1.
Borough Market, Halifax
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Borough Market is a Victorian covered market in Halifax, West Yorkshire, England. The market occupies a town centre site between Southgate, Albion Street and Market Street, the glass and wrought iron covered marketplace, surrounded by stone built shops and accommodation, was built between 1891 and 1896 and opened by the future King George V and Queen Mary. The design included three houses on the Market Street side and fishmongers shops on Albion Street with the remaining exterior shops all being butchers shops. The award winning market is open six days a week with some 125 market stalls, the site had previously been occupied by a red brick Georgian market place built in 1790. A nearby slaughterhouse had ended the practice of slaughtering animals in the street, trade had been concentrated here since 1810 when an Act of Parliament had been obtained which forbade street trading in other parts of the town. Another Act of Parliament in 1853 allowed Halifax council to buy New Market, as it was known, the Markets and Fairs Committee decided in 1890 to replace the overflowing market place with a new structure. Local architects Joseph and John Leeming were engaged to draw up plans, a £50,000 loan was obtained by the Corporation the following year, with the final cost rising to £130,000, which was £20,000 over budget. Work began in October 1892 and progressed slowly, until the market was opened on 25 July 1896 by the Duke and Duchess of York. They also opened the Royal Halifax Infirmary on the same day, opening hours at the outset were 8 am to 8 pm on Mondays to Wednesdays, with half day closing on Thursdays,8 am to 4 pm. Fridays were 8 am to 9 pm and Saturdays 6 am to 10.30 pm, the buildings stonework was cleaned in 1973, the same year that Southgate was made into a pedestrian area, with the road raised to pavement level. In 1987 the Civic Trust gave the market an award for its renovated Victorian shop fronts, in 1993 the central clock, often used as a rendezvous point, was refurbished using more than fifty square feet of gold leaf. In 1995 the Halifax Centre Strategy Report recommended moving the fishmongers on Albion Street inside the market and replacing them with units to improve attractiveness. The multi-storey buildings contain living quarters, originally for market traders and managers, water was originally drawn from a well near the Market Street entrance. The pubs were the Wheatsheaf, later renamed the Portman and Pickles, the Saddle, the Portman and Pickles was named after Eric Portman and Wilfred Pickles. At the centre of the market an 18 metre high octagonal lantern is supported by decorative cast iron columns, below the lantern a decorative clock was originally visible from most parts of the market, although now obscured by taller stalls. Flagstones used for flooring in the market, still in good condition, came from Solomon Marshalls quarry at Southowram, the slope of the site is accommodated without the use of steps. The market operates six days a week with about 125 stalls, a centenary celebration was held in 1996, coinciding with Great British Market Week between 19 and 26 May. The market is Grade II* listed by English Heritage,100 years of Halifax Borough Market
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
4.
Retail
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Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
5.
London Borough of Southwark
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The London Borough of Southwark /ˈsʌðərk/ in south London, England forms part of Inner London and is connected by bridges across the River Thames to the City of London. It was created in 1965 when three smaller council areas amalgamated under the London Government Act 1963, all districts of the area are within the London postal district. It is governed by Southwark London Borough Council, Dulwich is home to the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the Imperial War Museum is in Elephant and Castle. The area was first settled in the Roman period but the name Southwark dates from the 9th century, the London Borough of Southwark was formed in 1965 from the former area of the Metropolitan Borough of Southwark, the Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell, and the Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey. The borough borders the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets to the north, the London Borough of Lambeth to the west, to the south are the London Borough of Bromley and the London Borough of Croydon. At the 2001 census Southwark had a population of 244,866, Southwark is ethnically 63% white, 16% black African and 8% black Caribbean. The area is the home of many Nigerian, Jamaican, South African, Polish, Tower Bridge, the Millennium Bridge, Blackfriars Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge all connect the City of London to the borough. The skyscraper Shard London Bridge is currently the tallest building in the EU, the Tate Modern art gallery, Shakespeares Globe Theatre, the Imperial War Museum and Borough Market are also within the borough. At one mile wide, Burgess Park is Southwarks largest green space, Southwark has many notable places of Christian worship, Anglican, Roman Catholic and independent non-conformist. These include Charles Spurgeons Metropolitan Tabernacle, Southwark Cathedral, St Georges Cathedral, Londons Norwegian Church and Finnish Church and the Swedish Seamens Church are all in Rotherhithe. St George the Martyr is the oldest church in Greater London dedicated to Englands Patron Saint, the other redundant church is Francis Bedfords in Trinity Church Square, now a recording studio, Henry Wood Hall. Whilst Christianity is the dominant religion of the borough, several religious minorities are also active, according to the 2001 Census, approximately 28% of Southwark identified as non-religious, or chose not to state their faith. Charles Dickens set several of his novels in the old borough where he lived as a young man, the site of The Tabard inn, the White Hart inn and the George Inn which survives. The rebuilt Globe Theatre and its exhibition on the Bankside remind us of the areas being the birthplace of classical theatre, there is also the remains of the Rose Theatre. In 2007 the Unicorn Theatre for Children was opened on Tooley Street with both the Southwark Playhouse and the Union Theatre having premises in Bermondsey Street, the Menier Chocolate Factory combines a theatre and exhibition space. The Bankside Gallery is the headquarters of the Royal Watercolour Society, the Golden Hinde replica is at St Mary Overie Dock and nearby are the remains of the medieval Winchester Palace which is a scheduled ancient monument. Peckham Library, designed by Will Alsop won the Stirling Prize for modern architecture, the museum was closed by Southwark council in 2008. MOCA, London, as curated by the artist Michael Petry, is a museum located in Peckham Rye dedicated to exposing and showcasing new cutting-edge artists
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London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
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England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
8.
Specialty foods
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Specialty foods are foods that are typically considered as unique and high-value food items made in small quantities from high-quality ingredients. Consumers typically pay higher prices for specialty foods, and may perceive them as having various benefits compared to non-specialty foods, compared to staple foods, specialty foods may have higher prices due to more expensive ingredients and labor. Some food stores specialize in or predominantly purvey specialty foods, several organizations exist that promote specialty foods and its purveyors. The term specialty foods does not have a standard definition, Food processors, regulators and consumers may be confused by the term due to its potential ambiguity. Foods that have described as specialty foods include, Artisanal foods. Specialty coffee – sometimes referred to as artisanal coffee, stinky tofu – has been described as a local specialty food in the Old City of Shanghai. Taboo food and drink is also a way to find other speciality foods. Some specialty foods may be ethnic specialties, Foods that have been described as specialty foods as per not precisely corresponding into other food categories include, Kimchi. Royal jelly, bee pollen and propolis, in China, specialty foods have been described as having important roles in the food culture. Some Chinese recipes may be footnoted with a statement that ingredients may only be available in specialty food stores, in the United States, specialty foods and their purveyors are regulated by both federal and state agencies. As of March 2015 in the United States, the number of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers had increased to at least 60, the Fine Chocolate Industry Association stated that this represented a tenfold increase in the past decade thats outpacing growth in Europe. In 2012 in the United States, the specialty foods market sector was experiencing significant growth, with its growth rate at 8–10%. In 2010, specialty foods comprised 13. 1% of total food sales. In 2010 in Oakland, California it was reported that abandoned industrial spaces previously occupied by food producers were being inhabited by small specialty food companies. In 1998, the U. S. state of California had the second-highest amount of specialty and this has been attributed as possible due a diverse variety of unique fruits and vegetables that can be grown in Southern California. In terms of food-place association perceptions, Vermont has been described as being associated with homemade-style specialty items, some companies, grocery stores and food stores specialize in or predominantly purvey specialty foods. Some of these include, Asian markets and supermarkets Boulder Specialty Brands Inc. The organization also oversees its Specialty Food Foundation, a foundation that works to reduce hunger and increase food recovery efforts via grantmaking, education, in New Yorks Finger Lakes region, the Worker Ownership Resource Center established the Specialty Food Network
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Southwark Street
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Southwark Street is a major street in Bankside in the London Borough of Southwark, in London England, just south of the River Thames. It runs between Blackfriars Road to the west and Borough High Street to the east and it also connects the access routes for London Bridge, Southwark Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge. At the eastern end to the north is Borough Market, the road forms part of the A3200, which continues with Stamford Street to the west. The street was the first to be made by the Board and was completed in 1864 and it was driven across a densely occupied part of the parish and crosses older roads and streets which created oddly shaped plots for redevelopment. Under the street, a tunnel was constructed with passages to carry utilities such as gas, water. This was a feature for the time. During the first decade of the existence, many large commercial buildings were built along the street. The Hop Exchange, of 1874, is the most notable building at the northern side filling most of the quadrant formed by the street and the railway viaduct. Built in the 1870s, the former Menier Chocolate Factory factory on Southwark Street was converted to a complex that incorporates an art gallery, restaurant. In 1932 Borough Market built a gateway with administrative offices at Nos 6 and 8. In 1958 the Trustees erected an office building at the junction with Stoney Street St Margarets House. At No 110, the western-end of the street, is the headquarters of IPC Media at the Blue Fin Building completed in 2007, the building on the south-west corner of the junction with Great Guildford Street is, unusually, numbered 59½. Under the railway bridge at Southwark Street, near London Bridge — photographic 360° interactive panorama
10.
Borough High Street
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Borough High Street is a road in Southwark, London, running south-west from London Bridge, forming part of the A3 route which runs from London to Portsmouth, on the south coast of England. Borough High Street continues southwest as Newington Causeway, here co-inciding with ancient Stane Street, the Dover Road mostly follows the alignment of Roman Watling Street, though, here, the original Roman route was along Tabard Street closely parallel with Great Dover Street to the north. Borough Market was once held on the street, but has moved to the west with its main entrance on Southwark Street. Southwark Cathedral, prominent on the west side of the street near London Bridge, can be reached by a pedestrian bridge and stairs. The earliest recorded name for the street is simply The Borough which was the part between the fork of the street and London Bridge, South of the fork it was called St. Margarets Hill. From the 1890s the London County Council started to rationalise all metropolitan street names, before the building of Westminster Bridge, Borough High Street was the only connection from the south bank of the Thames to London, which lay on the north bank. As a major node for traffic between London and Portsmouth, Dover, south-east England generally and also travellers from Europe, Borough High Street had many coaching inns. These were of considerable size, with courtyard and surrounding multi-tier galleries, there were twenty-three in total, including the Bear, the Queens Head, the Kings Head, the Catherine Wheel, the Tabard, the White Hart, and the George. Many of them dated back originally to the period, and were in use as coaching inns up to the mid nineteenth century. These inns were very famous and receive mention in the work of literary giants as Chaucer, Shakespeare and Charles Dickens. On the west side of the street the modern office block called Brandon House at 180 Borough High Street marks the site of a mansion called Suffolk Place, demolished in 1557. It is depicted by Anthony van den Wyngaerdes sixteenth century Panorama of London, after demolition the site of the mansion and the area to the west of Borough High Street here became notorious as the criminal enclave of The Mint. The Marshalsea and Kings Bench Prisons were also located on Borough High Street on the east side between Newcomen Street and Tabard Street. The fork at the junction with Southwark Street was created when that street was inserted, in 1864, to connect the London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, the small alleyway connecting the two branches of the fork is named Counter Court but is not an address for any premises. The railway viaduct across the street was erected in 1864. This led to the numbering on the west-side of the street ceasing at the junction with Bedale Street, however, these appear continuous with Borough High Street which only becomes apparent at the junction with Stoney Street further along to the west. On the northwest side, the numbers of the High Street start after the small bridge crossing over Tooley Street as No 4 Borough High Street. With the extension of the viaduct in 2010 the buildings between it and the junction with Bedale Street an attempt was made to simplify the numbering system
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Southwark Cathedral
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Not to be confused with the Roman Catholic St Georges Cathedral, Southwark. Southwark Cathedral or The Cathedral and Collegiate Church of St Saviour and St Mary Overie, Southwark, London and it is the mother church of the Anglican Diocese of Southwark. It has been a place of Christian worship for more than 1,000 years, between 1106 and 1538 it was the church of an Augustinian priory, Southwark Priory, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Following the dissolution of the monasteries, it became a parish church, the church was in the diocese of Winchester until 1877, when the parish of St Saviours, along with other South London parishes, was transferred to the diocese of Rochester. The present building retains the form of the Gothic structure built between 1220 and 1420, although the nave is a late 19th-century reconstruction. Linsted claimed it had founded as a nunnery long before the Conquest by a maiden named Mary. Later it was converted into a college of priests by Swithen, finally in 1106 it was refounded as an Augustinian priory. The tale of the ferrymans daughter Mary and her benefactions became very popular and he went on to date the foundation of the supposed original nunnery to about the year 606, although he provided no evidence to support the date. It is unlikely that this minster pre-dated the conversion of Wessex in the mid-7th century, there is no proof for suggestions that a convent was founded on the site in 606 nor for the claim that a monastery was founded there by St Swithun in the 9th century. The Old English minster was a church serving an area on the south side of the Thames. A remaining wall of the refectory, with a rose window. The Priory was dedicated to the Virgin Mother as St Mary but had the additional soubriquet of Overie to distinguish it from the other churches in the City with the same name. Some fragments of 12th century fabric survive, the church in its present form, however, dates to between 1220 and 1420, making it the first Gothic church in London. The church was damaged in the Great Fire of 1212. Rebuilding took place during the century, although the exact dates are unknown. In its reconstructed state – the basic layout of which survives today – the church was cruciform in plan, with a nave of six bays, a crossing tower, transepts. This was to become known as the Bishops chapel as it was the place of Bishop Lancelot Andrewes. In the 1390s, the church was damaged by fire, and in around 1420 the Bishop of Winchester Henry Beaufort, assisted with the rebuilding of the south transept
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London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex
13.
Edward VI of England
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Edward VI was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine, the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was Englands first monarch to be raised as a Protestant. During his reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority, the Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, and then by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, from 1551 Duke of Northumberland. Edwards reign was marked by problems and social unrest that, in 1549, erupted into riot. An expensive war with Scotland, at first successful, ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne-sur-Mer in exchange for peace, the transformation of the Church into a recognisably Protestant body also occurred under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters. Although his father, Henry VIII, had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, in February 1553, at age 15, Edward fell ill. When his sickness was discovered to be terminal, he and his Council drew up a Devise for the Succession, Edward named his first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. This decision was disputed following Edwards death, and Jane was deposed by Mary nine days after becoming queen, during her reign, Mary reversed Edwards Protestant reforms, which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559. Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mothers room inside Hampton Court Palace and he was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, te Deums were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes. The Queen, however, fell ill on 23 October from presumed postnatal complications, Henry VIII wrote to Francis I of France that Divine Providence. Hath mingled my joy with bitterness of the death of her who brought me this happiness, Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset. His father was delighted with him, in May 1538, Henry was observed dallying with him in his arms, and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people. That September, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Audley, reported Edwards rapid growth and vigour, the tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians. At the age of four, he fell ill with a quartan fever. Edward was initially placed in the care of Margaret Bryan, lady mistress of the princes household and she was succeeded by Blanche Herbert, Lady Troy. Until the age of six, Edward was brought up, as he put it later in his Chronicle, the formal royal household established around Edward was, at first, under Sir William Sidney, and later Sir Richard Page, stepfather of Edward Seymours wife, Anne Stanhope
14.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
15.
Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
16.
Pool of London
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The Pool of London is a stretch of the River Thames from London Bridge to below Limehouse. Part of the Tideway of the Thames, the Pool was navigable by tall-masted vessels bringing coastal, the Pool of London is divided into two parts, the Upper Pool and Lower Pool. The Upper Pool consists of the section between London Bridge and the Cherry Garden Pier in Bermondsey, the Lower Pool runs from the Cherry Garden Pier to Limekiln Creek. Smuggling, theft and pilferage of cargoes were rife on both the busy open wharves and in the crowded warehouses. By this time the river was lined with nearly continuous walls of wharves running for miles along both banks, and hundreds of ships moored in the river or alongside the quays. The Pool saw an increase in both overseas and coastal trade in the second half of the eighteenth century. Two thirds of coastal vessels using the Pool were colliers meeting an increase in the demand for coal as the population of London rose, coastal trade virtually doubled between 1750 and 1796 reaching 11,964 vessels in 1795. In overseas trade, in 1751 the pool handled 1,682 ships and 234,639 tons of goods, by 1794 this had risen to 3,663 ships and 620,845 tons. The congestion was so extreme that it was said to be possible to walk across the Thames simply by stepping from ship to ship, londons Docklands had their origins in the lack of capacity in the Pool of London which particularly affected the West India trade. Even after the construction of docks, the Pool of London remained an important part of the Port of London. Shipping needed unrestricted access to the Pool of London which imposed constraints on the crossings that became necessary with the commercial development on both sides of the river. The Thames Tunnel from Rotherhithe to Wapping was constructed between 1825 and 1843, tower Bridge opened in 1894 as a bascule bridge. In 1909 the Pool came under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority, the docks thrived up until the 1950s, despite suffering extremely severe bomb damage during the Second World War. The area was redeveloped in the 1980s and 1990s to create new residential and commercial neighbourhoods. In 1996, an organisation - the Pool of London Partnership - was established to promote urban renewal of the areas north and south of the river. It also extended its remit slightly further eastwards to include the docks and wharves of St Katharine Docks, andré Derain painted four works on the Thames, and his Pool of London painted in 1906 is on display at the Tate Gallery. Derain was a leading Fauvist and had sent to London by his dealer to produce Thames views in the Fauvist style. A British film, Pool of London, is a drama set within the Pool
17.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
18.
Covent Garden
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Covent Garden is a district in London on the eastern fringes of the West End, between St Martins Lane and Drury Lane. It is associated with the former fruit-and-vegetable market in the square, now a popular shopping and tourist site, and with the Royal Opera House. The area was settled in the 7th century when it became the heart of the Anglo-Saxon trading town of Lundenwic. By 1200 part of it had been walled off by Westminster Abbey for use as arable land, referred to as the garden of the Abbey and Convent, and later the Covent Garden, it was seized by Henry VIII and granted to the Earls of Bedford in 1552. The 4th Earl commissioned Inigo Jones to build fine houses to attract wealthy tenants. Jones designed the Italianate arcaded square along with the church of St Pauls, the design of the square was new to London and had a significant influence on modern town planning, acting as the prototype for new estates as London grew. By 1654 a small open-air fruit-and-vegetable market had developed on the side of the fashionable square. Gradually, both the market and the area fell into disrepute, as taverns, theatres, coffee-houses. By the 18th century it had become a well-known red-light district, an Act of Parliament was drawn up to control the area, and Charles Fowlers neo-classical building was erected in 1830 to cover and help organise the market. The market grew and further buildings were added, the Floral Hall, Charter Market, by the end of the 1960s traffic congestion was causing problems, and in 1974 the market relocated to the New Covent Garden Market about three miles south-west at Nine Elms. With the postcode WC2, Covent Garden falls within the London boroughs of Westminster and Camden, the area has been served by the Piccadilly line at Covent Garden tube station since 1907, the journey from Leicester Square, at 300 yards, is the shortest in London. What would become the Strand on the boundary of the future Covent Garden was used during the Roman period as part of a route to Silchester. Excavations in 2006 at St Martin-in-the-Fields revealed a late Roman grave and these revealed Covent Garden as the centre of a trading town called Lundenwic, developed around 600 AD, which stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually shifted the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, a document from 1200 AD mentions a walled garden owned by the Benedictine monks of the Abbey of St Peter, Westminster. A later document, dated between 1250 and 1283, refers to the garden of the Abbot and Convent of Westminster. By the 13th century this had become a 40-acre quadrangle of mixed orchard, meadow, pasture and arable land and this is how it was recorded from then on. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540, Henry VIII took the land belonging to Westminster Abbey for himself and his son, Edward VI, granted it to John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, in 1552. The Russell family, who in 1694 were advanced in their peerage from Earl to Duke of Bedford, held the land until 1918
19.
Royal Opera House
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The Royal Opera House is an opera house and major performing arts venue in Covent Garden, central London. The large building is referred to as simply Covent Garden. It is the home of The Royal Opera, The Royal Ballet, originally called the Theatre Royal, it served primarily as a playhouse for the first hundred years of its history. In 1734, the first ballet was presented, a year later, Handels first season of operas began. Many of his operas and oratorios were written for Covent Garden and had their premieres there. The current building is the theatre on the site following disastrous fires in 1808 and 1856. The façade, foyer, and auditorium date from 1858, the main auditorium seats 2,256 people, making it the third largest in London, and consists of four tiers of boxes and balconies and the amphitheatre gallery. The proscenium is 12.20 m wide and 14.80 m high, the main auditorium is a Grade I listed building. The letters patent remained in the possession of the patentees heirs until the 19th century, in 1728, John Rich, actor-manager of the Dukes Company at Lincolns Inn Fields Theatre, commissioned The Beggars Opera from John Gay. In addition, a Royal Charter had created a fruit and vegetable market in the area, at its opening on 7 December 1732, Rich was carried by his actors in processional triumph into the theatre for its opening production of William Congreves The Way of the World. Despite the frequent interchangeability between the Covent Garden and Drury Lane companies, competition was intense, often presenting the plays at the same time. Rich introduced pantomime to the repertoire, himself performing and a tradition of seasonal pantomime continued at the modern theatre, in 1734, Covent Garden presented its first ballet, Pygmalion. Marie Sallé discarded tradition and her corset and danced in diaphanous robes, george Frideric Handel was named musical director of the company, at Lincolns Inn Fields, in 1719, but his first season of opera, at Covent Garden, was not presented until 1734. His first opera was Il pastor fido followed by Ariodante, the première of Alcina, there was a royal performance of Messiah in 1743, which was a success and began a tradition of Lenten oratorio performances. From 1735 until his death in 1759 he gave regular seasons there and he bequeathed his organ to John Rich, and it was placed in a prominent position on the stage, but was among many valuable items lost in a fire that destroyed the theatre on 20 September 1808. In 1792 the architect Henry Holland rebuilt the auditorium, within the shell of the building but deeper and wider than the old auditorium. Rebuilding began in December 1808, and the second Theatre Royal, the Old Price Riots lasted over two months, and the management was finally forced to accede to the audiences demands. During this time, entertainments were varied, opera and ballet were presented, kemble engaged a variety of acts, including the child performer Master Betty, the great clown Joseph Grimaldi made his name at Covent Garden
20.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
21.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
22.
Charitable trusts in English law
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Charitable trusts in English law are a form of express trust dedicated to charitable goals. There are a variety of advantages to charitable trust status, including exception from most forms of tax, to be a valid charitable trust, the organisation must demonstrate both a charitable purpose and a public benefit. There is also a requirement that the trusts purposes benefit the public, such trusts will be invalid in several circumstances, charitable trusts are not allowed to be run for profit, nor can they have purposes that are not charitable. In addition, it is considered unacceptable for charitable trusts to campaign for political or legal change, Charitable trusts, as with other trusts, are administered by trustees, but there is no relationship between the trustees and the beneficiaries. This results in two things, firstly, the trustees of a charitable trust are far freer to act than other trustees and secondly, beneficiaries cannot bring a court case against the trustees. Rather, the beneficiaries are represented by the Attorney General for England and Wales as a parens patriae, jurisdiction over charitable disputes is shared equally between the High Court of Justice and the Charity Commission. The Commission, the first port of call, is tasked with regulating and promoting charitable trusts, as well as providing advice and opinions to trustees on administrative matters. As a form of express trust, charitable trusts are subject to certain formalities and these vary depending on whether the gift that creates the trust is given in life, given after death, or includes land. If these are all carried out, the will is a document. If the gift is of personal property and made inter vivos, there are no formal requirements, once constituted properly, a charitable trust, like all express trusts, cannot be undone unless there is something allowing that within the trust instrument. There are a variety of advantages to charity status, instead, the Attorney General of England and Wales sues on behalf of beneficiaries to enforce a charitable trust. Charitable trusts are exempt from many formalities when being created. The trustees are not required to act unanimously, only with a majority. Tax law also makes special exemptions for charitable trusts and they are free from the income tax paid by individuals and companies, and also the corporation tax paid by incorporated and unincorporated associations. There is no requirement for charitable trusts to pay capital gains tax or council tax and this freedom from tax liability applies not just to charitable trusts, but also to people who donate to them. Individuals who donate via Gift Aid are free from paying tax on that amount, the definitions of a trustee and a trust within charitable trusts differ significantly from the norm. In particular, according to the Charities Act 1993, There is no definition of what a charity is. The Charities Act 2006 states in section 1 that, The first definition of a purpose was found in the preamble to the Charitable Uses Act 1601
23.
Trustee
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Trustee is a legal term which, in its broadest sense, can refer to any person who holds property, authority, or a position of trust or responsibility for the benefit of another. A trustee can also refer to a person who is allowed to do certain tasks, in all cases, the trustee may be a person or company, whether or not they are a prospective beneficiary. However, a trustee may act otherwise than in accordance with the terms of the trust if all beneficiaries, being sui juris and together absolutely entitled, direct the trustee to do so. If any question arises as to the constriction of the provisions of the trust, account for actions and keep beneficiaries informed, these include a duty to inform beneficiaries as to their entitlements under the trust and other matters concerning the trust. As trustees as not under a duty to disclose their reasoning in applying a trust power, protection of confidentiality has been described as one of the most important limitations on the right to disclose of trust documents. Memoranda or letter of wishes do not necessarily need to be disclosed to a beneficiary if they are of a number of potential beneficiaries, corporate trustees, typically trust departments at large banks, often have very narrow duties, limited to those the trust indenture explicitly defines. A trustee carries the responsibility and liability to use the trust assets according to the provisions of the trust instrument. The trustee may find himself liable to claimants, prospective beneficiaries and it is common for lawyers to draft will trusts so as to permit such payment, and to take office accordingly, this may be an unnecessary expense for small estates. In an exception to the duties outlined above, sabbatical officers of unions who are also trustees of these organisations they work for do have the right to a salary. This is an exception explicitly granted in the 1993 act The broadest sense of the term applies to someone held to a fiduciary duty similar in some respects to that of a trustee proper. For example, the directors of a bank may be trustees for the depositors, directors of a corporation are trustees for the stockholders, many corporations call their governing board a board of trustees, though in those cases they act as a board of directors. Many UK charities are also limited liability companies registered with Companies House, in case the trustees are also directors of the company. This is the model if the charity owns property or employs people. The law on this in England changed considerably with the Charities Act of 2006, an account of the main changes can be found in Charities Act 2006 A guide to the new law by Michael King and Ann Phillips. One of the key changes made was that it introduced the Charitable Incorporated Organisation which is basically a limited liability charity, there are thus now two main aspects of corporate management of charities. One is the way in which a corporation is a corporate trustee of a given charity. The second is the new way, in which the charity itself is incorporated as a CIO, the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods is a complicated matter. According to King and Philips, many of the advantages of incorporating as a CIO are obtained if the trustees are not individuals but a corporate entity
24.
Bridget Jones's Diary (2001 movie)
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Bridget Joness Diary is a 2001 British-American-French romantic comedy film directed by Sharon Maguire and written by Richard Curtis, Andrew Davies, and Helen Fielding. It is based on Fieldings novel of the name, which is a reinterpretation of Jane Austens Pride. The adaptation stars Renée Zellweger as Bridget, Hugh Grant as the caddish Daniel Cleaver, production began in May 2000 and ended in August 2000, and took place largely on location in London and the Home Counties. The film premiered on 4 April 2001 in the UK and was released to theatres on 13 April 2001 simultaneously in the UK, Bridget Joness Diary received positive reviews and was a commercial success, grossing over $280 million worldwide. Zellweger was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the film, a sequel, Bridget Jones, The Edge of Reason, was released in 2004 and another sequel, Bridget Joness Baby, was released in 2016. Bridget Jones is 32 years old, single, very accident-prone and she works in publicity at a book publishing company in London where her main focus is fantasising about her boss, Daniel Cleaver. At a New Year party hosted by her parents, she re-encounters Mark Darcy and they had known each other as children. After their initial encounter, Mark thinks that Bridget is a fool and vulgar and Bridget thinks that he is arrogant and rude and she starts her own diary, which covers all her attempts to stop smoking, lose weight and find her Mr. Right. Bridget and Daniel begin to flirt heavily at work, first over email, ahead of an important book launch, at which Bridget bumps into Mark and his glamorous but haughty colleague Natasha. Bridget leaves with Daniel and they have dinner, despite the fact that he is a womaniser with a questionable personality. Bridget learns from Daniel that he and Mark have a history and, as a result, Daniel informs Bridget of their falling-out, telling her that Mark broke their friendship by sleeping with his fiancée. Bridget is invited to a party, and she takes Daniel along as her plus one. They spend the day before the party at a country house hotel, Daniel, having to spend the day working, is not able to attend and sends Bridget to the party alone. However, his dubious character becomes clearer to Bridget when she returns home from the party to find Daniel with another woman, a colleague of his, Lara, and Bridget cuts ties with him soon after. Bridget begins to search for a new job and after landing a job in television, Daniel makes a desperate attempt to convince Bridget to stay, only for her to retort that she would rather have a job wiping Saddam Husseins arse. Bridget has an invitation to a friends dinner party, where she is the only single person and distraught to see Mark. During the party, Mark privately confesses to Bridget that, despite her faults and he later helps Bridget to achieve an exclusive TV interview in a landmark legal case. Bridget begins to develop feelings for Mark, and he comes to her rescue at her dinner party at her flat in Borough
25.
Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels
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The story is a heist film involving a self-confident young card sharp who loses £500,000 to a powerful crime lord in a rigged game of three card brag. To pay off his debts, he and his friends decide to rob a small-time gang who happen to be operating out of the next door. The film brought Ritchie international acclaim and introduced actors Jones, a former Wales international footballer, and Statham, based on a $1.35 million budget, the film had a box office gross of over $28 million, making it a commercial success. Followed in 2000, running for seven episodes including the pilot, the game is rigged however, and the friends end up massively indebted to Harry, who fully expects them not to be able to come up with the money before the deadline he gives them. He has his sights set on Eddys fathers bar as repayment, and sets his debt collector Big Chris to work in order to ensure that some form of payment is coming up. Harry also has his sights set on a couple of antique shotguns up for auction, the two turn out to be highly incompetent and unwittingly sell the shotguns to Nick the Greek, a local fence. After learning this, an enraged Barry threatens the two getting the guns back. Eddy returns home and overhears his neighbours, a gang of robbers led by a man called Dog, planning a heist on some cannabis growers supposedly loaded with cash. Eddy relays this information to the group, intending for them to rob the neighbours as they come back from their heist, in preparation for the robbery, Tom buys the antique shotguns from Nick the Greek. The success is short-lived however, as they get robbed by Eddy, Eddys group decide to keep the money and, with the help of Nick the Greek, sell the drugs to Rory Breaker, a drug dealer with a reputation for violence. Rory agrees to the deal, but later learns that the drugs were stolen from people in his employ and were in fact his all along. Thinking that Eddy and his friends knowingly concocted a scheme to rob him and sell his own back to him. Eddy and his friends go out to celebrate their successful heist, meanwhile, Dogs crew accidentally learns that their neighbors are the ones that robbed them, and set up an ambush at Eddys flat. When Rory and his gang arrive to exact vengeance they have a shootout with Dogs crew, resulting in the deaths of all but Dog and Winston. Winston leaves with the drugs, Dog leaves with the two shotguns and the money, but is waylaid by Big Chris who knocks him out and takes everything. Meanwhile, Gary and Dean, having learned who bought the shotguns and not knowing that Chris works for Harry, follow him to Harrys place. Chris delivers the money and guns to Harry, but discovers when he returns to his car that Dog is hiding inside, holding a knife to Little Chriss throat, Chris calmy agrees and starts the car. Meanwhile, Gary and Dean burst into Harrys office, starting a confrontation that ends up killing both of them, and Harry and Barry as well
26.
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (film)
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Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is a 2004 British-American fantasy film directed by Alfonso Cuarón and distributed by Warner Bros. It is based on the novel of the name by J. K. Rowling. The film, which is the third instalment in the Harry Potter film series, was written by Steve Kloves and produced by Chris Columbus, David Heyman, and Mark Radcliffe. The story follows Harry Potters third year at Hogwarts as he is informed that a prisoner named Sirius Black has escaped from Azkaban intending to kill him. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harrys best friends Ron Weasley and it also features well-known actors in supporting roles, including Gary Oldman, David Thewlis, Michael Gambon, Emma Thompson and Timothy Spall. It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and is followed by Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The film was released on 31 May 2004 in the United Kingdom and on 4 June 2004 in North America, as the first Harry Potter film released into IMAX theatres and it is also the last Harry Potter film to be released on VHS. The film was nominated for two Academy Awards, Best Original Music Score and Best Visual Effects at the 77th Academy Awards in 2005. It marked a change in the film series tone and direction and is widely considered to be the best Harry Potter film by many critics. Harry Potter, now aged 13, has been spending another dissatisfying summer at Privet Drive, when Uncle Vernons sister, Marge, insults Harrys parents, he becomes angry and accidentally causes her to inflate and float away. Harry flees with his luggage, fed up with his life with the Dursleys, the Knight Bus delivers Harry to the Leaky Cauldron, where he is forgiven by Minister of Magic Cornelius Fudge for using magic outside of Hogwarts. The trio are returning to Hogwarts for the year on the Hogwarts Express when dementors suddenly board the train. One enters the compartment, causing Harry to pass out. New Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Professor Lupin repels the dementor with a Patronus Charm, at Hogwarts, headmaster Albus Dumbledore announces that dementors will be guarding the school while Sirius is at large. Hogwarts groundskeeper Hagrid is announced as the new Care of Magical Creatures teacher, his first class goes awry when Draco Malfoy deliberately provokes a hippogriff, Buckbeak, dracos father Lucius Malfoy later has Buckbeak sentenced to death. The Fat Ladys portrait, which guards the Gryffindor quarters, is found ruined, terrified and hiding in another painting, the Fat Lady tells Dumbledore that Sirius Black has entered the castle. During a stormy Quidditch match, dementors attack Harry, causing him to fall off his broomstick, at Hogsmeade, Harry is shocked to learn that not only had Sirius Black been his parents best friend and betrayed them to Voldemort, but that Sirius is also his godfather. Lupin privately teaches Harry to defend himself against dementors, using the Patronus Charm, after Harry, Ron and Hermione witness Buckbeaks execution, Rons pet rat Scabbers bites him and escapes
27.
Thameslink Programme
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Work includes platform lengthening, station remodelling, new railway infrastructure, and additional rolling stock. The project was proposed in 1991 following the successful introduction of the initial Thameslink service in 1988. After many delays, planning permission was granted in 2006 and funding was approved in October 2007, work started in 2009 and is expected to be complete in 2018. The Thameslink Programme is being carried out by Network Rail in association with the relevant train operating companies, passenger traffic between destinations in north and south London served by Thameslink services quadrupled after the first year of operation. The success of this project encouraged British Rail to develop proposals to extend the network. In 1993 responsibility for the project, intended to be complete by 2000, was transferred to Railtrack as detailed in the Railways Act of 1993 and this privatisation, combined with a recession in the UK economy, caused the first of many delays to the project. The Government and LCR did however reach agreement in June 1998 allowing the construction of High Speed 1, given the size of the project, the Deputy Prime Minister decided to call for a public inquiry, which began in June 2000 and closed in May 2001. As a result, the Deputy Prime Minister said in January 2003 that the project would not receive approval and that Network Rail must submit improved proposals and a new Environmental Statement. The delay also led to the Thameslink 2000 Agreement, the contract that obliged Network Rail/Railtrack to maintain responsibility for funding the project, responsibility for project funding was subsequently transferred to the Strategic Rail Authority. Network Rail revised the original proposal and submitted it along with an updated Environmental Statement dated 14 June 2004, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Transport called for a new public inquiry to begin in September 2005. During this period the Strategic Rail Authority was abolished by the Railways Act of 2005, the second public inquiry took place between September and December 2005, and the Inspector completed the report in February 2006, submitted to the DfT for consideration. In 2004 TfL had wanted to bring the Thameslink network into the London Underground network or have the route branded as a London Overground route and this would have meant the network being re-branded. On 24 July 2007, the Secretary of State for Transport, since the planning permission and legal powers associated with the project had already been granted, the project was now clear to proceed. However, project completion would be delayed until 2018 as the schedule was difficult to achieve. Construction is divided into three stages, each with Key outputs, Key Output 0 was to make service changes to allow other work to proceed. Key Output 1 is for work that had to be completed before the 2012 Olympics, work for Key Output 2 started after the London Olympics, with a planned completion date of summer 2018. The first stage, completed on 22 March 2009, was to service changes to allow the major work to take place. The terminal platforms at Blackfriars were closed, as was the Farringdon to Moorgate branch line, a 15 trains per hour peak-hour service was introduced on the core section between St. Pancras and Blackfriars
28.
London Bridge station
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The main line station is the oldest railway station in London fare zone 1 and one of the oldest in the world having opened in 1836. It is one of two main line termini in London to the south of the River Thames, the other being Waterloo. Historically, trains from Cannon Street and Thameslink services from Bedford to Brighton also called at the station, in terms of passenger arrivals and departures it is the fourth-busiest station in London as well as the United Kingdom as a whole, handling over 54 million customers a year. The main line station is one of 19 UK stations managed by Network Rail, the Underground station is served by the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. It consists of a hall and entrance area with its main frontage on Tooley Street, along with entrances on Borough High Street. London Bridge station was opened as the London station on 14 December 1836 south of the River Thames in Tooley Street, making it the first and oldest of the current London railway termini. It was not the earliest station in the present London metropolitan area, as the London and Greenwich Railway opened stations first at Spa Road, delays in the completion of a bridge at Bermondsey Street postponed the opening of the line into London Bridge station until December. This meant that from 10 October 1836 trains were able to operate as far as the east end of Bermondsey Street bridge, since then the station has had a most complex history, involving frequent rebuilding and changes of ownership. The original station was 60 ft wide and 400 ft long and it was later covered with a wooden trussed pitched roof,56 ft by 212 ft, shortly after opening. Sixteen columns and fourteen beams from this structure were retrieved in 2013, thus these two railways were required to share the route of the London and Croydon Railway from near Norwood. As a result, in 1838 the London and Croydon Railway obtained powers to enlarge the station it was constructing at London Bridge. The directors of the companies involved therefore decided to exchange the station sites, plans for a large new station were drawn up, designed jointly by Lewis Cubitt, John Urpeth Rastrick and Henry Roberts. Drawings were published in the Illustrated London News and George Bradshaws Guide to the London and Brighton Railway 1844 and they show a quasi-Italianate building with a picturesque campanile. This line opened in 1844 and most of the services from two companies were withdrawn from London Bridge, leaving only the Greenwich and Brighton companies using London Bridge station. The following year the Croydon and Brighton companies merged with others to form the London Brighton, as a result of these amalgamations, there were now only two companies wishing to use the two adjoining stations at London Bridge. As a result, the LB&SCR used the joint station until 1849. The SER took over the second London and Greenwich station and sought to develop that site rather than continue to invest in the joint station. The SER station was rebuilt and enlarged between 1847 and 1850, to a design by Samuel Beazley
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Cannon Street station
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Cannon Street Railway Bridge is a bridge in central London, crossing the River Thames. Downstream, the bridge is London Bridge, and upstream Southwark Bridge. It carries trains over the river to Cannon Street station on the north bank and it was originally named Alexandra Bridge after Alexandra of Denmark who was the wife of the future King Edward VII. The bridge was designed by John Hawkshaw and John Wolfe-Barry for the South Eastern Railway and it was opened in 1866 after three years of construction. In its original form, it carried the railway over the Thames on five spans standing on cast-iron Doric pillars and it was the scene of the Marchioness disaster in 1989. Where Thames Smooth Waters Glide Cannon Street Railway Bridge at Structurae
30.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
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West End of London
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Use of the term began in the early 19th century to describe fashionable areas to the west of Charing Cross. The West End covers much of the boroughs of Westminster and Camden, while the City of London, or the Square Mile, is the main business and financial district in London, the West End is the main commercial and entertainment centre of the city. It is one of the most expensive locations in the world in which to rent office space and it was also close to the royal seat of power at Westminster, and is largely contained within the City of Westminster. Developed in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, it was built as a series of palaces, expensive town houses, fashionable shops. The areas closest to the City around Holborn, Seven Dials, as the West End is a term used colloquially by Londoners and is not an official geographical or municipal definition, its exact constituent parts are up for debate. The Edgware Road to the north-west and the Victoria Embankment to the south-east were also covered by the document but were treated as adjacent areas to the West End. According to Ed Glinerts West End Chronicles the districts falling within the West End are Mayfair, Soho, Covent Garden, Fitzrovia, one of the local government wards within the City of Westminster is called West End. This covers a area that defined by Glinert, Mayfair, Soho. The population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 10,575, the New West End Company is a business improvement district and runs services including street cleaning and security on Oxford Street, Regent Street and Bond Street. NWEC also runs the Red Caps service, the West End is laid out with many notable public squares and circuses, the latter being the original name for roundabouts in London. London West End Things to do General overview of what to do in the West End
32.
Charing Cross railway station
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Charing Cross railway station is a central London railway terminus on the Strand in the City of Westminster. It is the terminus of the South Eastern Main Line to Dover, all trains are operated by Southeastern, which provides the majority of commuter and regional services to south-east London and Kent. It is connected to Charing Cross tube station on the London Underground and it is one of 19 stations in the United Kingdom that are managed by Network Rail. Charing Cross is the 14th busiest station in the country, the tracks approach the station from Hungerford Bridge over the River Thames. There is an office and shopping complex above the station, known as Embankment Place, the original station building was built on the site of the Hungerford Market by the South Eastern Railway and opened on 11 January 1864. The station was designed by Sir John Hawkshaw, with a single wrought iron roof arching over the six platforms on its relatively cramped site. It is built on an arched viaduct, the level of the rails above the ground varying from 13 feet at the north-east end to 27 feet at the bridge abutment at the south-east end. A year later the Charing Cross Hotel, designed by Edward Middleton Barry, opened on 15 May 1865 and gave the station an ornate frontage in the French Renaissance style. Contemporary with the Charing Cross Hotel was a replica of the Eleanor Cross in Red Mansfield stone, also designed by Edward Middleton Barry and it was based on the original 13th-century Whitehall Cross that had been demolished in 1647. Distances in London are officially measured from the site of the cross, now the statue of Charles I facing Whitehall. The condition of the cross deteriorated until it was in such a condition that it was placed on the English Heritage At Risk Register in 2008. A ten-month project to repair and restore the cross was completed in August 2010. A 77-foot length of the elegant original roof structure, comprising the two end bays at the south of the station, and part of the wall collapsed at 3,45 pm on 5 December 1905. A gang of men were employed at the time in repairing, glazing and painting the section of roof which fell. Shortly after 3,30 pm, the roof emitted a loud noise, part of the roof began to sag and the western wall began to crack. It was another 12 minutes before the collapse occurred, which enabled trains and platforms to be evacuated, the roof, girders and debris fell across four passenger trains standing in platforms 3,4,5 and 6, blocking all tracks were. The part of the wall that fell had crashed through the wall and roof of the neighbouring Royal Avenue Theatre in Northumberland Avenue. At the Board Of Trade Inquiry into the accident, expert witnesses expressed doubts about the design of the roof, consequently, the South Eastern and Chatham Railway decided not to repair the roof but to replace it
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Robert Smirke (architect)
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Sir Robert Smirke RA was an English architect, one of the leaders of Greek Revival architecture, though he also used other architectural styles. As architect to the Board of Works he designed major public buildings including the main block. He was a pioneer of the use of concrete foundations, Smirke was born in London on 1 October 1780, the second son of the portrait painter Robert Smirke, he was one of twelve children. He attended Aspley School, Aspley Guise, Bedfordshire, where he studied Latin, Greek, French and drawing, and was made head boy at the age of 15. In May 1796 he began his study of architecture as a pupil of John Soane and he wrote to his father, He was on Monday morning in one of his amiable Tempers. Everything was slovenly that I was doing, after leaving Soane he depended on George Dance the Younger and a surveyor called Thomas Bush for his architectural training. In 1801, accompanied by his elder brother Richard he embarked on a Grand Tour which would last until 1805 and his itinerary can be followed by the series of letters he wrote, Brussels, Paris, Berlin, Potsdam, Prague, Dresden, Vienna. He visited Italy, including, Florence, Venice, Padua, Genoa, Vicenza, Rome, Naples, and Sicily, then went on to Greece, seeing Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Thebes and Olympia. From Athens Smirke wrote to his father, How can I by description give you any idea of the great pleasure I enjoyed in the sight of these ancient buildings of Athens, how strongly were exemplified in them the grandeur and effect of simplicity in architecture. The Temple of Thesus. cannot but arrest the attention of everyone from its appropriate, strikes one in the same way with its grandeur and majesty. The impression made upon my mind, all that I could do in Athens was to make some views of them. hoping that they will serve as a memorandum to me of what I think should always be a model. He drew most of the ancient buildings in Morea, in 1805 Smirke became a member of the Society of Antiquaries of London and the Architects Club. His first official appointment came in 1807 when he was architect to the Royal Mint. He only ever exhibited five works at the Academy, the last in 1810, and these drawings of a more recent work point out the glaring impropriety of this defect in a manner if possible still more forcible and more subversive of true taste. In 1819 he was surveyor of the Inner Temple. In 1819 he married Laura Freston, daughter of The Reverend Anthony Freston, the only child of the marriage was a daughter Laura. In 1820 he was surveyor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He was knighted in 1832, and received the RIBA Royal Gold Medal for Architecture in 1853, Smirke lived at 81 Charlotte Street, London
34.
Farmers' market
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A farmers market is a physical retail market featuring foods sold directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers markets typically consist of booths, tables or stands, outdoors or indoors, where farmers sell fruits, vegetables, meats, Farmers markets exist worldwide and reflect their local culture and economy. Their size ranges from a few stalls to several city blocks, the current concept of a farmers market is similar to past concepts, but different in relation to other forms – as aspects of consumer retailing, overall, continue to shift over time. Similar forms existed before the Industrial age, but often formed part of broader markets, trading posts began a shift toward retailers who sold others products more than their own. Modern industrial food productions advantages over prior methods depend largely on modern, cheap, fast transport, but transport costs and delays cannot be completely eliminated. So where distance strained industrial suppliers reach, where consumers had strong preference for local variety, starting in the mid-2000s, consumer demand for foods that are fresher and for foods with more variety—has led to growth of farmers markets as a food-retailing mechanism. It has been claimed that farmers markets can offer farmers increased profit over selling to wholesalers, food processors, by selling directly to consumers, produce often needs less transport, less handling, less refrigeration and less time in storage. By selling in a market, the cost of land, buildings. Farmers may also retain profit on produce not sold to consumers, by selling the excess to canneries, at the market, farmers can retain the full premium for part of their produce, instead of only a processors wholesale price for the entire lot. Some farmers may also prefer the simplicity, immediacy, transparency, with fewer intermediaries, the support of independent growers by local community members can enhance local economic opportunities and health & wellness in poor communities. Some consumers may favor farmers markets for the perceived, reduced overhead, driving, parking, etc. fresher foods seasonal foods healthier foods a better variety of foods, e. g. In some cases claimed to sell products from their own farm at first. In at least one case despite vendor claims to the contrary the farm in question was not growing any food, in many cases fraud is obvious because the type of food being sold does not grow locally or is out of season. Federal regulations in the United States require country of origin labelling for produce at supermarkets, in the United States, the FDA requires that the manufacturers name and address be listed on the food label, which can reveal this discrepancy. In New York City, there are 107 farmers markets in operation, in the Los Angeles area,88 farmers markets exist, many of which support Hispanic and Asian fare. Since the first farmers market was established in the UK in 1997, consumers were worried about the farming practices by which food is produced, processed and the health and safety aspects of certain foods. The emergence of books, magazine articles, and cookery and gardening programmes influence consumer concern of food preparation and consumption, the EU has formalized efforts to expand farmers markets to reduce food safety risks and poor nutrition through programs known as Farm to Fork. Some markets are strictly managed, with rules for pricing, quality, others are much more relaxed in their operations and vendor criteria
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
36.
Cumberland Market
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Cumberland Market was a London market between Regents Park and Euston railway station. It was built in the early 19th century and was Londons hay, an arm of the Regents Canal was built to the market. The market was surrounded by modest housing, and in the early 20th century became an artistic community, the original houses were demolished during and after the Second World War and it is now a housing estate, known as Regents Park Estate. Only Cumberland Market, the northernmost square survived as a commercial area, Londons hay market relocated here from the Haymarket in 1830 although it was never to prove a great success, being described in 1878 as never been very largely attended. The Regents Canal was developed as a means of delivering goods into the North of London and it linked the Grand Junction Canals Paddington Arm with the River Thames at Limehouse. The Cumberland Arm was built as a spur off it and led between Nashs Park Village West and Park Village East to the Cumberland Basin which was lined by a collection of wharfs and warehouses. Hay and straw were brought in for sale at the Market, barges, each capable of carrying thirty tons, would also arrive with heavy goods such as stone and lime for building, coal and timber for the neighbouring coach-building and furniture trade. Ice, too, was brought in for the ice-merchant, William Leftwich, vegetables and cattle were carried in as well, thus reducing the need for the latter to be driven into the city. Clarence Market, the square to the south, was intended to be a centre for the distribution of fresh vegetables brought in from the market gardens of Middlesex. It was later cultivated as a garden and became Clarence Gardens. The houses in Clarence and Cumberland Markets were modest and the work of builders who put up run-of-the-mill products without the slightest obligation to make architecture. The southernmost square began as York Market but it never found use as a trading place, although its houses were tiny, with a single window on each of their three storeys, they were well-designed and perfectly proportioned. In the NW corner of Cumberland Market, in Albany Street, John Nash had built the Ophthalmic Hospital for Sir William Adams, for several years Adams gave his services free to soldiers whose eyesight had been affected in the military campaigns in Egypt. The hospital was closed in 1822 and for a time it was used as a factory for manufacturing Bacons and Perkins steam guns. In 1826 it was purchased by Sir Goldsworthy Gurney for the construction of his steam carriages, one of which made the journey from London to Bath and back. However, unable to market these vehicles Gurney was forced to sell the premises in 1832, bought by Sir Felix Booth, the gin distiller the building survived as a landmark, although badly bombed, until demolition in 1968. Beside the Ophthalmic Hospital was Christ Church, built by Nashs assistant, the steeple of Christ Church, dominated Cumberland Market as did the nearby chimney of William Grimbles gin distillery, also in Albany Street. In 1840 Grimble decided to embark on producing vinegar from spirit left over from the distilling process and he went into partnership with Sir Felix Booth, and they set up premises in the North East corner of the Market
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Fleet Market
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The Fleet Market was a market erected in 1736 on the newly culverted River Fleet. The market was located approximately where the modern Farringdon Street stands today, work began in 1734 to arch over the River Fleet, as it had become an open sewer, and to remove the considerable expense of clearing the river of rubbish and filth. The course of the river was covered between Holborn Bridge and Fleet Bridge, the market, consisting of two rows of open one–storey shops linked by a covered walkway, opened on 30 September 1737. The market replaced the Old Stocks Market that itself had been cleared for the construction of the Mansion House, to the north of the market, vegetables were sold in an open-air market. The centre was marked by a tower, and the south was adjacent to the Fleet Prison. By 1829, the market was dilapidated and considered an obstacle to the volume of traffic. Farringdon Market was constructed to replace it, but was never successful
38.
Hungerford Market
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Hungerford Market was a produce market in London, at Charing Cross on the Strand. It existed in two different buildings on the site, the first built in 1682, the second in 1862. The market was first built on the site of Hungerford House, next to Durham Yard, the house had burned down in 1669 as is recorded in the Diary of Samuel Pepys. It was replaced by a new Italianate market building by Charles Fowler and it was damaged when the adjoining Hungerford Hall burned down in 1854, and was sold to the South Eastern Railway in 1862. Charing Cross railway station was built on the site and opened in 1864, by 1444, it was known as Hungerford Inn. King Henry VII granted the land back to Thomass brother, Walter Hungerford and his daughter-in law, Agnes Hungerford, was hanged at Tyburn in 1523, for the murder of her first husband John Cotell. His grandson, also Walter, was accused in 1540 of treason and perversion and his son, another Walter, was regranted the property in 1544. It finally passed down the family to Sir Edward Hungerford, created a Knight of the Order of the Bath at the coronation of Charles II, Sir Edward Hungerford obtained permission to hold a market on the site for three days a week. Hungerford Inn, or seemingly the burned-out remains of it, was subdivided into shops and with a covered piazza, in 1685 Fox and Wren obtained a license to sell grain, but achieved little increase in trade. A market house was built in the centre of the site, Hungerford squandered his money, dying a poor Knight of Windsor in 1711. In 1718 the market was sold to the royal gardener Henry Wise and remained in his family until 1830, by the beginning of the nineteenth century, the old market had become dilapidated. In 1830 an Act of Parliament was obtained to incorporate a company to re-establish the market, the company acquired the site of the old market, together with the adjoining houses in Hungerford street, and a few in the Strand. All the existing buildings were demolished, and a new structure was built in 1831-3 to an Italianate design by Charles Fowler, the area occupied by the new market was a strip 126 feet wide, extending 465 feet northward towards the Strand. In addition, next to the river, was a wharf, about 200 feet long, the market itself was divided into three sections. The lower level of the site was occupied by a market, consisting of an open court,130 feet long. Fowler later built a roof over the open court to protect the fishmongers stalls. At the northern end of lower court a flight of steps led to the upper level. The Great Hall, an aisled timber-roofed building 160 feet long, housed a fruit, to the north of that was another open court, flanked by colonnades and butchers shops
39.
Leadenhall Market
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It is one of the oldest markets in London, dating from the 14th century, and is located in the historic centre of the City of London financial district. The market dates from the 14th century and it is typically open weekdays from 10 am until 6 pm, and primarily sells fresh food, among the vendors there are cheesemongers, butchers and florists. Originally a meat, game and poultry market, it stands on what was the centre of Roman London, a number of commercial retailers are also located in the market, including clothes shops and a pen shop. The ornate roof structure, painted green, maroon and cream, the main entrance to the market is on Gracechurch Street. The double height entrance is flanked by tall, narrow gabled red brick, the adjacent buildings to the south have a continuous retail frontage which is punctuated by narrow entrances to pedestrian ways into the market. Between 1990 and 1991 the market received a dramatic redecoration which transformed its appearance, enhancing its architectural character, the redecoration scheme received a special mention in the Civic Trust Awards in 1994. The market is a Grade II* listed building, being listed in 1972 and it was also used in the music video for the 1991 Erasure song Love to Hate You. Leadenhall Market formed part of the course of the 2012 Olympic Games. List of markets in London Official website
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Metropolitan Cattle Market
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The Metropolitan Cattle Market, just off the Caledonian Road in the parish of Islington was built by the City of London Corporation and was opened in June 1855 by Prince Albert. The market was supplementary to the market at Smithfield and was established to remove the difficulty of managing live cattle at that latter site. The market was designed by the architect, James Bunstone Bunning. He had previously drawn up plans to rebuild the market at Smithfield. The market originally covered 30 acres of the site and grounds of Copenhagen House and it occupied most of the land between Hungerford Road and Hartham Road, Caledonian Road, Brandon Road and Blundell Street and York Way and its construction cost the Corporation £300,000. Market Road, North Road, Shearling Way and Brewery Road were internal roads within the market area, the site was chosen for its proximity to the goods yards of the newly opened Great Northern Railway and North London Railway to the north of Kings Cross station. Livestock could be transported to the depots before being driven the short distance up York Way to the market or walked down from Junction Road railway station. On market days in excess of 15,000 animals could be traded, the central market area was arranged in a rectangle with stalls and pens for cattle, sheep and pigs and a 46 metres tall central clock tower. Dealers offices were arranged in the area and slaughter houses were close by. The market was enclosed by cast iron railings, the columns of which were topped with cast iron heads of the animals traded, the railings remain but the heads were removed many years ago. At each of the corners of the area, large market pubs provided accommodation. The pubs were named The Lion, The Lamb, The White Horse, today, three of the four remain and, with the clock tower, are listed structures. A fifth pub, The Butchers Arms, built to a design, was located at the south-west corner of the market site at the junction of York Way. The markets finally closed in 1963, the northern part of the main market site was redeveloped by the Greater London Council as the Market Estate and completed in 1967 to a design by architects Farber & Bartholomew. On the western area where sheep were kept, the Corporation built the York Way Estate to designs by McMorran & Whitby, the southern area of the market, south of Market Road, where the cattle were kept and where the slaughter houses were is now sports pitches. At the break-up of the GLC, Market Estate was transferred to the control of the local authority, after years of poor maintenance and declining social conditions, the estate was transferred to a Registered Social Landlord, Southern Housing, in 2005. The whole estate is being regenerated, with the blocks being demolished and replaced with a new layout of streets. Friends of Caledonian Park Museum of London Picture Library Caledonian Cattle Market, early 20th century Carpet stall,1930 The Caledonian Market, Copenhagen Fields, Clifford Hall,1933
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Smithfield, London
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Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of Londons northwest in central London, England. The principal street of the area is West Smithfield, the area also contains Londons oldest surviving church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, founded in 1123 AD. Some of its original market premises fell into disuse in the late 20th century, the Corporation of Londons public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfields historical identity. In the Middle Ages, it was a grassy area known as Smooth Field. Given its ease of access to grazing and water, Smithfield established itself as Londons livestock market, remaining so for almost 1,000 years. In 1123, the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomews Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health. The Priory exercised its right to land between Aldersgate, Long Lane and modern-day Newgate Street, erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield. The Priory thereafter held the rights to hold weekly fairs. A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum, in 1855, however, Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder. A chapel and hermitage were constructed, renamed New Church Haw, but in 1371, later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary, north of the Knights of St John property. By the end of the 14th century, these houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates. On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse, eventually demolishing its buildings, by 1405, a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order, particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship. The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation, and their lands broken up, the Priory Church of St John remains, as does St Johns Gate, traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell. John Houghton, Prior of Charterhouse, went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities. This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London, on 29 May, the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance, the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve. Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra-parochial, when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, from its inception, the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick. Letters Patent were presented to the City, granting property and income to the new foundation the following month, the Priorys principal church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave. Reformed as an Anglican parish church, its boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory
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Old Spitalfields Market
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Old Spitalfields Market is a covered market in Spitalfields, London. There has been a market on the site for over 350 years, in 1991 it gave its name to New Spitalfields Market in Leyton, where fruit and vegetables are now traded. It is situated in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, just outside the City of London, the closest London Underground and mainline railway station is Liverpool Street. There has been a market on the site since 1638 when King Charles gave a licence for flesh, fowl and roots to be sold on Spittle Fields, the existing buildings were built in 1887 to service a wholesale market, owned by the City of London Corporation. Spitalfields Market was extended westward to Steward Street in 1926, destroying the northern extensions of Crispin Street, the wholesale fruit and vegetable market moved to New Spitalfields Market, Leyton, in 1991 and the original site became known as Spitalfields Market. Being at the centre of a revival in the area, the end of Spitalfields retained its old charm in Horner Square and Horner Buildings. These market buildings were designed by George Sherrin for the last private owner of the fruit and vegetable market, Robert Horner, the original Victorian buildings and the market hall and roof have been restored and Spitalfields is now one of Londons major markets. The market square is a fashion, arts and crafts, food and general market, open seven days a week. In the late 20th century, there was a dispute between the owners, the City of London Corporation and local residents about the redevelopment of the 1926 market extension at the western end. At the east end, and on the side of Commercial Street, is Christ Church. In January 2011 Spitalfields received the Best Private Market award by the National Association of British Market Authorities, Spitalfields currently hosts a street food market named The Startisans Market every Friday, a style market every Saturday, and occasional art markets at the weekend
