1.
Glossary of plant morphology
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This page provides a glossary of plant morphology. These terms are used to identify and classify plants and this page is provided to help in understanding the numerous other pages describing plants by their various taxa. The accompanying page Plant morphology provides an overview of the science of studying the form of plants. There is also an alphabetical list, a Glossary of botanical terms, while this page deals with botanical terms in a systematic manner, the internal structure is dealt with in Plant anatomy, and function in Plant physiology. Primarily, these are terms that deal with the vascular plants, in contrast the non-vascular plants, with their different evolutionary background, tend to have their own particular terminology. Although plant morphology is integrated with plant anatomy, the former which requires few tools was the basis of the description of plants that exists today. Since the terms used have been handed down from the earliest herbalists and botanists, as far back as Theophrastus and these terms have been modified and added to over the years and different authorities may not always use them in exactly the same way. This page has two parts, The first deals with general plant terms, and the second with specific plant structures or parts, abaxial – located on the side facing away from the axis. Adaxial – located on the side facing towards the axis, Plant habit refers to the overall shape of a plant. It has a number of such as stem length and development, branching pattern. While many plants fit easily into some main categories, such as grasses, vines, shrubs or trees, the habit of a plant provides important information about its ecology, that is how it has adapted to its environment. Each habit indicates a different adaptive ecological strategy, habit is also associated with the development of the plant and may change as the plant grows, more properly called its growth habit. In addition to shape, habit indicates its structure, for instance whether herbaceous or woody, while woody plants tend to be tall and relatively long lived, herbaceous plants are shorter and seasonal, dying back at the end of their growth season. The formation of woody tissue is an example of secondary growth, the process of wood formation is commonest in the Spermatophytes and has evolved independently a number of times. The roots may also lignify, aiding in the role of supporting and anchoring tall plants, another plant habit refers to whether the plant possesses any specialised systems for the storage of carbohydrates or water, allowing it to renew growth after an unfavourable period. Where the amount of water stored is relatively high, the plant is referred to as a succulent, such specialised plant parts may arise from the stems or roots. While these structures are annual in nature, the plant itself may be annual, biannual, herbaceous plants that survive for more than one season possess underground storage organs, and thus are referred to as geophytes. Terms used in describing plant habit, include, Acaulescent – the leaves and inflorescence rise from the ground, acid plant – plants with acid saps, normally due to the production of ammonium salts Acme – the period when the plant or population is at its maximum vigor
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
3.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
4.
Species Plantarum
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Species Plantarum is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the point for the naming of plants. Species Plantarum was published on 1 May 1753 by Laurentius Salvius in Stockholm, a second edition was published in 1762–1763, and a third edition in 1764, although this scarcely differed from the second. Species Plantarum was the first botanical work to apply the binomial nomenclature system of naming to any large group of organisms. The use of names had originally been developed as a kind of shorthand in a student project about the plants eaten by cattle. After the specific epithet, Linnaeus gave a description of each species. Because it is the first work in which binomial nomenclature was consistently applied, Species Plantarum contained descriptions of the thousands of plant species known to Linnaeus at the time. In the first edition, there were 5,940 names, in his introduction, Linnaeus estimated that there were fewer than 10,000 plant species in existence, there are now thought to be around 400,000 species of flowering plants alone. The species were arranged in around a thousand genera, which were grouped into 24 classes, 1–2 at Biodiversity Heritage Library facsimile Species Plantarum, vol. 1, vol.2 at Botanicus Species Plantarum at Project Guttenberg I-III IV-V VI-X XI-XIII text Linnaeus Link Union Catalogue
5.
Paleobotany
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Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant fossils, as well as the study of prehistoric marine photoautotrophs, such as photosynthetic algae, seaweeds or kelp. A closely related field is palynology, which is the study of fossilized and extant spores, Paleobotany has also become important to the field of archaeology, primarily for the use of phytoliths in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany. Macroscopic remains of vascular plants are first found in the fossil record during the Silurian Period of the Paleozoic era. An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie Chert, the Rhynie chert is an Early Devonian sinter deposit composed primarily of silica. It is exceptional due to its preservation of different clades of plants, from mosses and lycopods to more unusual. Many fossil animals, including arthropods and arachnids, are found in the Rhynie Chert. Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late Devonian and include tree trunks, fronds, angiosperms evolved during the Mesozoic, and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appear during the Early Cretaceous, approximately 130 million years ago. A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died, such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history, plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant. These modes of preservation are discussed in the pages on fossils. These are the most commonly found type of plant fossil and they provide good morphological detail, especially of dorsiventral plant parts such as leaves. If the cuticle is preserved, they can also yield fine anatomical detail of the epidermis, little other detail of cellular anatomy is normally preserved. These provide fine detail of the anatomy of the plant tissue. Morphological detail can also be determined by serial sectioning, but this is time consuming and difficult. These only tend to preserve the more robust plant parts such as seeds or woody stems and they can provide information about the three-dimensional form of the plant, and in the case of casts of tree stumps can provide evidence of the density of the original vegetation. However, they rarely preserve any fine morphological detail or cell anatomy, a subset of such fossils are pith casts, where the centre of a stem is either hollow or has delicate pith. After death, sediment enters and forms a cast of the cavity of the stem. The best known examples of pith casts are in the Carboniferous Sphenophyta and these can provide very fine, three-dimensional morphological detail, and have proved especially important in the study of reproductive structures that can be severely distorted in adpressions
6.
Cultivar
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The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
7.
Cultigen
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A cultigen is a plant that has been deliberately altered or selected by humans, it is the result of artificial selection. These man-made or anthropogenic plants are, for the most part, plants of commerce that are used in horticulture, agriculture, cultigens may be named in any of a number of ways. From that viewpoint it may be said there is a separate discipline of cultivated plant taxonomy. The ICNCP does not recognize the use of trade designations and other marketing devices as scientifically acceptable names, not all cultigens have been given names according to the Cultivated Plant Code. A cultigen is a plant whose origin or selection is due to intentional human activity. Interest in the distinction between wild and cultivated plants dates back to antiquity, theophrastus was a pupil of both Plato and Aristotle and succeeded the latter as head of the Peripatetic School of Philosophy at the Lyceum in Athens. He also noted that cultivated varieties of trees would degenerate if cultivated from seed. The word cultigen was coined in 1918 by Liberty Hyde Bailey an American horticulturist, botanist, in his 1918 paper Bailey noted that for anyone preparing a descriptive account of the cultivated plants of a country it would be clear that there are two gentes or kinds of plants. Firstly, those that are of known origin or nativity of known habitat and these he referred to as indigens. He called this kind of plant a cultigen, the word derived from the conflation of the Latin cultus – cultivated. This definition of the cultigen permits the recognition of cultivars, unlike the 1923 definition which restricts the idea of the cultigen to plants at the rank of species. A cultigen is a plant or group of apparent specific rank, known only in cultivation, with no determined nativity, presumably having originated, in the form in which we know it, examples are Cucurbita maxima, Phaseolus vulgaris, Zea mays. Recent usage in horticulture has, however, maintained a distinction between cultigen and cultivar while nevertheless allowing the inclusion of cultivars within the definition, cultigen and cultivar may be confused with one another. Cultigen is a term encompassing not only plants with cultivar names but others as well. Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the cultivar and it has been suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen. He defined cultivar in his 1923 paper as, a race subordinate to species, that has originated and persisted under cultivation, it is not necessarily, however, referable to a recognised botanical species. It is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin and this definition and understanding of cultivar has changed over time. In botanical literature the word cultigen is generally used to denote a plant which, like the wheat is of unknown origin
8.
Theophrastus
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Theophrastus, a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos, was the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He came to Athens at an age and initially studied in Platos school. After Platos death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus his writings, when Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as at the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants, after his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus, the interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, extending from biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on Renaissance science. There are also surviving works On Moral Characters, On Sensation, On Stones, in philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotles work on logic. He also regarded space as the arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion. In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue and he was a native of Eresos in Lesbos. His given name was Tyrtamus, but he became known by the nickname Theophrastus, given to him, it is said. After receiving instruction in philosophy in Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens and he became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus. It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into science, with Aristotle studying animals. Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2, around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens where Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus with whom he was close, Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Eudemus of Rhodes also had claims to this position. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for years, and died at the age of eighty-five according to Diogenes
9.
Pedanius Dioscorides
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He was employed as a medic in the Roman army. The name Pedanius is Roman, suggesting that an aristocrat of that name sponsored him to become a Roman citizen, in the medieval period, De Materia Medica was circulated in Greek, as well as Latin and Arabic translation. While being reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, it was supplemented with commentary and minor additions from Arabic. A number of illustrated manuscripts of De Materia Medica survive, the most famous of these is the lavishly illustrated Vienna Dioscurides, produced in Constantinople in 512/513 AD. Densely illustrated Arabic copies survive from the 12th and 13th centuries, De Materia Medica is the prime historical source of information about the medicines used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the Dacian and Thracian names for some plants, the Dioscorea genus of plants, which includes the yam, was named after him by Linnaeus. De Materia Medica, Being an Herbal with many other materials, Englished by Tess Anne Osbaldeston, year 2000. De Materia Medica, translated by Lily Y. Beck, Englished by John Goodyer A. D.1655, edited by R. T. De Materia medica, libri V Eiusdem de Venenis Libri duo, interprete Iano Antonio Saraceno Lugdunaeo, Medico, translated by Janus Antonius Saracenus. In Voltaires Candide, the characters injuries received at the hands of the Bulgarian army. Pedanius Dioscorides in, Health and Well Being, A Medieval Guide, hamilton, J. S. Scribonius Largus on the medical profession. Bulletin of the history of medicine, lazris, J. Stavros, V. Limage paradigmatique, des Schémas anatomiques dAristote au De materia medica de Dioscoride. Riddle, John M. Dioscorides on pharmacy and medicine, the Arabic materia medica of Dioscorides. Québec, Canada, Les Éditions du sphinx, the Preface of Dioscorides Materia Medica, introduction, translation, and commentary. Transactions & studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, Dioscurides Neapolitanus, Codex ex Vindobonensis Graecus 1. Medic, Catalogue des textes en ligne, Dioscoride/Dioscodirides, Pedanius, bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et dodontologie, Université Paris Descartes. Diosc. de la materie medicinale, Lyon, French edition
10.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
11.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
12.
Pliny the Elder
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In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
13.
Order of Saint Benedict
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Each community within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIIIs Brief Summum semper, individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials OSB after their names. The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Saint Benedict of Nursia circa 529, was the first of the monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, there is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. It was from the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome that Augustine, the prior, at various stopping places during the journey, the monks left behind them traditions concerning their rule and form of life, and probably also some copies of the Rule. Lérins Abbey, for instance, founded by Honoratus in 375, probably received its first knowledge of the Benedictine Rule from the visit of St. Augustine, in Gaul and Switzerland, it supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually displaced the earlier codes. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire, Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium, as a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work. In the Middle Ages monasteries were founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910, the abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, one of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations, Augustine of Canterbury and his monks established the first English Benedictine monastery at Canterbury soon after their arrival in 597. Many of the sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak, the monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick. Germany was evangelized by English Benedictines, willibrord and Boniface preached there in the seventh and eighth centuries and founded several abbeys. In the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, during the 19th century they were able to return to England, including to Selby Abbey in Yorkshire, one of the few great monastic churches to survive the Dissolution. St. Mildreds Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent, currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns
14.
Herbals
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Herbals were often illustrated to assist plant identification. Herbals were among the first literature produced in Ancient Egypt, China, India, herbals were also among the first books to be printed in both China and Europe. In Western Europe herbals flourished for two following the introduction of moveable type. In the late 17th century, the rise of modern chemistry, herbals have seen a modest revival in the western world since the last decades of the 20th century, as herbalism and related disciplines became popular forms of alternative medicine. Much of the found in printed herbals arose out of traditional medicine. Before the advent of printing, herbals were produced as manuscripts, early handwritten herbals were often illustrated with paintings and drawings. Like other manuscript books, herbals were published through repeated copying by hand, in the process of making a copy, the copyist would often translate, expand, adapt, or reorder the content. Most of the original herbals have been lost, many have survived only as later copies, as printing became available, it was promptly used to publish herbals, the first printed matter being known as incunabula. In Europe, the first printed herbal with woodcut illustrations, the Puch der Natur of Konrad of Megenberg, metal-engraved plates were first used in about 1580. China is renowned for its traditional herbal medicines that date back thousands of years and it survives as a copy made c.500 CE and describes about 365 herbs. In 1406 Ming dynasty prince Zhu Xiao published the Jiuhuang Bencao illustrated herbal for famine foods and it contained high quality woodcuts and descriptions of 414 species of plants of which 276 were described for the first time, the book pre-dating the first European printed book by 69 years. Other herbals include Bencao Fahui in 1450 by Xu Yong and Bencao Gangmu of Li Shizhen in 1590. Traditional herbal medicine of India, known as Ayurveda, possibly back to the second millennium BCE tracing its origins to the holy Hindu Vedas and, in particular. One authentic compilation of teachings is by the surgeon Sushruta, available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita and this contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses,700 medicinal plants,64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources. Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka and this tradition, however is mostly oral. The earliest surviving written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century CE, an illustrated herbal published in Mexico in 1552, Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, is written in the Aztec Nauhuatl language by a native physician, Martín Cruz. In 1570 Francisco Hernández was sent from Spain to study the natural resources of New Spain, here he drew on indigenous sources, including the extensive botanical gardens that had been established by the Aztecs, to record c.1200 plants in his Rerum Medicarum of 1615. Nicolás Monardes’ Dos Libros contains the first published illustration of tobacco, by about 2000 BCE, medical papyri in ancient Egypt included medical prescriptions based on plant matter and made reference to the herbalists combination of medicines and magic for healing
15.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
16.
Leonhart Fuchs
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Leonhart Fuchs, sometimes spelled Leonhard Fuchs, was a German physician and botanist. His chief notability is as the author of a book about plants and their uses as medicines. It was first published in 1542 in Latin and it has about 500 accurate and detailed drawings of plants, which were printed from woodcuts. The drawings are the books most notable advance on its predecessors, although drawings were in use beforehand in other Herbal books, Fuchs Herbal book proved and emphasized high-quality drawings as the most telling way to specify what a plant name stands for. The botanical genus Fuchsia is named in his honour, and consequently the colour fuchsia, Fuchs was born in 1501 in Wemding in the Duchy of Bavaria. After attending a school in Heilbronn, Fuchs went to the Marienschule in Erfurt, Thuringia at the age of twelve, in 1524 he became Magister Artium in Ingolstadt, and received a doctor of medicine degree in the same year. From 1524-1526 he practiced as a doctor in Munich, until he received a chair of medicine at Ingolstadt in 1526, from 1528-1531 he was the personal physician of Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach in Ansbach. Fuchs was called to Tübingen by Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg in 1533 to help in reforming the University of Tübingen in the spirit of humanism. He created its first medicinal garden in 1535 and served as chancellor seven times, Fuchs died in Tübingen in 1566. Like his medieval predecessors and his contemporaries, Fuchs was heavily influenced by the three Greek and Roman writers on medicine and materia medica, Dioscorides, Hippocrates, and Galen. He wanted to fight the Arab hegemony in medicine, as it had been transmitted by the Medical School of Salerno, but he saw the importance of practical experience as well and offered botanical field days for the students, where he demonstrated the medicinal plants in situ. He founded one of the first German botanical gardens, Fuchs name is preserved by the plant Fuchsia, discovered in the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean in 1696/97 by the French scientist and Minim monk Charles Plumier. He published the first description of Fuchsia triphylla, flore coccineo in 1703 and it is sometimes thought that the color fuchsia is also named for Fuchs. The name of the color fuchsia actually derives from fuchsine, a trade name for the dye, rosaniline hydrochloride. Magenta is another competing trade name for the dye in England. An 1861 article in Répertoire de Pharmacie in fact confirms that the name was chosen for these two reasons and irrelevant of the actual colors of any flowers in the genus Fuchsia. Errata recentiorum medicorum, his first publication, in which he argued for the use of rather than the noxious compounds of arcane ingredients concocted in medieval medicine. Fuchs tried to identify the plants described by the classical authors, over a decade, Fuchs began to prepare for the publication of his herbal
17.
Digitalis
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Digitalis is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and biennials commonly called foxgloves. This genus was placed in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. This genus is native to western and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia, the scientific name means finger-like and refers to the ease with which a flower of Digitalis purpurea can be fitted over a human fingertip. The flowers are produced on a spike, are tubular, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white. The best-known species is the common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea and this biennial plant is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers which range in colour from various purple tints through various shades of light gray, and to purely white. The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings, the first year of growth of the common foxglove produces only the stem with its long, basal leaves. During the second year of the life, a long. Larvae of the pug, a moth, consume the flowers of the common foxglove for food. Other species of Lepidoptera eat the leaves, including the lesser yellow underwing, the term digitalis is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus. The name is recorded in Old English as foxes glofe/glofa foxs glove, although the elements of the name are transparent, their meaning is not. Because it is not clear why the flower should be called foxglove, henry Fox Talbot proposed folks glove, where folk means fairy. Prior suggested an etymology of foxes-glew, meaning fairy music, however, neither of these suggestions account for the Old English form foxes glofa. It is commonly found on sites where the ground has been disturbed, such as recently cleared woodland, a group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin. It is used to increase cardiac contractility and as an agent to control the heart rate. Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with heart failure. Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and it was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation. Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations, safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality in women may be contributing to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin. The two drugs differ in that digoxin has a hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring
18.
De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes
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De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes is a book by Leonhart Fuchs on herbal plants published in Basel in 1542. It covers about 497 plants and has over 500 woodcut illustrations, over 100 of the plants in the book were first descriptions. The University of Glasgow states that it is considered a work in its field. Stanford University Press considers it one of the best illustrated books of all time and it set a new standard for accuracy and quality, as well as being the first known publication of plants from the Americas, such as pumpkin, maize, marigold, potato, and tobacco. Plants were identified in German, Greek, and Latin, the book was initially published in Latin and Greek and quickly translated into German. Just during Fuchs lifetime the book went through 39 printings in Dutch, French, German, Latin, and Spanish and 20 years after his death was translated into English
19.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
20.
Protist
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Protist is an informal term for any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus. The protists do not form a group, or clade. Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists do not necessarily have much in common, others use the term protist more broadly, to encompass both microbial eukaryotes and macroscopic organisms that do not fit into the other traditional kingdoms. In cladistic systems, there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, in cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are distributed among various supergroups and Protista, Protoctista and Protozoa are considered obsolete. However, the term protist continues to be used informally as a term for eukaryotic microorganisms. For example, the phrase protist pathogen may be used to denote any disease-causing microbe which is not bacteria, virus, the term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi, and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN. Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons and these traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics. Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse, however, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to species of protists that do not form filaments. Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg, the first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. In 1817, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to such as ciliates. After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden, this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. He defined the Protoctista as a kingdom of nature, in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, in 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hoggs label, arguing that Haeckels term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term Protoctista did not. In contrast, Copelands term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and this classification was the basis for Whittakers later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life. The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the kingdom of Monera. Many systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, some systematists judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon
21.
Correct name
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Determining whether a name is correct is a complex procedure. The name must be published, a process which is defined in no less than 16 Articles of the ICN. It must also be legitimate, which some further requirements. Validly published names other than the name are called synonyms. Since taxonomists may disagree as to the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon and these may also be called synonyms. The correct name has one correct spelling, which will generally be the original spelling. Other spellings are called orthographical variants, the zoological equivalent of correct name is valid name. Different taxonomic placements may well lead to different correct names, for example, the earliest name for the fastest growing tree in the world is Adenanthera falcataria L. The L. stands for Linnaeus who first validly published the name, Adenanthera falcataria is thus one of the correct names for this plant. There are other names, based on different taxonomic treatments. It can be placed in the genus Albizia, as Fosberg first did, when placed in this genus, the first choice of correct name is the new genus name followed by the earlier species epithet, giving Albizia falcataria. This name cannot be used if there is already a species in the genus with this epithet, as this is not the case, the correct name for the plant in this genus is Albizia falcataria Fosberg. Fosberg is the authority for the transfer to the new genus and it can also be placed in the genus Paraserianthes. Its correct name in that position is Paraserianthes falcataria I. C. Nielsen, within the genus Paraserianthes, it is placed in section Falcataria. An alternative basionym must be sought or a new name created, the correct name is Falcataria moluccana Barneby and J. W. Grimes. The four names Adenanthera falcataria, Albizia falcataria, Paraserianthes falcataria and Falcataria moluccana are each correct, which is the right genus is a problem for taxonomy, not nomenclature. Thus this tree species will have a different correct botanical name for different people. Botanical Nomenclature, University of Utah, archived from the original on 2011-02-20, retrieved 2011-02-20 McNeill, J. Barrie, F. R. Buck, W. R. Demoulin, V. Greuter, W. Hawksworth, D. L
22.
Taxon
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In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if. It is not uncommon, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon, if a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic and their basic unit, therefore, is the clade rather than the taxon. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with the traditional Linnean nomenclature, an example of a well-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia, the reptiles, birds are descendants of reptiles but are not included in the Reptilia. The term taxon was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, for plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines a taxon, a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank and individual organisms. A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually when it is given a formal name. Phylum applies formally to any domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas Division was traditionally often used for plants, fungi. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance, the prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-, for instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema, for example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division. Many cladists do not see any need to depart from traditional nomenclature as governed by the ICZN, ICN, etc
23.
Taxonomic rank
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In biological classification, rank is the relative level of a group of organisms in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain, a given rank subsumes under it less general categories, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. Above it, each rank is classified within more general categories of organisms, the rank of any species and the description of its genus is basic, which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. Consider a particular species, the red fox Vulpes vulpes, its next rank, as one group of the class Mammalia, all of the above are classified among those with backbones in the Chordata phylum rank, and with them among all the animals in the Animalia kingdom rank. Finally, all of the above will find their earliest relatives somewhere in their domain rank Eukarya, today, nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main ranks, kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus. In addition, the domain is now used as one of the fundamental ranks. Also, this represents a synonym for the category of dominion. Unlike Moore, Whoese et al. did not suggest a Latin term for this category, a taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus, when an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name. The species name is called a binomial, that is. For example, the name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print and underlined when italics are not available, in this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized, sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. There are definitions of the taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into family-group names, genus-group names, in the genus group and species group no further ranks are allowed. At higher ranks a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix infra, meaning lower, a taxon above the rank of species has a scientific name in one part. A species has a composed of two parts, generic name + specific name, for example Canis lupus. A subspecies has a composed of three parts, generic name + specific name + subspecific name, for example Canis lupus familiaris
24.
Chionodoxa siehei
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Chionodoxa siehei or Siehes glory-of-the-snow is a bulbous perennial from west Turkey flowering in early spring. After flowering, it goes into dormancy until the next spring and it seeds readily to form colonies. This is the commonest species grown in gardens, where it is often wrongly called C. luciliae, some botanists consider C. siehei to be the same species as C. forbesii, which is then the correct name. The Royal Horticultural Society treats them as distinct, like all members of the genus Chionodoxa, the bases of the stamens are flattened and closely clustered in the middle of the flower. In the related genus Scilla, the stamens are not flattened or clustered together, the differences are not considered by some botanists as sufficient to create a separate genus, so they include this species in Scilla. Each bulb produces two leaves, up to 12 cm long and 2 cm wide, and at most one flowering stem, the flowers are produced in a broadly pyramidal raceme, with up to 12 flowers per stem. The lower ones face outwards, the upper ones face upward, each flower is up to 3 cm across, with individual tepals 1.3 cm long. The base of each tepal is white, producing a white eye, the outer part of the tepals is violet-blue. C. siehei can be bought as dry bulbs and planted while dormant in summer or early autumn at a depth of 8–10 cm. It requires light when in growth, but can be grown under trees or shrubs. It will flower in early to mid Spring, the common blue form of C. siehei seeds freely in many gardens, creating large colonies. C. siehei was awarded the RHS Award of Garden Merit in 1993, the variety alba has white flowers, and the cultivar Pink Giant has pink flowers with white centres. Chionodoxa, Alpine Garden Society Encyclopaedia of Alpines, Vol.1, Pershore, UK, AGS Publications, pp
25.
Chionodoxa forbesii
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Chionodoxa forbesii or Forbes glory-of-the-snow is a bulbous perennial from south-west Turkey flowering in early spring. After flowering, it goes into dormancy until the next spring, like all members of the genus Chionodoxa, the bases of the stamens are flattened and closely clustered in the middle of the flower. In the related genus Scilla, the stamens are not flattened or clustered together, the differences are not considered by some botanists as sufficient to create a separate genus, so they include this species in Scilla. C. forbesii resembles C. siehei, which is regarded as part of the species by some botanists. For those who differentiate the two taxa, C. forbesii differs by having fewer, smaller upward-facing flowers, which are a deep blue, rather than violet-blue
26.
Chionodoxa
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Chionodoxa, known as glory-of-the-snow, is a small genus of bulbous perennial flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae, often included in Scilla. The genus is endemic to the eastern Mediterranean, specifically Crete, Cyprus, the blue, white or pink flowers appear early in the year making them valuable garden ornamentals. The common name of the genus is based on the habit of flowering in high alpine zones when the snow melts in spring and these differences are not considered by some botanists as sufficient to create a separate genus, and Chionodoxa species are often included in Scilla. Chionodoxa is also not recognised as a genus from Scilla by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. The taxonomy of the genus is confused, several of the species are very similar, and the number of species recognized as distinct varies significantly from one source to another. For example, plants occurring in Crete have at one time or another been put into three species, C. albescens, C. cretica and C. nana. Sfikas Wild flowers of Crete recognizes only two of these, the Natural History Museums checklist of the Cretan Flora recognizes only one, the Royal Horticultural Society distinguishes between C. forbesii and C. siehei, other botanists recognize only C. forbesii. Assuming there are six species, as listed below, three occur in west Turkey, one in south-west Turkey, one in Crete and one in Cyprus. Garden plants have naturalised outside of their range, e. g. in the UK, Germany, Austria. A natural hybrid C. siehei x C. luciliae also occurs, a 2005 Royal Horticultural Society publication which illustrates all three of these species states that the most common garden species is properly called C. siehei. Three species were awarded the RHS Award of Garden Merit in 1993 which was re-confirmed in 2004, C. luciliae, C. sardensis, all can be bought as dry bulbs and planted while dormant in late summer or early autumn at a depth of 8–10 cm. They require light when in growth, but can be grown under trees or shrubs. All flower in early Spring, C. sardensis usually being the earliest, C. siehei seeds freely in many gardens, and can create a carpet of blue. In addition to the common varieties, Chionodoxa siehei is sold as pink. Alpine Garden Society Encyclopaedia of Alpines, Vol. J, chilton, L. Press, J. R & Natural History Museum, Flora of the Cretan Area, annotated checklist and atlas, London, HMSO, ISBN 978-0-11-310043-9
27.
Scilla
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A few species are also naturalized in Australia, New Zealand and North America. Their flowers are blue, but white, pink, and purple types are known, most flower in early spring. Scilla has most recently classified as belonging to the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. Prior to that it was placed in the Hyacintheae tribe of the Liliaceae family, the precise number of Scilla species in the genus depends on which proposals to split the genus are accepted. For a discussion of the relationship of Scilla to the related genus, Chionodoxa. Other proposals separate particularly the Eurasian species into a number of genera such as Othocallis Salisb. E. g. Scilla siberica would become Othocallis siberica, several African species previously classified in Scilla have been removed to the genus Ledebouria. The best known of these is the common houseplant still sometimes known as Scilla violacea, when Carl Linnaeus described the species in 1753, he was given specimens imported from Spain aboard a ship named Peru, and was misled into thinking the specimens had come from that country. The rules of botanical naming do not allow a name to be changed merely because it is potentially confusing. Many species, notably S. siberica, are grown in gardens for their attractive early spring flowers, list of early spring flowers Elizabeth Lawrence. The little bulbs, a tale of two gardens, duke University Press,1986 ISBN 0-8223-0739-1 ISBN 978-0-8223-0739-6 Plantzafrica. com J. McNeill Scilla. in Flora of North America Vol.26 Page 58,315,320
28.
Asparagaceae
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Asparagaceae is a family of flowering plants, placed in the order Asparagales of the monocots. In earlier classification systems, the species involved were often treated as belonging to the family Liliaceae, the revised APG III system of 2009 allows only the broader sense. A paper published at the time proposed seven subfamilies to correspond to the originally separate families. Unless otherwise noted, the alphabetical list below is based on genera accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as in the family Asparagaceae, the reference against the subfamily name is to the source which places the genus in that subfamily. Asparagaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz, the families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Https, //web. archive. org/web/20070103200438/http, //delta-intkey. com, 80/ Liliaceae in Flora of North America NCBI Taxonomy Browser links at CSDL, Texas
29.
Scilloideae
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Scilloideae is a subfamily of bulbous plants within the family Asparagaceae. Scilloideae is sometimes treated as a separate family Hyacinthaceae, named after the genus Hyacinthus, Scilloideae or Hyacinthaceae include many familiar garden plants such as Hyacinthus, Hyacinthoides, Muscari and Scilla and Puschkinia. Some are important as cut flowers, Scilloideae are distributed mostly in Mediterranean climates, including South Africa, Central Asia and South America. Their flowers have six tepals and six stamens with an ovary, which previously placed them within the lily family, and their leaves are fleshy, mucilaginous. The Scilloideae, like most lily-like monocots, were at one time placed in a broadly defined lily family. The subfamily is recognized in classification systems such as the APG III system of 2009. It is also treated as the separate family Hyacinthaceae, as it is by many researchers and was in earlier APG systems, determining the boundaries between genera within the Scilloideae is an active area of research. The number of genera varies widely from source to source, from about 30 to about 70, the situation has been described as being in a state of flux. The subfamily contains many popular spring-flowering garden bulbs, such as hyacinths, grape hyacinths, other members are summer- and autumn-flowering, including Galtonia and Eucomis. Most are native to Mediterranean climate zones and neighboring areas in the Mediterranean Basin, others are found in Central Asia, the Far East and South America. They have also included in the Liliaceae family. Leaves, fleshy and mucilaginous arranged in a rosette, alternate and spiral, simple, margin entire, with parallel venation, sheathing at the base, without stipules. The flowers are hermaphroditic, actinomorphic, often showy, perianths, six tepals divided into two whorls, free or joined. When joined, the forms a tubular bell. The tepals are imbricate and petaloid, the corolla may be white, yellow, violet, blue, brown and even black. Androecium, composed of 6 stamens, with the free or adnate to the tube. The anthers are dorsifixed and pollen dehiscence occurs by longitudinal openings, gynoecium, superior ovary, tricarpelate, connate and trilocular. May contain from one to several ovules in each locule and they have nectaries at the septa of the ovaries
30.
Botanical name
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The purpose of a formal name is to have a single name that is accepted and used worldwide for a particular plant or plant group. Later, the plant was introduced worldwide, bringing it contact with more languages. English names for plant species include, daisy, English daisy. The cultivar Bellis perennis Aucubifolia is a golden-variegated horticultural selection of this species, the botanical name itself is fixed by a type, which is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name is formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon. For example, the view of the family Malvaceae has been expanded in some modern approaches to include what were formerly considered to be several closely related families. Some botanical names refer to groups that are stable while for other names a careful check is needed to see which circumscription is being used. Depending on rank, botanical names may be in one part, the names of cultivated plants are not necessarily similar to the botanical names, since they may instead involve unambiguous common names of species or genera. A botanical name in three parts, i. e. an infraspecific name needs a connecting term to indicate rank, in the Calystegia example above, this is subsp. for subspecies. In botany there are ranks below that of species. A name of a subdivision of a genus also needs a connecting term, the connecting term is not part of the name itself. A taxon may be indicated by a listing in more than three parts, Saxifraga aizoon var. aizoon subvar, brevifolia f. multicaulis subf. surculosa Engl. But this is a classification, not a botanical name. The botanical name is Saxifraga aizoon subf. surculosa Engl, generic, specific, and infraspecific botanical names are usually printed in italics. For botanical nomenclature, the ICN prescribes a two-part name or binary name for any taxon below the rank of genus down to, taxa below the rank of species get a three part. A binary name consists of the name of a genus and an epithet, in the case of a species this is a specific epithet, Bellis perennis is the name of a species, in which perennis is the specific epithet. There is no connecting term involved, to indicate the rank, in the case of a subdivision of a genus the name consists of the name of a genus and a subdivisional epithet. A connecting term should be placed before the subdivisional epithet to indicate the rank, falcataria In the case of cultivated plants, there is an additional epithet which is an often non-Latin part, not written in italics
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International Plant Names Index
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The International Plant Names Index describes itself as a database of the names and associated basic bibliographical details of seed plants, ferns and lycophytes. Coverage of plant names is best at the rank of species, the IPNI also maintains a list of standardized author abbreviations. These were initially based on Brummitt & Powell, but new names, IPNI is the product of a collaboration between The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, The Harvard University Herbaria, and the Australian National Herbarium. The IPNI database is a collection of the names registered by the three cooperating institutions and they work towards standardizing the information, the standard of author abbreviations recommended by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants is Brummitt and Powell’s Authors of Plant Names. A digital and continually updated list of authors and abbreviations can be consulted online at IPNI, the IPNI provides names that have appeared in scholarly publications, with the objective of providing an index of published names rather than prescribing the accepted botanical nomenclature. The Plant List, a project which was unveiled in 2010. The use of IPNI is free of charge, a similar project, which lists names of fungi, is the Index Fungorum. The Plant List Official website of the IPNI Plant Name search – IPNI search for plant names Author search – IPNI search for author names and standard abbreviations
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International Association for Plant Taxonomy
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The IAPT was founded on July 18,1950 at the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholm, Sweden. Currently, the IAPT headquarters is located in Bratislava, Slovakia, both the taxonomic journal Taxon and the series Regnum Vegetabile are published by the IAPT. The latter series includes the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the Index Nominum Genericorum, the IAPTs primary purpose is the promotion and understanding of biodiversity—the discovery, naming, classification, and systematics of plants—for both living and fossil plants. Additionally, it promotes the study and conservation of plant biodiversity, the organization also facilitates international cooperation among botanists working in the fields of plant systematics, taxonomy, and nomenclature. This is accomplished in part through sponsorship of meetings and publication of resources, such as reference publications, the IAPT also seeks to achieve uniformity and stability in plant names. Taxon is the journal of the IAPT. The journal, which was initiated in 1951, publishes original papers, preference is given to integrative papers combining the results of modern analysis with their consequences for classification. Publication of such matters in Taxon satisfies the required submission to the General Committee, the journal also contains sections devoted to the International Organisation of Plant Biosystematics, reviews and notices of books and other publications, and news in the world of plant systematics. Regnum Vegetabile is a series of books on topics of interest to plant taxonomists. Many of the volumes are literature surveys or monographs in the area of plant systematics, the current edition is known as the Melbourne Code, as it was drafted in 2011 at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne, Australia. International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 8th edition Companion to the ICN, Index Nominum Genericorum An index of all published generic names covered by the ICN, including the place of publication and information about the type species. The index is prepared in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution, an electronic version is available online. Index Herbariorum, the first six editions A directory and guide to the herbaria of the world, including information, abbreviation codes. Index Herbariorum is now an online database, managed by The New York Botanical Garden, International Directory of Botanical Gardens A directory to botanical gardens and arboreta around the world. The series includes many additional volumes of interest to specialists in specific subdisciplines of botany, in addition to electronic versions of its print publications, the IAPT maintains the following, Names in Current Use - A database of scientific names of extant botanical genera. The IAPT established the Engler Medal in honour of Adolf Engler in 1986, IAPT Index Nominum Genericorum Index Herbariorum
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Anna Pavord
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Anna Pavord is the gardening correspondent for The Independent and the author of a number of books on plants and gardening. She is an editor of Gardens Illustrated magazine, has written for The Observer for some twenty years. Besides gardening her interests include sailing, black and white films, Evelyn Waugh, Living in Puncknowle in south-west England, she is the daughter of headmaster Arthur Pavord and teacher Christabel Lewis. She married Trevor Ware on 18 June 1966 and has three daughters, Oenone, Vanessa and Tilly and she attended the University of Leicester and graduated in 1962 with a B. A. degree in English. Not aligned with any party, her religious views are those of a Pantheist. The Rectory, her garden in Dorset, has been both a healing influence and source of inspiration for more than thirty years. She took up writing about gardening in order to finance the revamping of the building, the one and a half acres of garden of this 300-year-old estate in Dorset was used as a nursery for her ideas on horticulture. In the beginning the garden was overgrown and the building dilapidated and it was here that she first planted tulips, and intrigued by their beauty, planted many thousands more. The soul needs to look out at things and find rest and peace, it’s a need as much as having a roof over your head and food in your stomach. In her 2010 book, The Curious Gardener, Pavord, assembles a collection of articles from her newspaper column and her use of grammar is deft and lucid, and her easy way with prose is not often encountered in other writers. It was at our first house and on the first patch of ground that we actually owned that I really discovered the point of gardening, there was no sudden, blinding vision of beauty. I didn’t see myself trolling through bowers of roses, straw hat just so, nor had I any idea at first of the immense joy of growing food. But I had at least begun to understand that gardening, if it is to be satisfying, the longer you stay put, the richer the rewards. I also realised how completely I had missed the point as a child, Gardening was not necessarily about an end result. At this time too, I learned about gardening as therapy, banged up with small children all day for the first time, I thought I would go under. When a confrontation seemed to be looming of a kind that had no solution I would race to the newly made vegetable patch and furiously hoe beans. The children’s legs were shorter than mine and if I was lucky, I’d have at least a minute, later on, when they were five or six years old, gardening with the children became a pleasure. But at this early stage – not and she was also writer and presenter of Flowering Passions, a 10-part TV series on Channel 4
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Botany
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
