
Pleistocene
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The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the worlds most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period, the Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. In the ICS timescale, the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages, all of these stages were defined in southern Europe. In addition to this subdivision, various regional subdivisions are often used. Charles Lyell introduced the term pleistocene in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today and this distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588 million to 11,700 years before present and it covers most of the latest period of repeated glaciation, up to and including the Younger Dryas cold spell. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9640 BC, the IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75°06 N 42°18 W, the lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils, Discoaster pentaradiatus, the Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma. Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places and it is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earths surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C, during interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. The effects of glaciation were global, antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap, there were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one, the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest, the east was covered by the Laurentide
14.
Lake Bonneville
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Lake Bonneville was a prehistoric pluvial lake that covered much of the eastern part of North Americas Great Basin region. Most of the territory it covered was in present-day Utah, though parts of the lake extended into present-day Idaho and Nevada. Formed about 32,000 years ago, Lake Bonneville existed until about 14,500 years ago, following the Bonneville Flood, as the release is now known, the lake receded to a level called the Provo Level. Many of the geological characteristics of the Great Basin are due to the effects of the lake. At more than 1,000 ft deep and more than 19,691 square miles in area, with the change in climate, the lake began drying up, leaving Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, Rush Lake, and Little Salt Lake as remnants. Bonneville was noted for his expeditions to the Oregon Country and the Great Basin, the lake was probably not a singular entity either, geologic evidence suggests that it may have evaporated and reformed as many as 28 times in the last 800,000 years. Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake are the largest remnants of the original Lake Bonneville, several levels of the old shorelines are still visible above Salt Lake City, along the Wasatch Front and elsewhere. The appearance of the shorelines is that of a shelf or bench protruding from the mountainside, four main shorelines are associated with the fluctuating levels of the ancient lake. The Stansbury, Bonneville, Provo and Gilbert shorelines each mark a time when lake level remained constant long enough to deposit massive accumulations of sand, the Bonneville Bench, at about 5,102 feet above sea level, is part of the preserved ice age shoreline. This shoreline marks the highest level attained by the Pleistocene lake approximately 15,500 years ago, during this period, the lake covered over 20,000 sq mi and was over 980 ft deep in places. About 14,500 years ago, the level fell catastrophically as Lake Bonneville overflowed near Red Rock Pass, Idaho. The lake level fell some 344 ft to what is now the lower bench in a flood that geologists estimate to have lasted up to a year. It is estimated that this breach released 1,000 cubic miles of water in the first few weeks, during this period, the Red Rock Pass contained a river carrying water overflowing out of Lake Bonneville into the Snake River. A slight transgression or rise in lake level occurred about 10,900 to 10,300 years ago, in addition to geological traces, the lake has left a legacy of related fish distributed in now-isolated bodies of water
15.
Great Salt Lake
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The Great Salt Lake, located in the northern part of the U. S. state of Utah, is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere, and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world. In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1,700 square miles, for instance, in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles, but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3,300 square miles. In terms of area, it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region. The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville, a prehistoric lake that once covered much of western Utah. The three major tributaries to the lake, the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the each year. As it is endorheic, it has very high salinity, far saltier than seawater, which makes swimming similar to floating and its shallow, warm waters cause frequent, sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring. The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville. At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville spanned 22,400 square miles, nearly as large as present-day Lake Michigan, and roughly ten times the area of the Great Salt Lake today. Bonneville reached 923 ft at its deepest point, and covered much of present-day Utah and small portions of Idaho, Lake Bonneville existed until about 16,800 years ago, when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho. With the warming climate, the lake began to dry, leaving the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake. While the lake was known by local Native Americans, it entered written history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante. No name was given to it at the time, and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco, in 1824, it was observed, apparently independently, by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost. Shortly thereafter other trappers saw it and walked around it, most of the trappers, however, were illiterate and did not record their discoveries. As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records, Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake, which he named Laguna Timpanogos. It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Mieras map, other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest lake in the region. As people came to know of the Great Salt Lake, they interpreted the maps to think that Timpanogos referred to the Great Salt Lake, on some maps the two names were used synonymously. In time Timpanogos was dropped from the maps and its association with Utah Lake was forgotten. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake, but with winter coming on and that happened in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury
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Public land
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In all modern states, some land is held by central or local governments. The system of tenure of land, and the terminology used. The following examples illustrate some of the range, in several Commonwealth countries such as Australia, New Zealand and Canada, public lands are referred to as Crown lands. Recent proposals to sell Crown lands have been highly controversial, in France, may be held by communes, départements, or the central State. In Portugal the land owned by the State, by the two regions and by the local governments can be of two types, public domain and private domain. The latter is owned like any private entity, while public domain land cannot be sold, examples of public domain land are the margins of the sea and of the rivers, roads, streets, railways, ports, military areas, monuments. The States private domain is managed by Direção-Geral do Tesouro e Finanças, israel on the West Bank are based in the Ottoman Empire law specifying land not worked for over ten years becomes state lands. This became the base for deciding cases brought up by Arabs when certain Israeli settlements were created on presumed barren land. In the United States governmental entities including cities, counties, states, the majority of public lands in the United States are held in trust for the American people by the federal government and managed by the Bureau of Land Management. Each western state also received public land as trust lands designated for specific beneficiaries. Those trust lands cannot any longer be considered public lands as allowing any benefits to the public would be in breach of loyalty to the specific beneficiaries, the trust lands are usually managed extractively, to provide revenue for public schools. All states have some lands under state management, such as parks, state wildlife management areas. Wilderness is a designation for public lands which have been completely undeveloped. The concept of wilderness areas was legislatively defined by the 1964 Wilderness Act, Wilderness areas can be managed by any of the above Federal agencies, and some parks and refuges are almost entirely designated wilderness. A wilderness study area is a tract of land that has wilderness characteristics, and is managed as wilderness, typically each parcel is governed by its own set of laws and rules that explain the purpose for which the land was acquired, and how the land may be used. The concept of a designation and conservation of public lands dates back to our first National Parks. While designating the parks as public, the conservation was another matter, theodore Roosevelt and his conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club took matters into their own hands, by creating laws and regulations that protected these national treasures. Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club continued on influencing the creation of scores of public lands including the National Refuge Systeml, USFS, most state- and federally managed public lands are open for recreational use
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Bureau of Land Management
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President Harry S. Truman created the BLM in 1946 by combining two existing agencies, the General Land Office and the Grazing Service. Most BLM public lands are located in these 12 western states, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The mission of the BLM is to sustain the health, diversity, originally BLM holdings were described as land nobody wanted because homesteaders had passed them by. All the same, ranchers hold nearly 18,000 permits, the agency manages 221 wilderness areas,23 national monuments and some 636 other protected areas as part of the National Landscape Conservation System totaling about 30 million acres. There are more than 63,000 oil and gas wells on BLM public lands, total energy leases generated approximately $5.4 billion in 2013, an amount divided among the Treasury, the states, and Native American groups. The BLMs roots go back to the Land Ordinance of 1785 and these laws provided for the survey and settlement of the lands that the original 13 colonies ceded to the federal government after the American Revolution. As additional lands were acquired by the United States from Spain, France and other countries, the United States Congress directed that they be explored, surveyed, during the Revolutionary War, military bounty land was promised to soldiers who fought for the colonies. After the war, the Treaty of Paris of 1783, signed by the United States, England, France, in the 1780s, other states relinquished their own claims to land in modern-day Ohio. By this time, the United States needed revenue to function, Land was sold so that the government would have money to survive. In order to sell the land, surveys needed to be conducted, the Land Ordinance of 1785 instructed a geographer to oversee this work as undertaken by a group of surveyors. The first years of surveying were completed by trial and error, once the territory of Ohio had been surveyed, in 1812, Congress established the General Land Office as part of the Department of the Treasury to oversee the disposition of these federal lands. By the early 1800s, promised bounty land claims were finally fulfilled, over the years, other bounty land and homestead laws were enacted to dispose of federal land. Several different types of patents existed and these include cash entry, credit, homestead, Indian, military warrants, mineral certificates, private land claims, railroads, state selections, swamps, town sites, and town lots. A system of land offices spread throughout the territories, patenting land that was surveyed via the corresponding Office of the Surveyor General of a particular territory. This pattern gradually spread across the entire United States, the laws that spurred this system with the exception of the General Mining Law of 1872 and the Desert Land Act of 1877 have since been repealed or superseded. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 allowed leasing, exploration, and production of selected commodities, such as coal, oil, gas, the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 established the United States Grazing Service to manage the public rangelands by establishment of advisory boards that set grazing fees. The Oregon and California Revested Lands Sustained Yield Management Act of 1937, commonly referred as the O&C Act, in 1946, the Grazing Service was merged with the General Land Office to form the Bureau of Land Management within the Department of the Interior. It took several years for new agency to integrate and reorganize
18.
Land speed record
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The land speed record is the highest speed achieved by a person using a vehicle on land. The land speed record is standardized as the speed over a course of fixed length, two runs are required in opposite directions within one hour, and a new record mark must exceed the previous one by at least one percent to be validated. There are numerous other records for cars, motorcycles fall into a separate class. The first regulators were the Automobile Club de France, who proclaimed themselves arbiters of the record in about 1902. 01sec, national or regional auto clubs had to be AIACR members to ensure records would be recognized. The AIACR became the FIA in 1947, controversy arose in 1963, Spirit of America was not recognised due to its being a three-wheeler and not wheel-driven so the FIA introduced a special wheel-driven class. She drove a six-cylinder Napier motorcar, a 100 hp development of the K5, through her career as a stuntwoman, she met Bill Fredrick, the stunt technology maker and high-speed car designer who built the Motivator vehicle. Craig Breedloves mark of 407.447 miles per hour, set in Spirit of America in September 1963, was considered unofficial. The vehicle breached the FIA regulations on two grounds, it had three wheels, and it was not wheel-driven, since its jet engine did not supply power to its axles. Some time later, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme created a non-wheel-driven category, on July 27,1964, Donald Campbells Bluebird CN7 posted a speed of 403.10 miles per hour on Lake Eyre, Australia. This became the official FIA LSR, although Campbell was disappointed not to have beaten Breedloves time, in October, several four-wheel jet-cars surpassed the 1963 mark, but were eligible for neither FIA nor FIM ratification. Thus, Art Arfons Green Monster was belatedly recognized as the absolute LSR holder, Bluebird the holder of the land speed record. No wheel-driven car has since held the absolute record, there is no wheel-driven category as such. The Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile validates records in a variety of classes, of which the classes are in Category A. The accepted record is fastest average speed recorded over any one-mile or one-kilometer distance, bloodhound SSC – Project aiming for 1,050 mph. Rosco McGlashan – Australias fastest man on the land and his Aussie Invader team is building a fully rocket-powered LSR car with an attempt at the record currently on hold pending funding. The Land Speed Record in the Sixties, an on-line collection Land speed Record site for dedicated enthusiasts
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Grove Karl Gilbert
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Grove Karl Gilbert, known by the abbreviated name G. K. Gilbert in academic literature, was an American geologist. Gilbert was born in Rochester, New York and graduated from the University of Rochester, in 1871, he joined George M. Wheelers geographical survey as its first geologist. He then joined the Powell Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region in 1874, becoming Powells primary assistant, during this time he published an important monograph, The Geology of the Henry Mountains. After the creation of the U. S. Geological Survey in 1879, he was appointed to the position of Senior Geologist, Gilbert published a study of the former ancient Lake Bonneville in 1890, of which the Great Salt Lake is a remnant. He named that lake after the army captain Benjamin L. E. de Bonneville, the type of river delta that Gilbert described at this location has since become known to geomorphologists as a Gilbert delta. In 1891, Gilbert examined the origins for a crater in Arizona, now known as Meteor Crater. For a number of reasons, and against his intuition, he concluded it was the result of a steam explosion rather than an impact of a meteorite. Gilberts calculations showed that the volume of the crater and the debris on the rim were roughly equal, further there were no magnetic anomalies. Gilbert argued that the fragments found on the rim were just coincidence. Gilbert would publicize these conclusions in a series of lectures in 1895, subsequent investigations would reveal that it was in fact a meteor crater, but that interpretation was not well established until the mid-20th century. The interpretation of lunar craters as of impact origin was also debated until the mid-20th century and he joined the Harriman Alaska Expedition in 1899. Two weeks after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Gilbert took a series of photographs documenting the damage along the San Andreas fault from Inverness to Bolinas. Gilbert is considered one of the giants of the sub-discipline of geomorphology, having contributed to the understanding of evolution, erosion. Gilbert was a science pioneer, correctly identifying lunar craters as caused by impacts. Gilbert was one of the influential early American geologists. He won the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Society of London in 1900 and he was awarded the Charles P. Daly Medal by the American Geographical Society in 1910. Gilbert was well-esteemed by all American geologists during his lifetime, because of Gilberts prescient insights into planetary geology, the Geological Society of America created the G. K. Gilbert Award for planetary geology in 1983. Gilberts wide-ranging scientific ideas were so profound that the Geological Society of America published GSA Special Paper 183 on his research, craters on the Moon and on Mars are named in his honor
20.
Benjamin Bonneville
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Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville was a French-born officer in the United States Army, fur trapper, and explorer in the American West. He is noted for his expeditions to the Oregon Country and the Great Basin, during his lifetime, Bonneville was made famous by an account of his explorations in the West written by Washington Irving. Benjamin was born in or near Paris, France, the son of the French publisher Nicolas Bonneville, when he was seven, his family moved to the United States in 1803, their passage was paid by Thomas Paine. Paine had lodged with the Bonnevilles in France and was godfather to Benjamin, in his will, Paine left the bulk of his estate to Marguerite who had cared for him until he died in 1809. The inheritance included one hundred acres of his New Rochelle, New York farm where they had been living, so she could maintain, in 1813 the young Bonneville received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He graduated after two years, receiving a commission as brevet second lieutenant of light artillery. In his early career, he served at posts in New England, Mississippi, in 1824, he was transferred to Fort Gibson in the Indian Territory and promoted to Captain. While traveling to France, he was a guest of General Lafayette, after returning from France, he was transferred in 1828 to Jefferson Barracks in Missouri. While in Missouri, Bonneville was inspired by the writing of Hall J. Kelley, Bonneville met with Kelley, who was impressed by him and appointed him to lead one of the expeditions to the Oregon Country, it was scheduled to leave in early 1832. The lack of volunteers for the expedition forced the delay and eventual cancellation of the expedition, leaving Bonneville unrequited in his ambitions. S. and it was largely controlled by the Hudsons Bay Company. Macomb granted his request, a 26-month leave running from August 1831 to October 1833, expenses for his exploration were paid by private donors, including Astorian Alfred Seton and possibly John Jacob Astor. Bonneville married and had a daughter with his wife, after his 1st wife and daughter both died, he did not remarry until after retiring from the military in 1866, when he settled in Fort Smith, Arkansas. The voyage was financed by John Jacob Astor, a rival of the Hudsons Bay Company, the expedition proceeded from Fort Osage on the Missouri River, up to the Platte River, and across present-day Wyoming. They reached the Green River in August and built a fur trading post, the mountain men called it Fort Nonsense and it was never used for trading. In the spring of 1833, Bonneville explored along the Snake River in present-day Idaho, drifting into the head of the Salmon River and eventually into Fort Nez Perce. During this trip he engaged a guide, John Enos, a 10-year-old Shoshone nephew of Gourd Rattler and Pahdasherwahundah and he also sent a party of men under Joe Walker to explore the Great Salt Lake and to find an overland route to California. Walker discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, the path later became known as the California Trail, the primary route for the immigrants to the gold fields during the California Gold Rush. Much speculation has surrounded Bonnevilles motivation for sending Walker to California, some historians have speculated that Bonneville was attempting to lay the groundwork for an eventual invasion of California, then part of Mexico, by the United States Army
21.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
22.
Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
23.
Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company
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Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Buffalo, New York, which was active from 1901 to 1938. Although best known for its luxury cars, Pierce-Arrow also manufactured commercial trucks, fire trucks, camp trailers, motorcycles. The forerunner of Pierce-Arrow was established in 1865 as Heinz, Pierce, the company was best known for its household items, especially its delicate, gilded birdcages. In 1872 George Norman Pierce bought out the two principals of the company, changed the name to George N. Pierce Company. The company failed in its attempt to build a car in 1900 under license from Overman. In 1903, it produced a car, the Arrow. In 1904 Pierce decided to concentrate on making a larger, more car for the upscale market. This became Pierces most successful product, the solidly built, four-cylinder car won the Glidden Trophy in 1905, an endurance run to celebrate the most reliable car. Thirty-three cars entered the 1100-mile race from New York City to Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, the noted industrial architect Albert Kahn designed the Pierce Arrow Factory Complex at Elmwood Avenue and Great Arrow Avenue in about 1906. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, Pierce sold all rights in the company in 1907, and he died three years later. In 1908, Pierce Motor Company was renamed The Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company, in 1909 US President William Howard Taft ordered two Pierce-Arrows to be used for state occasions, the first official cars of the White House. The Pierce-Arrows engine displacement started at a massive 11.7 L and was increased later to 13.5 L, in 1910 Pierce dropped its other 4-cylinder models and focused exclusively on 6-cylinder cars. The model 6-36, 6-48, and 6-66 continued for the next decade, starting in 1918, Pierce-Arrow adopted a four-valve per cylinder T-head inline-six engine, one of the few, if only, multi-valve flathead design engines ever made. In 1910 George N. Pierce died, in 1912 Herbert M. Dawley joined Pierce-Arrow, and designed almost every model until 1938. Until 1914, Pierce-Arrow also made a line of motorcycles including the Pierce Four and this gave the car an immediately visible distinction in front or side views. At night, the car appeared to have a wider stance, Pierce patented this placement, which endured until the final model of 1938, although Pierce always offered the customer the option of conventional headlamps. Only a minority ordered the option, a restored 1919 Pierce-Arrow is on display at the Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library. An open-bodied Pierce-Arrow carried Woodrow Wilson and Warren G. Harding to Hardings 1921 inauguration, the Pierce-Arrow was a status symbol, owned by many Hollywood stars and tycoons
24.
Knight Rider (1982 TV series)
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Knight Rider is an American television series created and produced by Glen A. Larson. The series was originally broadcast on NBC from 1982 to 1986, the show stars David Hasselhoff as Michael Knight, a high-tech modern crime fighter assisted by KITT, an advanced artificially intelligent, self-aware and nearly indestructible car. This was the last series Larson devised at Universal Television before he moved to 20th Century Fox, self-made billionaire Wilton Knight rescues police Detective Lieutenant Michael Arthur Long after a near fatal shot to the face, giving him a new identity and a new name, Michael Knight. Wilton selects Michael to be the field agent in the pilot program of his public justice organization. Michael and KITT are brought in during situations where direct action might provide the only feasible solution, heading FLAG is Devon Miles, who provides Michael with directives and guidance. Dr. Bonnie Barstow is the engineer in charge of KITTs care. The car used as KITT in the series was a customized 1982 Pontiac Trans-Am sports model, nose, dash and other interior of the car were designed by the design consultant Michael Scheffe. David Hasselhoff as Michael Knight, an undercover Los Angeles police detective who, while on a case in Las Vegas, is shot in the face, Wilton Knight, founder of Knight Industries and creator of FLAG, directs his doctors to save Longs life and reconstruct his face. With his new identity, Michael Knight, Long is provided with high tech crime-fighting equipment, William Daniels as the voice of KITT, for Knight Industries Two Thousand, the autonomous, artificially intelligent car, with whom Michael Knight is partnered. Daniels, who starred on St. Elsewhere, requested not to be credited for his role as KITTs voice. Edward Mulhare as Devon Miles, the leader of FLAG, who appeared in every episode to provide mission details to Knight. He was also the spokesman for FLAG whenever it came under scrutiny, Patricia McPherson as Dr. Bonnie Barstow, KITTs chief technician and romantic tension for Michael. Rebecca Holden as April Curtis, chief technician for KITT, the character was written out when Patricia McPherson returned. The connection between the two was never established in any installments, peter Parros as Reginald Cornelius III aka RC3, driver of the FLAG mobile unit and occasional sideman for Michael and KITT. Richard Basehart as Wilton Knight, the creator of FLAG, who dies in the pilot episode, baseharts voice, however, is heard throughout the series, narrating over the intro and outro. Peter Cullen/Paul Frees as the voice of KARR, the evil autonomous artificially intelligent car, Frees took over the role for KARRs second appearance, but as he was also closely associated with Disney, he requested not to be credited for the role. The Knight Rider Theme was composed by Stu Phillips and Glen A. Larson. The series DVD bonus material contains an interview about this lead music, where Glen A. Larson says he remembers a theme out of a classic piece from which he took pieces for the Knight Rider Theme
25.
Warlock (1989 film)
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Warlock is a 1989 American cult supernatural horror film produced and directed by Steve Miner and starring Julian Sands, Lori Singer, and Richard E. Grant. It was written by David Twohy with a soundtrack by Jerry Goldsmith, the story concerns an evil 17th century warlock who flees to the 20th century pursued by a witch-hunter. The Warlock is taken captive in Boston, Massachusetts in 1691 by the witch-hunter Giles Redferne, the Warlock attempts to assemble The Grand Grimoire, a Satanic book that will reveal the true name of God. Redferne and The Warlock then embark on a chase with the Grand Grimoire and Kassandra. The Warlock assembles two-thirds of the Grimoire, and Giles is stunned to learn that the last portion is buried in his grave, the Warlock appears and starts a ritual to assemble the Grimoire. After seeing the name of God appear on the book, The Warlock is about to call it out and unmake existence when Kassandra injects him with salt water, Redferne returns to his own time. In the epilogue, Kassandra is seen burying the Grimoire in the Great Salt Flats, Twohy revised and refined the story, but he had to compromise some of his ideas due to limitations of the budget. Because the film begins in the colonial United States, director Steve Miner insisted that the leads were portrayed by British actors, theyd been off the boat for five years, ten years at most. Producer Arnold Kopelson suggested Julian Sands, but it was director Miner who decided to cast Sands against type as the evil Warlock instead of goodhearted Redferne, Sands had been offered many roles in horror movies and initially wasnt interested. When I first got the script, it sat around for a while because I didnt think it was my kind of thing, when I read it, I saw it was a black comedy rather than a slasher-type film was very happy at the prospect of working with Steve. Problems arose with actress Lori Singer, who was reportedly difficult, an elaborate series of makeups to progressively age Singer had been designed, tested and approved. However, on the day of her transformation into a 40-year-old, Singer refused to wear any prosthetics, for her 60-year-old incarnation, she agreed to wear prosthetics on her cheeks and chin but refused to let them put appliances on her nose or eyes. The bulk of the movie was shot on location around the United States, the opening 17th century sequence was filmed at Plimoth Plantation in Massachusetts, and later scenes were shot in the Boston area. The farmhouse with the red barn is the George Washington Faulkner House. Because of the logistics of the special effects involved, however, the post-production optical effects work was to have been supplied by Dreamquest Images but they were replaced by Perpetual Motion for budgetary reasons. Due to a variety of factors, several scenes were cut, several deleted scenes are glimpsed in the theatrical trailer and other photographs and information have surfaced. In the original version of the sequence, actress Mary Woronov ripped open her blouse to reveal the Eyes of Satan in place of her nipples. After mouthing the words of the devil, the channeler freezes, the Warlock then pushes her body to the ground causing it to shatter and stomps on her chest to retrieve the eyes
26.
Independence Day (1996 film)
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Independence Day is a 1996 American science fiction action film directed and co-written by Roland Emmerich. The film focuses on disparate groups of people who converge in the Nevada desert in the aftermath of a attack by an extraterrestrial race of unknown origin. Along with the rest of the world, they launch a counterattack on July 4 – Independence Day in the United States. While promoting Stargate in Europe, Emmerich came up with the idea for the film when fielding a question about his own belief in the existence of alien life. He and Dean Devlin decided to incorporate a large-scale attack having noticed that aliens in most invasion films travel long distances in space only to remain hidden when reaching Earth. Shooting began in July 1995 in New York City, and the film was completed on June 20,1996. The film grossed over $817.4 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 1996, and briefly, as of June 2016, it ranks 55th on the list of highest-grossing films, and was at the forefront of the large-scale disaster film and sci-fi resurgence of the mid-1990s. The film has an rating of 61% on Rotten Tomatoes. It won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing, a sequel, Independence Day, Resurgence, was released on June 24,2016. David Levinson, an MIT-trained satellite technician, decodes a signal embedded in the satellite transmissions that he determines is a timer counting down to a coordinated attack. Whitmore, the Levinsons, and a few others narrowly escape aboard Air Force One as the capital is destroyed, on July 3, international leaders begin ordering individual counterattacks. Their aviation forces attack destroyer ships positioned above the ruins of the cities, each destroyer launches a swarm of attack fighters, which wipe out the human fighter squadrons. He subdues the injured pilot and flags down a convoy of refugees. They transport the alien to nearby Area 51 where Whitmores group has landed. Area 51 houses the refurbished alien fighter and three alien corpses recovered from the crash, when eccentric scientist Brackish Okun examines the alien captured by Hiller, it regains consciousness and attacks. It telepathically invades Okuns mind and uses his vocal cords to communicate with Whitmore before launching an attack against him. Whitmore sees visions of the plans, their entire civilization travels from planet to planet, exterminating all indigenous life. On July 4, Levinson demonstrates that the key to defeating the aliens lies in deactivating their force fields and he proposes using the refurbished alien fighter to implement the plan, which Hiller volunteers to pilot
27.
Independence Day: Resurgence
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Independence Day, Resurgence is a 2016 American science fiction film written and directed by Roland Emmerich with co-writers Dean Devlin, Nicolas Wright, James A. Woods, and James Vanderbilt. Through reverse engineering, the world has harnessed the power of alien technology, plans for a sequel to Independence Day began as early as 2001, with 20th Century Fox eventually green-lighting the project in 2014. Principal photography began in April 2015 at locations primarily in New Mexico but also in the Bonneville Salt Flats of Utah, which were featured in the original. Independence Day, Resurgence was released in the United States on June 24,2016, in 2D, 3D, the film received generally unfavorable reviews from critics, who found the plot convoluted and action sequences overblown, though some praised its overall humor. As the twentieth anniversary of the approaches, ESD Director David Levinson meets with warlord Dikembe Umbutu. They travel to an alien city destroyer and discover that alien survivors sent a distress call to their home world before their defeat. An unidentified spherical city destroyer ship emerges from a wormhole near Earths Moon, narrowly escaping death, those on board the space tug are able to avoid capture and return to Area 51. General Joshua Adams groups interrogate one of the held in captivity at Area 51s prison facility from the war. They learn that the aliens exist in eusociality and that one of their colossal Queens is commanding the invasion, Levinson hypothesizes that and leads an attack on a city destroyer ship, if they kill the supervising Queen, her forces will cease drilling and retreat. In Area 51, Okun opens the container and releases a giant white sphere of virtual intelligence. She reveals that her mission is to evacuate survivors from worlds targeted by the aliens, whom she calls Harvesters. Knowing the Harvester Queen has become aware of the spheres presence, Whitmore volunteers to pilot the transport ship on a suicide mission, leading the Queens ship into a trap before detonating a bomb, thus sacrificing himself but destroying the enemy ship. However, the Harvester Queen survives by using an energy shield and this allows Dylans party, which arrives just in time, to kill her before she can take the sphere. With the Queen dead, all the alien fighters are rendered inactive, while the mothership stops drilling. Okun reveals that the sphere has asked humanity to lead her resistance and has offered them new technology in preparation for a counterattack on the Harvesters home world. The following includes backstory and details covered in the current film, in the original 1996 film, in cast interviews and in the canon novel Independence Day, Crucible. Originally from the city of Los Angeles, he grew up in an orphanage after his parents were killed in the invasion of 1996, jeff Goldblum as David Levinson, a scientist, MIT-educated computer expert, strategist, and environmental activist. Formerly a satellite technician at a television company in New York City
28.
SLC Punk!
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SLC Punk. is a 1998 American comedy-drama film written and directed by James Merendino. The film is about the punk rock fan Steven Stevo Levy. The character is portrayed as a stereotype of an anarchist punk in the mid-1980s, many events and characters in the movie are allegedly based on real life, although they may have been exaggerated. A. SLC Punk was chosen as the feature at the 1999 Sundance Film Festival. Merendino created the film based on his growing up in Salt Lake City. Although the film is not autobiographical, Merendino has said that characters were based on people he knew. The film outlines the daily lives of two punks in Salt Lake City, Utah in the fall of 1985, Stevo and his best friend, Heroin Bob, the nickname Heroin is ironic, as Bob is afraid of needles and actually believes that any drug is inherently dangerous. Stevo and Bob go from party to party while living in a dilapidated apartment and they spend much of their time fighting with members of other subcultures, particularly rednecks. Stevo has a relationship with a girl named Sandy, while Heroin Bob is in love with Trish, the manager of a head shop. The two of them are shaped by their experiences with their parents, Stevo begins to see the drawbacks of living the punk life. His social circle begins to drift away, as Mike leaves Salt Lake City to attend the University of Notre Dame. Stevo falls in love with a rich girl named Brandy. Rather than being offended, Stevo takes the criticism thoughtfully and they passionately kiss, at the same party, Heroin Bob complains of a headache, and is given Percodan, which he consumes after being told the pills are simply vitamins that will help his headache. The accidental drug overdose kills him in his sleep, seemingly justifying the aversion to chemicals he previously espoused in a diatribe delivered to Stevo, when Stevo discovers that his best friend is dead, he breaks down completely. At the funeral, he appears with a head and changed clothing. He decides to go to Harvard, and suggests in the narration that he marries Brandy and he notes in his closing narration that his youthful self would probably kick his future selfs ass, wryly describing himself as ultimately just another poseur. The film features several cliques presented as tribes, the film focuses primarily on the punk tribe, but includes several others as well, Punks, Stevo, Bob, Sean, Megan, and Mike belong to this tribe, although Mike doesnt dress the part. The punks are rivals of the mods, Nazis and rednecks, Mods, Mods wear suits and ties, and they ride scooters
29.
The Cremaster Cycle
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Barneys longtime collaborator Jonathan Bepler composed and arranged the soundtracks for the films. Guggenheim Museum curator Nancy Spector has described the Cremaster cycle as a self-enclosed aesthetic system, the cycle includes the films as well as photographs, drawings, sculptures, and installations the artist produced in conjunction with each episode. Its conceptual departure point is the male cremaster muscle, the function of which is to raise. As the cycle evolved over eight years, Barney looked beyond biology as a way to explore the creation of form, employing narrative models from other realms, such as biography, mythology, and geology. The films were not made in order, but rather in the order 4,1,5,2,3 – precisely,4 in 1994,1 in 1995,5 in 1997,2 in 1999,3 in 2002. There is precious little dialog in any of the films, only #2 features significant dialog, an important precursor of The Cremaster Cycle is Drawing Restraint, which is also a biologically inspired multi-episode work in multiple media, also featuring the field emblem. The full series was released in a series of 20 sets of DVDs, sold each for at least $100,000, in custom packaging – as fine art. In 2007 one disc sold for $571,000, the films are not available on mass-market DVDs, and according to the press release for the 2010 US tour, the cycle is Not Now Nor Will it Ever be Available on DVD. The films are available via periodic screenings. Palm Pictures, the distributor, has not made the series available on DVD, though there were some rumors, so far, only a 31-minute excerpt, the Guggenheim scene, entitled The Order has been released on mass-market DVD in 2003. Reaction to the cycle is sharply divided – some consider it a work of art, on a par with Un Chien Andalou and The Waste Land, while others dismiss it as vapid. This is summarized by one critic as Barneys cinematic art inspires both awe and revulsion, often simultaneously, indeed, the Village Voice featured two reviews, with art critic Jerry Saltz praising the cycle, and film critic J. Hoberman panning it. Lavish praise includes, The Cremaster Cycle by Matthew Barney is the first truly great piece of cinema to be made in an art context since Dali. It is one of the most imaginative and brilliant achievements in the history of avant-garde cinema, in 1999, when three of its entries had been made, Michael Kimmelman of The New York Times hailed Barney as the most important American artist of his generation. The visuals are roundly praised, however, and some feel that the work well as parts of installations, due to visuals, though not as movies. Neville Wakefield has produced The Cremaster Glossary, which is included in the book. Nancy Spector, Matthew Barney, The Cremaster Cycle, New York, Cremaster, The 10-Hour Test, by John Rockwell, March 23,2003 Cults of Personality, J. Cremaster 3 FILM REVIEW, Racing Dead Horses
30.
The Brown Bunny
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The film stars Gallo and Sevigny in the two central roles, as well as a cameo performance by American former model Cheryl Tiegs. It was photographed with handheld 16 mm cameras in various locations throughout the United States, including New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Ohio, Missouri, Utah, Nevada, and California. Motorcycle racer Bud Clay undertakes a cross-country drive, following a race in New Hampshire, all the while he is haunted by memories of his former lover, Daisy. On his journey he meets three women, but Bud seems to be a lost soul, and he is unable to form a connection with any of them. He first meets Violet at a gas station in New Hampshire and they stop at her home in order to get her clothes, but he drives off as soon as she enters the house. Buds next stop is the home of Daisys parents, the location of Daisys brown bunny, Daisys mother does not remember Bud, who grew up in the house next door, nor does she remember having visited Bud and Daisy in California. Next, Bud stops at a pet shelter, where he asks about the expectancy of rabbits. At a highway rest stop, he meets a distressed woman and he comforts and kisses her, before starting to cry and eventually leaving her. Bud appears more distressed as the trip continues, crying as he drives. He stops at the Bonneville Speedway to race his motorcycle, in Las Vegas, he drives around prostitutes on street corners, before deciding to ask one of them, Rose, to join him for a lunch. She eats McDonalds food in his truck until he stops, pays her, after having his motorcycle checked in a Los Angeles garage, Bud stops at Daisys house, which appears abandoned. He leaves a note on the frame, after sitting in his truck in the driveway remembering about kissing Daisy in this place. She seems nervous, going to the twice to smoke crack cocaine, while Bud waits for her. As she proposes to go out to buy something to drink, Bud tells her that, because of what happened the last time they saw each other and they have an argument about Daisy kissing other men. At this point, Bud undresses Daisy and she performs fellatio on him, once done, he insults her as they lie in bed, talking about what happened during their last meeting. Bud continuously asks Daisy why she had been involved with men at a party. She explains that she was just being friendly and wanted to smoke marijuana with them, Bud becomes upset because Daisy was pregnant and it transpires that the baby died as a result of what happened at this party. Through flashback scenes, the viewer understands that Daisy was raped at the party, a scene witnessed by Bud, Daisy asks Bud why he did not help her, and his feelings of guilt on this are considerable
31.
Gerry (2002 film)
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Gerry is a 2002 American drama film directed by Gus Van Sant and starring Matt Damon and Casey Affleck, who also co-wrote the film with Van Sant. It is the first film of Van Sants Death Trilogy, three based on deaths that occurred in real life, and is succeeded by Elephant. Frequently cited as an example of cinema, Gerry is noted, among other things. Gerry follows two hiking companions who both go by the name Gerry, Gerry is also a slang term, used by both protagonists throughout the misadventure, meaning to screw up. Van Sant revealed in interviews that Damon, Affleck and his brother Ben had already coined the term before the movie had been named. The films plot shares some commonalities with the surrounding the death of David Coughlin. The films style was inspired by the work of Hungarian director Bela Tarr. Besides the work of Bela Tarr, the video game Tomb Raider was cited as an influence on the style of the film, in an interview with Filmmaker Magazine Van Sant stated In some ways, Gerry is Béla Tarr fused with Tomb Raider. The characters drive to a location to hike at a site marked Wilderness Trail. As they start, they see some other hikers passing by, after some walking, talking, and an impromptu foot race, they decide to head back. Before long, they realize that they are lost and that night, they build a campfire. Over the next couple of days, the two wander through the wilderness without food or water. They try splitting up for a while, they try to retrace their steps, they try to follow some animal tracks and they grow increasingly irritated with each other as the situation becomes dire. They eventually find themselves slowly walking, mostly in silence, through a desert and they finally collapse due to fatigue and dehydration. The weaker of the two proclaims that he is leaving, and reaches towards Damons character, Damons character rolls on top of Affleck and wordlessly strangles him before collapsing again. After some time, Damons character awakens and realises that a highway is not far away, in the final sequence, he is badly sunburned but watches the passing landscape from the car of the father and son who have seemingly rescued him. The film was inspired by a real incident in which two people got lost in the desert, with one eventually killing the other. The story, was relayed to Van Sant by Damon, Van Sant deliberately chose not to look up info on the event as we didnt want to do their story
32.
The Tree of Life (film)
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The Tree of Life is a 2011 American experimental epic drama film written and directed by Terrence Malick and starring Brad Pitt, Sean Penn, and Jessica Chastain. After several years in development and missing 2009 and 2010 release dates, The Tree of Life premiered in competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, where it was awarded the Palme dOr. It ranked no.1 on review aggregator Metacritics Top Ten List of 2011, the Tree of Life made more critics year-end lists for 2011 than any other film. It has appeared in the 2012 Sight & Sound critics poll of the worlds top 250 films as well as BBCs poll of the greatest American films, the film begins with a quotation from the Book of Job, Where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth. When the morning stars together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy. A mysterious, wavering light, resembling a flame, flickers in the darkness, Mrs. OBrien recalls a lesson taught to her that people must choose to follow either the path of grace or the path of nature. In the 1960s or thereabouts, she receives a telegram informing her of the death of her son, Mr. OBrien is notified by telephone while at an airport. The family is thrown into turmoil, in the present day, the OBriens eldest son, Jack, is adrift in his modern life as an architect. One day he apologizes to his father on the phone for something he said about R. L. s death, from the darkness the universe is born, the Milky Way and then the solar system form while voice-overs ask existential questions. On the newly formed Earth, volcanoes erupt and microbes begin to form, sea life is born, then plants on land, then dinosaurs. In a symbolic first act of compassion, a dinosaur chooses not to eat a weakened creature that is lying on the side of a river bed, an asteroid tumbles through space and strikes the Earth, causing the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. In a sprawling neighborhood in the American South live the OBriens. The young couple is enthralled by their new baby Jack and, later, when Jack reaches adolescence, he is faced with the conflict of accepting the way of grace or nature, as embodied by each of his parents. Mrs. OBrien is gentle, nurturing, and authoritative, presenting the world to her children as a place of wonder. Mr. OBrien is strict and authoritarian, and easily loses his temper as he struggles to reconcile his love for his sons with wanting to prepare them for a world he sees as corrupt and exploitative. He laments his decision to work in a power plant instead of pursuing his passion for music and he tries to get ahead by filing patents for various inventions. Jacks perceptions of the world begin to change one of his boyhood companions drowns at the pool. One summer, Mr. OBrien takes a business trip
33.
Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End
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Pirates of the Caribbean, At Worlds End is a 2007 American epic fantasy swashbuckler film and the third installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. It is the last film in the series to be directed by Gore Verbinski and it was filmed in two shoots during 2005 and 2006, the former simultaneously with the preceding film, Dead Mans Chest. The film was released in English-speaking countries on May 25,2007, the film was praised for its performances, musical score, action scenes, and special effects, but was criticized for its plot and running time. At Worlds End was a box office hit, becoming the most successful film of 2007, with over $960 million worldwide. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling and the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, which it lost to La Vie en Rose and The Golden Compass, respectively. A fourth installment, On Stranger Tides, the first in the series to neither be directed by Verbinski nor star Bloom and Knightley, was released in cinemas on May 20,2011. With a production budget of $300 million, Pirates of the Caribbean, At Worlds End was the most expensive ever made at the time of its release. To control the oceans, Lord Cutler Beckett executes anyone associated with piracy by ordering Davy Jones to destroy all pirate ships in the seas, condemned prisoners sing Hoist the Colours to compel the nine Pirate Lords to convene at Shipwreck Cove to hold the Brethren Court. Traveling to Singapore, the crew meet Captain Sao Feng, who owns navigational charts to the Locker, Becketts soldiers invade, but the crew escape. Feng and Turner make a deal to give Jack to Feng, the crew travels to the locker and rescues the marooned Jack. They find themselves trapped, encountering dead souls, including Elizabeths father Governor Swann and they learn the Dutchman must always have a captain. Returning to the world, the Pearl is attacked by Sao Feng. Sao Feng tells Elizabeth that the first Brethren Court bound Calypso in human form after she betrayed her lover and he plans to release her to defeat Beckett. Davy Jones attacks Fengs ship, but Feng appoints Elizabeth his successor as Pirate Lord before dying, admiral Norrington frees Elizabeth and her new crew from the Dutchman, but is killed by a crazed Bootstrap Bill. The Black Pearl arrives at Shipwreck Cove where Barbossa attempts to persuade the Brethren Court to release Calypso, Davy Jones visits Tia Dalma in the Pearls brig, revealing she is Calypso, and they promise to be together again. Jacks father Captain Teague and Keeper of the Pirate Code, informs the Court that only an elected Pirate King can decide, to avoid a stalemate, Jack casts his vote for Elizabeth, making her King. The Brethren Court and Becketts fleets emerge for war, Barbossa frees Calypso, but when Will reveals it was Jones who made it possible for the first Court to imprison her, Calypso vanishes and summons an enormous maelstrom. The Pearl and the Dutchman battle in the maelstrom, Elizabeth and Will are wed by Barbossa before swinging over to the Dutchman to aid Jack
34.
Star Wars: The Last Jedi
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Star Wars, The Last Jedi is an upcoming American epic space opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the film in the Star Wars sequel trilogy following Star Wars. The film is produced by Lucasfilm and will be distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It stars Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Lupita Nyongo, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels, Gwendoline Christie, new cast members include Benicio del Toro, Laura Dern, and Kelly Marie Tran in unconfirmed roles. It was Fishers final film role before her death in December 2016, the film was announced after Disneys acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It is produced by Ram Bergman and Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy, John Williams, composer for the previous seven films, returns to compose the score. The Last Jedi is scheduled for release on December 15,2017, a sequel, Star Wars, Episode IX, is scheduled for 2019. Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, an immensely powerful Jedi Master who has been in self-imposed exile on the planet Ahch-To, Carrie Fisher as General Leia Organa, twin sister to Luke, former princess of Alderaan, and a leading general in the Resistance. The Last Jedi is Fishers final film role, she died on December 27,2016, Fisher had completed her work on the film before her death. Adam Driver as Kylo Ren, Supreme Leader Snokes loyal servant who is strong with the side of the Force. He was born Ben Solo, the son of Han Solo and Leia Organa, nephew of Luke Skywalker, Daisy Ridley as Rey, a highly Force-sensitive scavenger from the desert planet Jakku who joined the Resistance and goes to find Luke Skywalker. John Boyega as Finn, a stormtrooper of the First Order who defected to the Resistance. Oscar Isaac as Poe Dameron, an X-wing fighter pilot in the Resistance, Lupita Nyongo as Maz Kanata, a pirate and longtime friend of Han Solo and Chewbacca. Domhnall Gleeson as General Hux, the head of the First Orders Starkiller Base. Anthony Daniels as C-3PO, a protocol droid in the service of Leia Organa. Gwendoline Christie as Captain Phasma, the commander of the First Orders stormtroopers, Andy Serkis as Supreme Leader Snoke, the mysterious leader of the First Order and Kylo Rens master. Tom Hardy will make an appearance as a stormtrooper. Gary Barlow also has an appearance in the film
35.
Pontiac Bonneville
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The Pontiac Bonneville was a full-sized automobile which was built by Pontiac from 1957 to 2005. It was introduced as a limited production performance convertible during the 1957 model year, the Bonneville name first appeared in 1954 on a pair of bubble-topped GM Motorama concept cars called the Bonneville Special.00 - more than double the base price of a Chieftain four-door sedan. A fully equipped Bonneville could cost more than a Cadillac, only 630 units were produced that first year, making it one of the most collectible Pontiacs of all time. The following year it became a model, and it would endure until 2005 as the divisions top-of-the-line model. Bonneville became a model in 1958, available as a two-door hardtop or a convertible. It paced the Indianapolis 500 in its first year, also a 300 horsepower 370 cubic inches V8 with four-barrel carburetor and dual exhausts was now standard equipment. For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. In its third year, the 1959 Bonneville became a full series with the addition of the four-door hardtop sedan. The Bonneville played an important part that year in the introduction of two of Pontiacs greatest marketing inspirations — the split grille and the Wide Track slogan, both the grille design and the Wide Track phrase remained part of Pontiacs image up to its termination. A Safe-T-Track differential, used to wheel spin, was an option beginning in 1959. The Bonneville remained Pontiacs costliest and most luxurious model throughout the 1960s and was instrumental in pushing Pontiac to third place in sales from 1962 to 1970, Bonnevilles were also built on a longer wheelbase version of GMs B-Body. The two-door hardtop was marketed as the Sports Coupe, the four door models were called Vistas. Bonneville models were equipped with Hydra-Matic or Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmissions. Other options included power steering and power brakes as well as air conditioning, other popular options included power windows, power seats, radio, cruise control, and 8-lug aluminum wheels that included integral brake drums for improved stopping power. For 1962, Pontiac also offered the 421 cu in Super Duty with two carburetors, rated at 405 hp, as a US$2,250 option. For 1965, All GM B body cars were dramatically restyled, swooping rooflines, rakish fender lines and the Coke bottle profile contributed to making one of the most popular body styles ever produced. The Bonneville got the new styling, with plenty of bright trim on the body sides. Inside, new upholstery and instrumentation were featured, a General Motors corporate edict that took effect with the 1967 model year led Pontiac to discontinue the Tri-Power engine options on all of its cars
36.
Pontiac
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Pontiac was a brand of automobile manufactured and sold by General Motors between 1926 and 2010. Introduced as a make for GMs more expensive line of Oakland automobiles, Pontiac overtook Oakland in popularity. Sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico by GM, the last Pontiac badged cars were built in December 2009, with one final vehicle in January,2010. Franchise agreements for Pontiac dealers expired October 31,2010, leaving GM to focus on its four remaining North American brands, Chevrolet, Buick, Cadillac, and GMC. The Pontiac brand was introduced by General Motors in 1926 as the marque to GMs Oakland division. It was named after the famous Ottawa chief who had given his name to the city of Pontiac. Within months of its introduction, Pontiac was outselling Oakland, which was essentially a 1920s Chevrolet with a six-cylinder engine installed. Body styles offered included a sedan with two and four doors, Landau Coupe, with the Sport Phaeton, Sport Landau Sedan, Sport Cabriolet. As a result of Pontiacs rising sales, versus Oaklands declining sales, Pontiac became the companion marque to survive its parent. It was also manufactured from knock-down kits at GMs short-lived Japanese factory at Osaka Assembly in Osaka, Japan from 1927-1941. Pontiac produced cars offering 40 hp 186.7 cu in L-head straight 6-cylinder engines in the Pontiac Chief of 1927, the Chief sold 39,000 units within six months of its appearance at the 1926 New York Auto Salon, hitting 76,742 at twelve months. The next year, it became the six in the U. S. ranking seventh in overall sales. By 1933, it had moved up to producing the least expensive cars available with straight eight-cylinder engines, in the late 1930s, Pontiac used the so-called torpedo body of the Buick for one of its models, just prior to its being used by Chevrolet. This body style brought some attention to the marque, an unusual feature of the torpedo body exhibition car, was that with push of a button the front half of the car body would open showing the engine and the cars front seat interior. In 1937, the eight-cylinder had a 122-inch wheelbase, while the six-cylinder had a 117-inch wheelbase, for an extended period of time—prewar through the early 1950s—the Pontiac was a quiet, solid car, but not especially powerful. It came with a straight eight. Straight 8s were slightly less expensive to produce than the increasingly popular V8s, additionally, the long crankshaft suffered from excessive flex, restricting straight 8s to a relatively low compression ratio with a modest redline. However, in application, inexpensive flatheads were not a liability
37.
Triumph Bonneville
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The Triumph Bonneville is a standard motorcycle featuring a parallel-twin four-stroke engine and manufactured in three generations over three separate production runs. The first two generations, by the defunct Triumph Engineering in Meriden, West Midlands, England, were 1959-1983 and 1985-1988. The third series, by Triumph Motorcycles in Hinckley, Leicestershire, began in 2001, the name Bonneville derives from the famous Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, USA where Triumph and others attempted to break the motorcycle speed records. The original Triumph Bonneville was a 650 cc parallel-twin motorcycle manufactured by Triumph Engineering and it was based on the companys Triumph Tiger T110 and was fitted with the Tigers optional twin 1 3/16 in Amal monobloc carburettors as standard, along with that models high-performance inlet camshaft. Later T120 Bonnevilles used a new frame which contained the oil instead of using a separate tank. The T120 engine, both in standard configuration and especially when tuned for increased performance, was popular in café racers such as Tribsas and particularly Tritons. The early 650 cc T120 Bonneville, often known as the duplex frame model, was replaced in the early 1970s by the T140 Bonneville, shortly after, the engine was further bored out to 744 cc and front disc brakes were fitted using single discs until 1982. In 1975, along with modifications, the gearchange lever was moved from right to left to comply with new regulations mandated for the American market. Several T140 models followed featuring various modifications and refinements including electric starting from 1980 until production ceased with the closure of the Meriden works in 1983, although this should have been the end of the Bonneville, as it turned out it was not. Triumph Motorcycles was acquired by businessman John Bloor, who licensed a company called Racing Spares in Devon and these continuation bikes are known as the Devon Bonnevilles, which did not reach the market until 1985, and were not sold in the U. S. Bloors Triumph Motorcycles Ltd launched a new model, the Bonneville 800. The new Bonneville strongly resembles the earlier models in style and basic configuration, at the debut the new version was given a 790 cc parallel-twin engine, with the up-spec T100 receiving an 865 cc engine. From 2007 on, all Bonnevilles received the 865 cc engine, dummy carburettors, which are actually redesigned throttle bodies made to resemble carburettors, have been added to the 2009 models to retain the original vintage styling of previous years. For 2016, Triumph introduced a all new T120 1200cc 270° liquid-cooled, SOHC, version of the Bonneville, from 2008, all Bonnevilles received a slightly larger and reshaped tank to accommodate the EFI pump, but the tank capacity was not altered. Even though US2008 models were not injected they still received the larger tank, all the bikes in Triumphs current Modern Classics line are derived from the new Bonneville, including the SE, T100, Thruxton, Scrambler, America, and Speedmaster. The adoption of the EFI engine in 2008 rendered many of these obsolete, since tank covers. The original T120 Bonneville was a motorcycle, but the new Bonnevilles are softer. In particular, the 865cc Bonneville competes directly with the Harley-Davidson 883, the handling is more than respectable, the brakes markedly better and, of course, it’s British
38.
Potash
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Potash /ˈpɒtæʃ/ is any of various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot, the word potassium is derived from potash. Potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tonnes per year, various types of fertilizer-potash thus constitute the single largest global industrial use of the element potassium. Potassium was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash, in 1807, Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, the most common being potassium chloride. The term potash comes from the Middle Dutch word potaschen, approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as pot ash. Later, potash became the term applied to naturally occurring potassium salts. Potash ores are rich in potassium chloride and sodium chloride and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines, in the evaporation method hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. Amine reagents are added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl, air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for plant nutrition. Potash deposits can be all over the world. At present deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, Potash has been used in bleaching textiles, making glass, and making soap, since about AD500. Potash was principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land and sea plants, beginning in the 14th century potash was mined in Ethiopia. One of the worlds largest deposits,140 to 150 million tons, is located in the Tigrays Dallol area, Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals in Canada. It was refined from the ashes of broadleaved trees and produced primarily in the areas of Europe, Russia. The first U. S. patent of any kind was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus, Pearl ash was a purer quality made by the ignition of cream of tartar. Potash pits were used in England to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production
39.
Michael Sturtz
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Michael Sturtz is a sculptor, teacher, designer and facilitator of creative thinking, known for his innovative creativity and ability to make challenging artwork and ideas possible. He is the founder of The Crucible a nonprofit industrial arts school in Oakland, California, sturtzs work often combines organic themes with metal and machinery. Sturtz states in his bio that his art work showcases a strong juxtaposition between materials including metals and glass, stone and kinetics, fire and liquid, 3D objects and his sculptural works are exhibited extensively in collections throughout the US, Italy and England. Sturtz grew up tinkering with machines and from a young age could be found rebuilding cars in his stepfathers auto body shop. As a result, he developed a fascination for the mechanics of everyday forms. Sturtz received his Bachelor of Fine Arts from Alfred School of Art and Design and he also studied stone carving at Studio de Sem Ghelardini, in Pietrasanta, Italy. In 1999, Sturtz founded The Crucible, a regional art center in Oakland, CA. Sturtzs goal was to break down barriers to the arts by creating an art school that emphasized non-competitive learning and participation. During his 12 years as Executive Director, Michael nurtured what began as an idea, overall, the Crucible welcomes 20,000 visitors per year to participate in adult art education, youth programs, community outreach, corporate workshops, and open house events. During his tenure as The Crucible’s Executive Director, Michael developed a reputation for innovative projects, Sturtz retired from The Crucible on its 12th anniversary to the day, on January 15,2011 to seek out new creative challenges, and has found them at Stanford University. Michael accepted an appointment in the Mechanical Engineering Design Group. Sturtz is currently the Executive Director of The Stanford Creative Ignition Lab @ Autodesk, tEDx Stanford is an independently organized event by Stanford University in the spirit of ideas worth spreading, that brings scholars, explorers and artists together. Sturtz participated in the conference program “Above and Beyond“, to speak about finding your creative voice. Die Moto is the world’s first biodiesel land speed motorcycle, a feat of engineering, Die Moto combines a BWM chassis with a car engine and a hand-tooled retro fairing. Michael and the team worked for nearly a year, overcoming the myriad engineering challenges as well as garnering extensive sponsorship and media interest. On September 3,2007 Michael piloted custom-built biodiesel motorcycle Die-Moto at the Bonneville Salt Flats, setting the land speed record at 130.614 MPH. The event was the first non-petroleum powered motorcycle to run at Bonneville. The world land speed record remains unbroken, of equal significance, Michael did an amazing job raising awareness for alternative fuels, by making biodiesel sexy and desirable to the race fans and gearheads who flock to land speed events
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Stardust (spacecraft)
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Stardust was a 300-kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on February 7,1999. Its primary mission was to collect dust samples from the coma of comet Wild 2, as well as samples of cosmic dust and it was the first sample return mission of its kind. En route to comet Wild 2, the craft also flew by, the primary mission was successfully completed on January 15,2006, when the sample return capsule returned to Earth. A mission extension codenamed NExT culminated in February 2011 with Stardust intercepting comet Tempel 1, Stardust ceased operations in March 2011. On August 14,2014, scientists announced the identification of possible interstellar dust particles from the Stardust capsule returned to Earth in 2006, beginning in the 1980s, scientists began seeking a dedicated mission to study a comet. During the early 1990s, several missions to study comet Halley became the first successful missions to return close-up data, however, the US cometary mission, Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, was canceled for budgetary reasons. In the mid-1990s, further support was given to a cheaper, Stardust was competitively selected in the fall of 1995 as a NASA Discovery Program mission of low-cost with highly focused science goals. Construction of Stardust began in 1996, and was subject to the maximum contamination restriction, Comet Wild 2 was selected as the primary target of the mission for the rare chance to observe a long-period comet that has ventured close to the Sun. The comet has since become a short period comet after an event in 1974, in planning the mission, it was expected that most of the original material from which the comet formed would still be preserved. Facilitating the intercept of significant numbers of interstellar dust particles using the collection medium. Returning as many high resolution images of the coma and nucleus as possible. The spacecraft was designed, built and operated by Lockheed Martin Astronautics as a Discovery-class mission in Denver, JPL provided mission management for the NASA division for mission operations. The principal investigator of the mission was Dr. Donald Brownlee from the University of Washington, the spacecraft bus measured 1.7 meters in length, and 0.66 meters in width, a design adapted from the SpaceProbe deep space bus developed by Lockheed Martin Astronautics. To maintain low costs, the spacecraft incorporated many designs and technologies used in past missions or previously developed for missions by the Small Spacecraft Technologies Initiative. The spacecraft featured five scientific instruments to collect data, including the Stardust Sample Collection tray, the spacecraft was launched with 80-kilograms of propellant. Information for spacecraft positioning was provided by a camera using FSW to determine attitude, an inertial measurement unit. The probe was powered by two arrays, providing an average of 330 watts of power. The arrays also included Whipple shields to protect the surfaces from the potentially damaging cometary dust while the spacecraft was in the coma of Wild 2
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5535 Annefrank
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5535 Annefrank, provisional designation 1942 EM, is an inner main-belt asteroid, and member of the Flora or Augusta family, approximately 4.5 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered 23 March 1942, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany, the asteroid was used as a target to practice the flyby technique that the Stardust space probe would later use on the comet Wild 2. It is named after Anne Frank, a Jewish victim of the Holocaust, Annefrank orbits among the main-belt asteroids, with its shortest axis aligned roughly normal to its orbital plane. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2. 1–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 3 months and its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. The bodys observation arc begins with identification 1978 EK6, its first used observation taken at Crimea–Nauchnij 1978, on November 2,2002, the Stardust space probe flew past Annefrank at a distance of 3079 km. Its images show the asteroid to be 6.6 ×5.0 ×3.4 km, twice as big as previously thought, shaped like a triangular prism, with several visible impact craters. From the photographs, the albedo of Annefrank was computed to be between 0.18 and 0.24, preliminary analysis of the Stardust imagery suggests that Annefrank may be a contact binary, although other possible explanations exist for its observed shape. Later ground based lightcurve data was used in an attempt to measure Annefranks rotational period and their data resulted in possible rotational periods of 0.5,0.63 or 0.95 days, with 0.63 days fitting the data best. This minor planet was named after Anne Frank, the Dutch-Jewish diarist who died in a Nazi concentration camp, naming citation was published on 14 May 1995
42.
81P/Wild
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Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild, who discovered it on January 6,1978, using a 40-cm Schmidt telescope at Zimmerwald, Switzerland. For most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 probably had a more distant, in September 1974, it passed within one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, the strong gravitational pull of which perturbed the comets orbit and brought it into the inner Solar System. Its orbital period changed from 43 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 astronomical unit. Dimensions,5.5 km ×4.0 km ×3.3 km Density,0.6 g/cm3 Mass,2.3 kg ×1013 NASAs Stardust Mission launched a spacecraft, named Stardust, on February 7,1999. It flew by Wild 2 on January 2,2004, and collected samples from the comets coma. 72 close-up shots were taken of Wild 2 by Stardust and they revealed a surface riddled with flat-bottomed depressions, with sheer walls and other features that range from very small to up to 2 kilometres across. These features are believed to be caused by impact craters or gas vents, during Stardusts flyby, at least 10 gas vents were active. The comet itself has a diameter of 5 kilometres, Stardusts sample return canister was reported to be in excellent condition when it landed in Utah, on January 15,2006. A NASA team analyzed the particle capture cells and removed individual grains of comet and interstellar dust, NASA is collaborating with The Planetary Society who will run a project called Stardust@Home, using volunteers to help locate particles on the Stardust Interstellar Dust Collector. As of 2006, the composition of the dust has contained a range of organic compounds. Indigenous aliphatic hydrocarbons were found with longer lengths than those observed in the diffuse interstellar medium. No hydrous silicates or carbonate minerals were detected, which suggests a lack of processing of Wild 2 dust. Very few pure carbon particles were found in the samples returned, a substantial amount of crystalline silicates such as olivine, anorthite and diopside were found, materials only formed at high temperature. This is consistent with observations of crystalline silicates both in cometary tails and in circumstellar disks at large distances from the star. Possible explanations for this high temperature material at large distances from Sun were summarised before the Stardust sample return mission by van Boekel et al, both in the Solar System and in circumstellar disks crystalline silicates are found at large distances from the star. The origin of these silicates is a matter of debate, the crystals in these regions may have been transported outward through the disk or in an outward-flowing wind. An alternative source of crystalline silicates in the outer disk regions is in situ annealing, a third way to produce crystalline silicates is the collisional destruction of large parent bodies in which secondary processing has taken place. We can use the mineralogy of the dust to derive information about the nature of the primary and/or secondary processes the small-grain population has undergone
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Black Rock Desert
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It is in the northern Nevada section of the Great Basin with a lakebed that is a dry remnant of Pleistocene Lake Lahontan. The average annual precipitation at Gerlach, Nevada is 7.90 inches and it is also the location for the annual Burning Man festival. The Black Rock Desert is part of the National Conservation Area, the NCA is located in northwest Nevada, and was established by legislation in 2000. It is a combination of desert playa, narrow canyons. Humans have been in Black Rock Desert since approximately 11,000 BC, in 1300 BC the area was settled by the Paiute people. The large black rock formation was used as a landmark by the Paiute, the landmark is a conical outcrop composed of interbedded Permian marine limestone and volcanic rocks. At its base is a hot spring and grassy meadow. In 1843, John Fremont and his party were the first white men to cross the desert, in 1867, Hardin City, a short-lived silver mill town was established. The Black Rock Desert region is in northwestern Nevada and the northwestern Great Basin, the playa extends for approximately 100 mi northeast from the towns of Gerlach and Empire, between the Jackson Mountains to the east and the Calico Hills to the west. The Black Rock Desert is separated into two arms by the Black Rock Range and it lies at an elevation of 3,907 ft and has an area of about 1,000 sq mi. There are several definitions of the extent of the Black Rock Desert. Often people refer just to the playa surface, sometimes terrain which can be seen from the playa is included. The widest definition of the Black Rock Desert region is the watershed of the basin drains into the playa. The intermittent Quinn River is the largest river in the region, starting in the Santa Rosa Range and ending in the Quinn River Sink on the playa south of the Black Rock Range. If the playa is wet for a month or so, the shallow waters teem with fairy shrimp, the edges of the playa and the Quinn River Sink stay wet longer than the rest of the playa, which concentrates the fairy shrimp and migratory birds in those areas. More than 250 species of birds and many other water birds stop in Black Rock-High Rock Country for varying lengths of time. When wet, especially in spring, the playa is a place for these winged visitors to rest. When it rains, the playa can become sticky, bogging down four-wheel-drive vehicles
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