1.
Gortyn code
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The Gortyn code was a legal code that was the codification of the civil law of the ancient Greek city-state of Gortyn in southern Crete. The original building was 30 m in diameter, the 12 columns of text which survive are 10 m in length and 1.5 m in height, in addition, some further broken texts survive, the so-called second text. It is the longest extant ancient Greek inscription except for the inscription of Diogenes of Oenoanda, evidence suggests it is the work of a single sculptor. The inscription has been dated to the first half of the 5th century BCE, the first fragment of the code was discovered in the 1850s. Italian archaeologist Federico Halbherr found a further four columns of the text while excavating a site near a mill in 1884. The wall bearing the Code has now partially reconstructed. The Great Code is written in the Dorian dialect and is one of a number of inscriptions found scattered across Crete but curiously. The Dorian language was then pervasive among Cretan cities such as Knossos, Lyttos, Axos, the Code stands with a tradition of Cretan law, which taken as a totality represents the only substantial corpus of Greek law from antiquity found outside Athens. 525 and 400 BCE, followed by the laws, which contain Ionian characters, also, one can infer some aspects of public law. The code makes legal distinctions between different social classes, free, serf, slave and foreigner social statuses are recognized within the document. The code provides a measure of protection for individuals prior to their trial, persons bringing suit are prohibited from seizing and detaining the accused before trial. Violations are punishable by fines, which depending on the status of the detained individual. Rape under the code is punished with fines, the fine is largely determined by the difference in social status between the victim and the accused. A free man convicted of raping a serf or a slave would receive the lowest fine, adultery is punished similarly to rape under the code but also takes into consideration the location of the crime. The code dictates higher fines for adultery committed within the household of the father, husband or brother. Fines also depend on whether the woman has committed adultery. The fines are levied against the involved in the adultery. The code does not provide for the punishment of the female, the Gortyn law code grants a modicum of property rights to women in the case of divorce
2.
Lapis Niger
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The Lapis Niger is an ancient shrine in the Roman Forum. The black marble paving and modern concrete enclosure of the Lapis Niger overlie an ancient tomb or altar, the superstructure monument and shrine may have been built by Julius Caesar during his reorganization of the Forum and Comitium space. Alternatively, this may have been done a generation earlier by Sulla during one of his construction projects around the Curia Hostilia, the site was rediscovered and excavated from 1899 to 1905 by Italian archaeologist Giacomo Boni. It is constructed on top of a sacred spot consisting of much older artifacts found about 5 ft below the present ground level, the name black stone may have originally referred to the black stone block or it may refer to the later black marble paving at the surface. Located in the Comitium in front of the Curia Julia, this structure survived for centuries due to a combination of reverential treatment, the site is believed to date back to the Monarchy of Rome. The inscription refers to either a king, or to the rex sacrorum, at some point, the Romans forgot the original significance of the shrine. This led to several conflicting stories of its origin, the earliest writings referring to this spot regard it as a suggestum where the early Kings of Rome would speak to the crowds at the forum and to the senate. The two altars are common at shrines throughout the early Roman or late Etruscan period, the Lapis Niger is mentioned in an uncertain and ambiguous way by several writers of the early Imperial period. They do not seem to know which old stories about the shrine should be believed, in November 2008 heavy rain damaged the concrete covering that has been protecting the Vulcanal and its monuments since the 1950s. This includes the stone block accorded the name of “The Black Stone” or Lapis Niger. An awning now protects the ancient relics until the covering is repaired, unfortunately, the nature of the coverings and ongoing repairs makes it impossible to see the Lapis Niger which is several meters underground. The Lapis Niger went through several incarnations, the initial versions were destroyed by fire or the sacking of the city and buried under the slabs of black marble. It is believed this was done by Sulla, however, it has also argued that Julius Caesar may have buried the site during his re-alignment of the Comitium. A U-shaped altar of which only the base survives, was added some time later. In front of the altar are two bases, which may also have been added separately from the main altar. The antiquarian Verrius Flaccus, a contemporary of Augustus, described a statue of a resting lion placed on each base, also added at another period was an honorary column, possibly with a statue topping it. Archaeological excavations revealed various dedicatory items from vase fragments, statues and pieces of animal sacrifices around at the site in a layer of deliberately placed gravel, all these artifacts date from very ancient Rome, between the 5th and 7th centuries BC. The second version, placed when the first version was demolished in the 1st century BC to make way for development in the forum, is a far simpler shrine
3.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
4.
Plough
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A plough or plow is a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, a plough may be made of wood, iron, or steel frame with an attached blade or stick used to cut the earth. It has been an instrument for most of recorded history. The plough represents one of the major agricultural inventions in human history, as the plough is drawn through the soil it creates long trenches of fertile soil called furrows. In modern use, a field is typically left to dry out. Ploughing and cultivating a soil homogenises and modifies the upper 12 to 25 cm of the soil to form a plough layer, in many soils, the majority of fine plant feeder roots can be found in the topsoil or plough layer. Ploughs were initially human-powered, but the process became more efficient once animals were pressed into service. The first animal-powered ploughs were undoubtedly pulled by oxen, and later in areas by horses and mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough were steam-powered, modern competitions take place for ploughing enthusiasts like the National Ploughing Championships in Ireland. By not ploughing, beneficial fungi and microbial life can develop that will bring air into the soil, retain water. A healthy soil full of active fungi and microbial life, combined with a crop, suppresses weeds and pests naturally. Thus the intensive use of water-, oil- and energy hungry irrigation, fertilisers, cultivated land becomes more fertile and productive over time, while tilled land tends to go down in productivity over time due to erosion and the removal of nutrients with every harvest. Proponents of permaculture claim that it is the way of farming that can be maintained when fossil fuel runs out. The term plough or plow, as used today, was not common until 1700, the modern word plough comes from Old Norse plógr, and therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late, and is thought to be a loanword from one of the north Italic languages. Words with the same root appeared with related meanings, in Raetic plaumorati wheeled heavy plough, and in Latin plaustrum farm cart, plōstrum, plōstellum cart, and plōxenum, plōximum cart box. The word must have referred to the wheeled heavy plough. Orel tentatively attaches plough to a PIE stem *blōkó-, which gave Armenian peɫem to dig and Welsh bwlch crack, on modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mouldboard is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mouldboard. Abrasion eventually destroys all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil, digging sticks, hoes, and mattocks were not invented in any one place, and hoe-cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practiced
5.
Bi-directional text
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Bi-directional text is text containing text in both text directionalities, both right-to-left and left-to-right. It generally involves text containing different types of alphabets, but may refer to boustrophedon. This is different from the direction used by most writing systems in the world. When LTR text is mixed with RTL in the paragraph, each type of text is written in its own direction. This can get complex when multiple levels of quotation are used. Many computer programs fail to display bi-directional text correctly, for example, the Hebrew name Sarah is spelled, sin, then resh, and finally heh. Note, Some web browsers may display the Hebrew text in this article in the opposite direction, Bidirectional script support is the capability of a computer system to correctly display bi-directional text. The term is shortened to BiDi or bidi. Early computer installations were designed only to support a single writing system, right-to-left scripts were introduced through encodings like ISO/IEC 8859-6 and ISO/IEC 8859-8, storing the letters in writing and reading order. It is possible to flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order. With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix scripts from different scripts on the same page, in particular, the Unicode standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed. The Unicode standard calls for characters to be ordered logically, i. e. in the sequence they are intended to be interpreted, as opposed to visually, the sequence they appear. This distinction is relevant for bidi support because at any bidi transition, thus, in order to offer bidi support, Unicode prescribes an algorithm for how to convert the logical sequence of characters into the correct visual presentation. For this purpose, the Unicode encoding standard divides all its characters into one of four types, strong, weak, neutral, strong characters are those with definite directionality. Weak characters are those with vague directionality, Examples of this type of character include European digits, Eastern Arabic-Indic digits, arithmetic symbols, and currency symbols. Punctuation symbols that are common to many scripts, such as the colon, comma, full-stop, unless a directional override is present numbers are always encoded big-endian, and the numerals rendered LTR. The weak directionality only applies to the placement of the number in its entirety, neutral characters have directionality indeterminable without context. Examples include paragraph separators, tabs, and most other whitespace characters, explicit formatting characters, also referred to as directional formatting characters, are special Unicode sequences that direct the unicode algorithm to modify its default behavior
6.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
7.
Epigraphy
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Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist, for example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and it is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme to a lengthy document. Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography, when compared to books, most inscriptions are short. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery, epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary, the study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a quite separate from the nature of the text. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however, in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of Linear B were revealed to be used for economic. Informal inscribed texts are graffiti in its original sense, the science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first, individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius, August Wilhelm Zumpt, Theodor Mommsen, Emil Hübner, Franz Cumont, Louis Robert. The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has published in Berlin since 1863. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions, New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically, all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6 and this volume has the greatest number of inscriptions, volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin and this marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world
8.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
9.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
10.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
11.
Sabaeans
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The Sabaeans or Sabeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in the south west of the Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom of Saba has been identified with the land of Sheba. The view that the kingdom of Sheba was the ancient Semitic civilization of Saba in Southern Arabia is controversial. The Kingdom fell after a long but sporadic civil war between several Yemenite dynasties claiming kingship, resulting in the rise of the late Himyarite Kingdom. Sabaeans are mentioned in the books of Job, Joel, Ezekiel, and Isaiah, and in ayat 2,62,5,69. The origin of the Sabaean Kingdom is uncertain, the Sabaean kingdom was finally conquered by the Ḥimyarites in the late 3rd century and at that time the capital was Marib. It was located along the strip of desert called Sayhad by medieval Arab geographers, the Sabaean people were South Arabian people. The Sabaeans, like the other Yemenite kingdoms of the period, were involved in the extremely lucrative spice trade, especially frankincense. They left behind inscriptions in the monumental Musnad alphabet, as well as numerous documents in the cursive Zabūr script. The Book of Job mentions the Sabaens for slaying his livestock, each of these temples had a characteristic geometric shape, a characteristic color, and an image made of one of the seven metals. They had two sects, star and idol worshippers, and the doctrine was similar to one that come from Hermes Trismegistus. The Sabaeans were mentioned in the Quran twice as قوم سبأ, the Quran mentions the kingdom of the Saba in the 34th Chapter. The Quranic narrative, from sura 27, has Suleiman getting reports from the Hoopoe bird about the kingdom of Saba, Suleiman sends a letter inviting her to submit fully to the One God, Allah, Lord of the Worlds according to the Islamic text. The Queen of Saba is unsure how to respond and asks her advisors for counsel and they reply by reminding her that they are of great toughness in a reference to their willingness to go to war should she choose to. She replies that she fears if they were to lose, Suleiman may behave as any other king would, entering a country, despoiling it and she decides to meet with Suleiman in order to find out more. Suleiman receives her response to him and asks if anyone can bring him her throne before she arrives. A jinn under the control of Suleiman proposed that he will bring it before Suleiman rises from his seat, One who had knowledge of the Book proposed to bring him the throne of Bilqis in the twinkling of an eye and accomplished that immediately. The queen arrives at his court, is shown her throne and asked and she replied, as though it were it
12.
Hellenistic period
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It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decadence or degeneration, compared to the enlightenment of the Greek Classical era. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy, Alexandrian poetry, the Septuagint, Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele, the Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to new realms. Equally, however, these new kingdoms were influenced by the cultures, adopting local practices where beneficial, necessary. Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and this mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world. Scholars and historians are divided as to what event signals the end of the Hellenistic era, Hellenistic is distinguished from Hellenic in that the first encompasses the entire sphere of direct ancient Greek influence, while the latter refers to Greece itself. The word originated from the German term hellenistisch, from Ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής, from Ἑλλάς, Hellenistic is a modern word and a 19th-century concept, the idea of a Hellenistic period did not exist in Ancient Greece. Although words related in form or meaning, e. g, the major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The Greek population and the population did not always mix, the Greeks moved and brought their own culture. While a few fragments exist, there is no surviving historical work which dates to the hundred years following Alexanders death. The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia, Duris of Samos, the earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis, a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage. His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books, covering the years 220 to 167 BC, another important source, Plutarchs Parallel Lives though more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality, outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures. Appian of Alexandria wrote a history of the Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms, other sources include Justins epitome of Pompeius Trogus Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrians Events after Alexander, by Photios I of Constantinople. Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus, Pausanias, Pliny, in the field of philosophy, Diogenes Laertius Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source. Ancient Greece had traditionally been a collection of fiercely independent city-states. After the Peloponnesian War, Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony, in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all-powerful
13.
Analogy
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Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another, or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy. Analogy plays a significant role in solving, as well as decision making, perception, memory, creativity, emotion, explanation. It lies behind basic tasks such as the identification of places, objects and people, for example, in face perception and it has been argued that analogy is the core of cognition. Specific analogical language comprises exemplification, comparisons, metaphors, similes, allegories, and parables, phrases like and so on, and the like, as if, and the very word like also rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message including them. Analogy is important not only in language and common sense but also in science, philosophy. In cognitive linguistics, the notion of conceptual metaphor may be equivalent to that of analogy, Analogy has been studied and discussed since classical antiquity by philosophers, scientists, and lawyers. The last few decades have shown a renewed interest in analogy, in ancient Greek the word αναλογια originally meant proportionality, in the mathematical sense, and it was indeed sometimes translated to Latin as proportio. From there analogy was understood as identity of relation between any two ordered pairs, whether of mathematical nature or not, kants Critique of Judgment held to this notion. Kant argued that there can be exactly the same relation between two different objects. The same notion of analogy was used in the US-based SAT tests, for example, Hand is to palm as foot is to ____. This relation is not apparent in some definitions of palm and sole, where the former is defined as the inner surface of the hand. Analogy and abstraction are different cognitive processes, and analogy is often an easier one and this analogy is not comparing all the properties between a hand and a foot, but rather comparing the relationship between a hand and its palm to a foot and its sole. While a hand and a foot have many dissimilarities, the focuses on their similarity in having an inner surface. A computer algorithm has achieved human-level performance on multiple-choice analogy questions from the SAT test, the algorithm measures the similarity of relations between pairs of words by statistical analysis of a large collection of text. It answers SAT questions by selecting the choice with the highest relational similarity, Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle actually used a wider notion of analogy. They saw analogy as a shared abstraction, analogous objects did not share necessarily a relation, but also an idea, a pattern, a regularity, an attribute, an effect or a philosophy. These authors also accepted that comparisons, metaphors and images could be used as arguments, analogies should also make those abstractions easier to understand and give confidence to the ones using them
14.
Dot matrix printing
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However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced. Each dot is produced by a metal rod, also called a wire or pin. Facing the ribbon and the paper is a guide plate named ribbon mask holder or protector. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins and this plate may be made of hard plastic or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby. The portion of the containing the pins is called the print head. When running the printer, it generally prints one line of text at a time, there are two approaches to achieve this, The common serial dot matrix printers use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be thought of featuring a vertical column of seven or more pins approximately the height of a character box. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally. In a considerably different configuration, so called line dot matrix printers use a print head almost as wide as the paper path utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing. Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density through interleaving, while still line-oriented, these printers for the professional heavy-duty market effectively print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward below the print head. The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 30 to 1550 cps, in contrast to this, line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps, resulting in a throughput of up to 800 pages/hour. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, both of these types of printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies and these machines can be highly durable. A variation on the dot matrix printer was the cross hammer dot printer, the smooth cylindrical roller of a conventional printer was replaced by a spinning, fluted cylinder. The print head was a hammer, with a vertical projecting edge. Where the vertical edge of the hammer intersected the horizontal flute of the cylinder, compressing the paper, characters were built up of multiple dots. Although nearly all inkjet, thermal, and laser printers also print closely spaced dots rather than lines or characters. In 1925, Rudolf Hell invented the Hellschreiber, an early facsimile-like dot matrix-based teletypewriter device, like the earlier Hellschreiber, it still used electromechanical means of coding and decoding, but it used a start-stop method rather than synchronous transmission for communication. In 1956, while he was employed at Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH, the device was introduced to the Deutsche Bundespost, when Preikschat emigrated into the USA in 1957 he sold the rights to utilize the applications in any countries to TuN
15.
Old Hungarian alphabet
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The Old Hungarian script is an alphabetic writing system used for writing the Hungarian language. Today Hungarian is predominantly written using the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet, the term old refers to the historical priority of the script compared to the Latin-based one. The Hungarians settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, after the establishment of the Christian Hungarian kingdom, the old writing was partly forced out of use and the Latin alphabet was adopted. However, among some professions and in Transylvania, the script has remained in use by the Székely Magyars, the writing could also be found in churches like the one in Atid. The Old Hungarian script has also described as runic or runiform because it is superficially reminiscent of the Germanic runic alphabet. Its English name in the ISO15924 standard is Old Hungarian, in modern Hungarian, the script is known formally as Székely rovásírás. The writing system is known as rovásírás, székely rovásírás. Scientists can not give a date nor an origin which is known for the script. Proto-Rovas from 5300 BC can be seen at the Tărtăria tablets according to Klára Friedrich, attila Grandpierre describes the incision of an axe socket found in the plains of Campagna, near Rome, that was made around 1000 BC. András Róna-Tas derives Old Hungarian from the Old Turkic script, itself recorded in inscriptions dating from c, the origins of the Turkic scripts are uncertain. The scripts may derived from Asian scripts such as the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets, or possibly from Kharosthi, or alternatively, according to some opinions, ancient Turkic runes descend from primaeval Turkic graphic logograms. All the letters but one for sounds which were shared by Turkic, most of the missing characters were derived by script internal extensions, rather than borrowings, but a small number of characters seem to derive from Greek, such as eF. Although there have been attempts to interpret it, the meaning of it is still unclear. In 1000, with the coronation of Stephen I of Hungary, Hungary became a Kingdom, the Latin alphabet was adopted as official script, however Old Hungarian continued to be used in the vernacular. In Royal Hungary, Old Hungarian script was used less, although there are relics from this territory, there is another copy – similar to the Nikolsburg Alphabet – of the Old Hungarian alphabet, dated 1609. The inscription from Énlaka, dated 1668, is an example of the art use. It also contains Hungarian texts written with runes, for example, in the 19th century scholars began to research the rules and the other features of the Old Hungarian script. Because the Old Hungarian script had been replaced by Latin, linguistic researchers in the 20th century had to reconstruct the alphabet from historic sources, Gyula Sebestyén, ethnographer, folklorist and Gyula Németh, philologist, linguist, turcologist did the lions share of this work
16.
Easter Island
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Easter Island is a Chilean island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, in 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park. However, human activity, the introduction of the Polynesian rat, by the time of European arrival in 1722, the islands population had dropped to 2, 000–3,000 from an estimated high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier. European diseases and Peruvian slave raiding in the 1860s further reduced the Rapa Nui population, Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Easter Island is a territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888. Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaíso Region, and, more specifically, according to the 2012 Chilean census, the island has about 5,800 residents, of whom some 60 percent are descendants of the aboriginal Rapa Nui. Easter Island is considered part of Insular Chile, the islands official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means Easter Island. However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the name of Easter Island. William Churchill inquired about the phrase and was told there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes of the island. The phrase appears to have used in the same sense as the designation of Lands End at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, according to Barthel, oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka The little piece of land of Hau Maka. However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning end and one navel, and the phrase can also mean the Navel of the World. This was apparently its actual meaning, French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the actual translation the Navel of the World, another name, Mata ki te rangi, means Eyes looking to the sky. Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense, however it is common to refer to members of the community as Rapa Nui. Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200, rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 CE. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement, according to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands or the Marquesas Islands,3,200 km away
17.
Rongorongo
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Rongorongo is a system of glyphs discovered in the 19th century on Easter Island that appears to be writing or proto-writing. Numerous attempts at decipherment have been made, none successfully, although some calendrical and what might prove to be genealogical information has been identified, not even these glyphs can actually be read. If rongorongo does prove to be writing and proves to be an independent invention, the objects are mostly tablets shaped from irregular pieces of wood, sometimes driftwood, but include a chieftains staff, a bird-man statuette, and two reimiro ornaments. There are also a few petroglyphs which may include short rongorongo inscriptions, oral history suggests that only a small elite was ever literate and that the tablets were sacred. Authentic rongorongo texts are written in alternating directions, a system called reverse boustrophedon, in a third of the tablets, the lines of text are inscribed in shallow fluting carved into the wood. The glyphs themselves are outlines of human, animal, plant, artifact, many of the human and animal figures, such as glyphs 200 and 280, have characteristic protuberances on each side of the head, possibly representing eyes. Individual texts are known by a single uppercase letter and a name, such as Tablet C. The somewhat variable names may be descriptive or indicate where the object is kept, as in the Oar, the Snuffbox, the Small Santiago Tablet, Rongorongo is the modern name for the inscriptions. In the Rapa Nui language it means to recite, to declaim, the original name—or perhaps description—of the script is said to have been kohau motu mo rongorongo, lines incised for chanting out, shortened to kohau rongorongo or lines chanting out. There are also said to have more specific names for the texts based on their topic. For example, the kohau ta‘u were annals, the kohau îka were lists of persons killed in war, some authors have understood the ta‘u in kohau ta‘u to refer to a separate form of writing distinct from rongorongo. Barthel recorded that, The Islanders had another writing which recorded their annals and other secular matters, however, Fischer writes that the ta‘u was originally a type of rongorongo inscription. In the 1880s, a group of elders invented a script called ta‘u with which to decorate carvings in order to increase their trading value. It is an imitation of rongorongo. An alleged third script, the mama or va‘eva‘e described in some publications, was an early twentieth-century geometric invention. The forms of the glyphs are standardized contours of living organisms and it is thought that irregular and often blemished pieces of wood were used in their entirety rather than squared off due to the scarcity of wood on the island. Except for a few possible glyphs cut in stone, all surviving texts are inscribed in wood, according to tradition, the tablets were made of toromiro wood. However, not all the wood was native, Orliac established that tablets N, P, several texts, including O, are carved on gnarled driftwood
18.
Luwian language
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Luwian is an ancient language or group of languages of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The two varieties of Luwian are named for the scripts that they were written in, Cuneiform Luwian, as to whether these were one language or two, there is no consensus. Several other languages in Anatolia have been identified as being most similar to Luwian, some linguists name the branch the Luwian Group or just Luwian and, in that sense, Luwian means all of the Luwian languages. Other linguists, following Melchert, prefer to use Luwic for the branch, the name Luwian comes from the name of the land, Luwiya, where the speakers lived. It is mentioned in the Hittite laws, the region was later called Lydia. Luwian is closely related to Hittite, Luwian has been deduced as one of the likely candidates for the language spoken by the Trojans. Some fringe hypotheses rejected by historical linguistics are a relationship with Lemnian, a Thracian connection. According to James Mellaart, the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were the horse-riders who came to this region from the north and they were ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of pottery, Red Slip Wares. According to Mellaart, the migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The current trend is to see such migrations as mostly peaceful, Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code, some, if not all, widmer has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo, attested in Linear B, refers to the same area. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia, the name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya, which further argues in favour of the location of Luwiya in the west. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa and it appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca.1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Cuneiform Luwian is a term refers to the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa. In Laroches Catalog of Hittite Texts, the corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Istanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts. Hieroglyphic Luwian is a term refers to the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script
19.
Cuneiform script
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Cuneiform script, one of the earliest systems of writing, was invented by the Sumerians. It is distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus, the name cuneiform itself simply means wedge shaped. Emerging in Sumer in the fourth millennium BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. In the third millennium, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller, the system consists of a combination of logophonetic, consonantal alphabetic and syllabic signs. Cuneiform writing was replaced by the Phoenician alphabet during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. By the second century CE, the script had become extinct, between half a million and two million cuneiform tablets are estimated to have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000 –100,000 have been read or published. Most of these have lain in these collections for a century without being translated, studied or published, the cuneiform writing system was in use for more than three millennia, through several stages of development, from the 34th century BC down to the second century CE. Ultimately, it was replaced by alphabetic writing in the course of the Roman era. It had to be deciphered as an unknown writing system in 19th-century Assyriology. Successful completion of its deciphering is dated to 1857, the cuneiform script was developed from pictographic proto-writing in the late 4th millennium BC. Mesopotamias proto-literate period spans roughly the 35th to 32nd centuries, the first documents unequivocally written in Sumerian date to the 31st century at Jemdet Nasr. Originally, pictographs were either drawn on clay tablets in vertical columns with a reed stylus or incised in stone. This early style lacked the characteristic shape of the strokes. Proper names continued to be written in purely logographic fashion. The earliest known Sumerian king whose name appears on contemporary cuneiform tablets is Enmebaragesi of Kish, from about 2900 BC, many pictographs began to lose their original function, and a given sign could have various meanings depending on context. The sign inventory was reduced from some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs, determinative signs were re-introduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing proper thus arises from the more primitive system of pictographs at about that time, by adjusting the relative position of the tablet to the stylus, the writer could use a single tool to make a variety of impressions. Cuneiform tablets could be fired in kilns to provide a permanent record, many of the clay tablets found by archaeologists were preserved because they were fired when attacking armies burned the building in which they were kept
20.
Ideogram
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An ideogram or ideograph is a graphic symbol that represents an idea or concept, independent of any particular language, and specific words or phrases. In proto-writing, used for inventories and the like, physical objects are represented by stylized or conventionalized pictures, for example, the pictorial Dongba symbols without Geba annotation cannot represent the Naxi language, but are used as a mnemonic for reciting oral literature. Some systems also use ideograms, symbols denoting abstract concepts, the term ideogram is often used to describe symbols of writing systems such as Egyptian hieroglyphs, Sumerian cuneiform and Chinese characters. However, these symbols are logograms, representing words or morphemes of a language rather than objects or concepts. In these writing systems, a variety of strategies were employed in the design of logographic symbols, pictographic symbols depict the object referred to by the word, such as an icon of a bull denoting the Semitic word ʾālep ox. Some words denoting abstract concepts may be represented iconically, but most other words are represented using the rebus principle, many signs in hieroglyphic as well as in cuneiform writing could be used either logographically or phonetically. Semantic compounds are semantic combinations of characters, such as 明 míng bright, composed of 日 rì sun and 月 yuè moon, or 休 xiū rest, composed of 人 rén person and 木 mù tree. An example of ideograms is the collection of 50 signs developed in the 1970s by the American Institute of Graphic Arts at the request of the US Department of Transportation, the system was initially used to mark airports and gradually got more widespread. An early proposal was An Essay towards a Real Character, a recent example is the system of Blissymbols, which was proposed by Charles K. Bliss in 1949 and currently includes over 2,000 symbols, emoji Heterogram Icon Lexigram List of symbols List of writing systems Logotype Therblig Traffic sign The Ideographic Myth Extract from DeFrancis book. American Heritage Dictionary definition Merriam-Webster OnLine definition
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Logogram
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In written language, a logogram or logograph is a written character that represents a word or phrase. Chinese characters and Japanese kanji are logograms, some Egyptian hieroglyphs, the use of logograms in writing is called logography. A writing system that is based on logograms is called a logographic system, in alphabets and syllabaries, individual written characters represent sounds rather than concepts. Unlike logograms, phonograms do not necessarily have meaning by themselves, Writing language in this way is called phonemic orthography. Logographic systems include the earliest writing systems, the first historical civilizations of the Near East, Africa, China, a more recent attempt is Zlango, intended for use in text messaging, currently including around 300 icons. The term logosyllabary is used to emphasize the partially phonetic nature of these scripts when the domain is the syllable. For example, Egyptian was used to write both sȝ duck and sȝ son, though it is likely that these words were not pronounced the same apart from their consonants and this can be illustrated with Chinese. Not all Chinese characters represent morphemes, some morphemes are composed of more than one character, for example, the Chinese word for spider, 蜘蛛 zhīzhū, was created by fusing the rebus 知朱 zhīzhū with the bug determinative 虫. Neither *蜘 zhī nor *蛛 zhū can be used separately, in Archaic Chinese, one can find the reverse, a single character representing more than one morpheme. An example is Archaic Chinese 王 hjwangs, a combination of a morpheme hjwang meaning king, in modern Mandarin, bimorphemic syllables are always written with two characters, for example 花儿 huār flower. These logograms, called hozwārishn, were dispensed with altogether after the Arab conquest of Persia, logograms are used in modern shorthand to represent common words. In addition, the numerals and mathematical symbols used in systems are logograms—1 one,2 two, + plus, = equals, and so on. In English, the ampersand & is used for and and et, % for percent, # for number, § for section, $ for dollar, € for euro, £ for pound, ° for degree, @ for at, etc. All historical logographic systems include a dimension, as it is impractical to have a separate basic character for every word or morpheme in a language. In some cases, such as cuneiform as it was used for Akkadian, many logographic systems also have a semantic/ideographic component, called determinatives in the case of Egyptian and radicals in the case of Chinese. In the case of Chinese, the vast majority of characters are a combination of a radical that indicates its nominal category. The Mayan system used logograms with phonetic complements like the Egyptian, Chinese scholars have traditionally classified the Chinese characters hanzi into six types by etymology. The first two types are single-body, meaning that the character was created independently of other characters, single-body pictograms and ideograms make up only a small proportion of Chinese logograms
22.
Survey township
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Survey township, sometimes called Congressional township, as used by the United States Public Land Survey System, refers to a square unit of land, that is nominally six miles on a side. Each 36-square-mile township is divided into 36 one-square-mile sections, that can be subdivided for sale. The townships are referenced by a system that locates the township in relation to a principal meridian. For example, Township 2 North, Range 4 East is the 4th township east of the principal meridian, Township lines were originally surveyed and platted by the US General Land Office using contracted private survey crews. Later survey crews subdivided the townships into sections lines, virtually all lands covered by this system were sold according to these boundaries. They are marked on the U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps, prior to standardization, some of the Ohio Lands were surveyed into townships of 5 miles on each side. These are often known as Congressional Townships, sections are divided into quarter-sections of 160 acres each and quarter-quarter sections of 40 acres each. In the Homestead Act of 1862, one quarter-section of land was the amount allocated to each settler, Survey townships are distinct from civil townships. A survey township is used to establish boundaries for land ownership, a civil township is a form of local government. In states with civil townships, the boundaries of townships are often coterminous with civil townships. County lines, especially in western States, usually follow township lines, leading to the number of rectangular counties in the West. In western Canada, the Dominion Land Survey adopted a format for survey townships. These townships also have the area of 36 square miles, Public Land Survey System Township Township Civil township Paper township Dominion Land Survey
23.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
24.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
25.
Public Land Survey System
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The Public Land Survey System is the surveying method developed and used in the United States to plat, or divide, real property for sale and settling. Beginning with the Seven Ranges, in present-day Ohio, the PLSS has been used as the survey method in the United States. Following the passage of the Northwest Ordinance, in 1787, the Surveyor General of the Northwest Territory platted lands in the Northwest Territory. The Surveyor General was later merged with the General Land Office, today, the BLM controls the survey, sale, and settling of the new lands, and manages the State Plane Coordinate System. The government wished both to land to Revolutionary War soldiers in reward for their services, as well as to sell land as a way of raising money for the nation. Before this could happen, the land needed to be surveyed, the Land Ordinance of 1785 marks the beginning of the Public Land Survey System. The Continental Congress was deeply in debt following the Declaration of Independence, with little power to tax, the federal government decided to use the sale of the Western Territories to pay off American Revolutionary War debt. The original colonies continued the British system of metes and bounds and this system describes property lines based on local markers and bounds drawn by humans, often based on topography. Particularly in New England, this system was supplemented by drawing town plats, the metes-and-bounds system was used to describe a town of a generally rectangular shape,4 to 6 miles on a side. Within this boundary, a map or plat was maintained that all the individual lots or properties. There are some difficulties with this system, Irregular shapes for properties make for more complex descriptions. Over time, these descriptions become problematic as trees die or streams move by erosion and it wasnt useful for the large, newly surveyed tracts of land being opened in the west, which were being sold sight unseen to investors. In addition this system didnt work there were already people on the ground to maintain records. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing the United States, Britain also recognized American rights to the south of the Great Lakes. The Continental Congress passed the Land Ordinance of 1785 and then the Northwest Ordinance in 1787 to control the survey, sale, the original 13 colonies donated their western lands to the new Union, for the purpose of giving land for new states. These include the lands formed the Northwest Territory, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama. The state that gave up the most was Virginia, whose original claim included most of the Northwest Territory and Kentucky, the first surveys under the new rectangular system were in eastern Ohio in an area called the Seven Ranges. The Beginning Point of the U. S, Public Land Survey is located at a point on the Ohio-Pennsylvania border between East Liverpool, Ohio and the Pittsburgh metropolitan area, on private property
26.
Dominion Land Survey
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The Dominion Land Survey is the method used to divide most of Western Canada into one-square-mile sections for agricultural and other purposes. It is based on the layout of the Public Land Survey System used in the United States, but has several differences. The DLS is the dominant survey method in the Prairie provinces, and it is used in British Columbia along the Railway Belt. The survey was begun in 1871, shortly after Manitoba and the North-West Territories became part of Canada, covering about 800,000 square kilometres, the survey system and its terminology are deeply ingrained in the rural culture of the Prairies. The DLS is the worlds largest survey grid laid down in an integrated system. The first formal survey done in western Canada was by Peter Fidler in 1813, the inspiration for the Dominion Land Survey System was the plan for Manitoba to be agricultural economies. With a large amount of European settlers arriving, Manitoba was undergoing a change so grasslands and parklands were surveyed settled and farmed. The first meridian was chosen at 97°27′28. 4″ west longitude and was established in 1869, another 6 meridians were established after. A number of places are excluded from the system, these include federal lands such as Indian reserves, federal parks. The surveys do not encroach on reserves because that land was established before the surveys began. When the Hudson’s Bay Company relinquished their title to the Dominion on July 15,1870, via the deed of surrender it received Section 8 and these lands were gradually sold by the company and in 1984 they donated the remaining 5,100 acres to the Saskatchewan Wildlife Association. The surveying of western Canada was divided into five basic surveys, each surveys layout was slightly different from the others. The first survey began in 1871 and ended in 1879 and covers some of southern Manitoba, the second and smallest survey,1880, was used in only small areas of Saskatchewan. This system differs from the first survey because rather than running section lines parallel to the eastern boundary they run true north-south, the largest and most important of these surveys was the third which covers more land than all the others surveys put together. That method of surveying is still used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba The fourth and fifth surveys were used only in some townships in British Columbia, the reason that the Canadian government was pushing to subdivide Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta was to affirm Canadian sovereignty over these lands. The United States was undergoing expansion in the 1860s. Canada’s introduction of a railway and surveying was a means to discourage American encroachment, the beginning of the Dominion Land Survey marked a new era for western Canada. Railways were making their way to the West and the population of western regions began to increase, the introduction of the survey system marked the end of the nomadic ways for the First Nations and Metis
27.
Polynesian languages
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They are classified as part of the Austronesian family, belonging to the Oceanic branch of that family. There are approximately forty Polynesian languages, the most prominent of these are Tahitian, Sāmoan, Tongan, Māori and Hawaiian. Because the Polynesian islands were settled relatively recently and because internal linguistic diversification only began around 2,000 years ago, their languages retain strong commonalities. There are still many cognate words across the different islands e. g. tapu, ariki, motu, kava, and tapa as well as Hawaiki, all Polynesian languages show strong similarity, particularly in vocabulary. The vowels are stable in the descendant languages, nearly always a, e, i, o and u. In the Society Islands, k and ng are replaced by the glottal stop, Polynesian languages fall into two branches, Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Tongan and Niuean constitute the Tongic branch, all of the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch, lexicostatistics is a controversial tool that can identify points in languages from which linguistic relations can be inferred. Pawley published another study in 1967, wilson named this new group Ellicean after the pre-independence name of Tuvalu and presented fine-grained evidence for subgroups within that overarching category. Marck, in 2000, was able to some support for some aspects of Wilsons suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic sound changes. Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu to heal becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo and this was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon of Biggs and Clark. Wilson has a forthcoming work providing further evidence of fine grained subgroups within Ellicean, Wilsons new work brings the matter to the approximate limits of current data available, incorporating much data unknown to most other researchers. Returning to lexicostatistics, it must be emphasised that the method does not make the best possible use of its short word lists of 100 or 200 words. Dyens massive lexicostatistical study of Austronesian, for instance, showed a great deal of diversity in the Austronesian languages of Western Melanesia and this was sometimes on par with the lexicostatistical distance of Taiwan Austronesian languages from other Austronesian including Taiwan Austronesian languages from each other. The Western Oceanic Melanesian diversity of lexicostatistical studies was never of any interest in terms of attributing any special time depth or subgrouping significance to it, partly because Polynesian languages split from one another comparatively recently, many words in these languages remain similar to corresponding words in others. Certain regular correspondences can be noted between different Polynesian languages, for example, the Māori sounds /k/, /ɾ/, /t/, and /ŋ/ correspond to /ʔ/, /l/, /k/, and /n/ in Hawaiian. Accordingly, man is tangata in Māori and kanaka in Hawaiian, the famous Hawaiian greeting aloha corresponds to Māori aroha, love, tender emotion. Similarly, the Hawaiian word for kava is ʻawa, similarities in basic vocabulary may allow speakers from different island groups to achieve a surprising degree of understanding of each others speech. When a particular language shows unexpectedly large divergence in vocabulary, this may be the result of a name-avoidance taboo situation – see examples in Tahitian, many Polynesian languages have been greatly affected by European colonization
28.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
29.
Sainte-Chapelle
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Begun some time after 1238 and consecrated on 26 April 1248, the Sainte-Chapelle is considered among the highest achievements of the Rayonnant period of Gothic architecture. It was commissioned by King Louis IX of France to house his collection of Passion relics, along with the Conciergerie, the Sainte-Chapelle is one of the earliest surviving buildings of the Capetian royal palace on the Île de la Cité. Although damaged during the French Revolution, and restored in the 19th century, the relics arrived in Paris in August 1239, carried from Venice by two Dominican friars. For the final stage of their journey they were carried by the King himself, barefoot and dressed as a penitent, the relics were stored in a large and elaborate silver chest, the Grand-Chasse, on which Louis spent a further 100,000 livres. The entire chapel, by contrast, cost 40,000 livres to build, until it was completed in 1248, the relics were housed at chapels at the Château de Vincennes and a specially built chapel at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. In 1246, fragments of the True Cross and the Holy Lance were added to Louis collection, the chapel was consecrated on 26 April 1248 and Louis relics were moved to their new home with great ceremony. As well as serving as a place of worship, the Sainte-Chapelle played an important role in the political and cultural ambitions of King Louis and his successors. Just as the Emperor could pass privately from his palace into the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the royal chapel is a prime example of the phase of Gothic architectural style called Rayonnant, marked by its sense of weightlessness and strong vertical emphasis. It stands squarely upon a lower chapel, which served as church for all the inhabitants of the palace. The king was recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. The internal division into upper and lower chapels is clearly marked on the outside by a string-course, despite its decoration, the exterior is relatively simple and austere, devoid of flying buttresses or major sculpture and giving little hint of the richness within. No designer-builder is named in the archives concerned with the construction, modern scholarship rejects this attribution in favour of Jean de Chelles or Thomas de Cormont, while Robert Branner saw in the design the hand of an unidentified master mason from Amiens. As has often been argued however the influence on its overall design seems to have come from contemporary metalwork. The Parisian palatine chapel, built to house a reliquary, was itself like a precious reliquary turned inside out, although the interior is dominated by the stained glass, every inch of the remaining wall surface and the vault was also richly coloured and decorated. Above the dado level, mounted on the shafts that separate the great windows, are 12 larger-than-life-sized sculpted stone figures representing the 12 Apostles. Each carries a disk marked with the crosses that were traditionally marked on the pillars of a church at its consecration. Niches on the north and south sides of the chapel are the private oratories of the king and of his mother, fifteen huge mid-13th-century windows fill the nave and apse, while a large rose window with Flamboyant tracery dominates the western wall. Despite some damage the windows display a clear iconographical programme, the three windows of the eastern apse illustrate the New Testament, featuring scenes of The Passion with the Infancy of Christ and the Life of John the Evangelist
30.
Boustrophedon transform
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In mathematics, the boustrophedon transform is a procedure which maps one sequence to another. The transformed sequence is computed by filling a triangular array in boustrophedon manner, given a sequence, the boustrophedon transform yields another sequence, which is constructed by filling up a triangle as pictured on the right. Number the rows in the starting from 0, and fill the rows consecutively. Let k denote the number of the row currently being filled, a more formal definition uses a recurrence relation. Define the numbers T k, n by T k,0 = a k for k ≥0, T k, n = T k, n −1 + T k −1, k − n for k ≥ n >0. Then the transformed sequence is defined by b n = T n, n, in the case a0 =1, an =0, the resulting triangle is called the Seidel–Entringer–Arnold Triangle and the numbers T k, n are called Entringer numbers. In this case the numbers in the sequence bn are called the Euler up/down numbers. This is sequence A000111 on the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences and these enumerate the number of alternating permutations on n letters and are related to the Euler numbers and the Bernoulli numbers. The exponential generating function of a sequence is defined by E G = ∑ n =0 ∞ a n x n n, the exponential generating function of the boustrophedon transform is related to that of the original sequence by E G = E G. The exponential generating function of the sequence is 1, so that of the up/down numbers is sec x + tan x. Sloane, Neal E. Young, A New Operation on Sequences, also available in a slightly different version as e-print math. CO/0205218 on the arXiv. Weisstein, Eric W. CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Second Edition
31.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
32.
IBM 1360
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The IBM1360 Photo-Digital Storage System, or PDSS, was an online archival storage system for large data centers. It was the first storage device designed from the start to hold a terabit of data. The 1360 stored data on index card sized pieces of photographic film that were individually retrieved and read. Only six PDSSs were constructed, including the prototype, and IBM abandoned the film-card system, only one similar commercial system seems to have been developed, the Foto-Mem FM390, from the late 1960s. In the mid-1950s IBMs San Jose lab was contracted by the CIA to provide a system to retrieve vast numbers of printed documents, the lab was interested in using a new type of photographic film known as Kalvar. Kalvar was developed to make copies of existing stock, simply by placing the Kalvar and original together, exposing them to ultraviolet light. This could be carried out in a continuous roll-to-roll process, IBMs proposal, code named Walnut, was a mechanical system that would automate the process of copying materials in the store using the Kalvar film. To further develop the system, in January 1958 IBM hired Jack Kuehler to head up a team exploring Kalvar-based films. Kalvar is based on a film and Kuehler was able to identify a similar film that would provide the reliability required. He proposed a new version of Walnut that replaced the Kalvar developer with a diazo film developer system that developed the film in a few minutes. He was able to convince the CIA to accept change. The primary element in a Walnut system was a large cylindrical carousel called the document store, each store contained 200 small boxes IBM referred to as cells, in keeping with earlier magnetic tape-based systems. Each cell contained 50 strips of film, each of these containing 99 photographs arranged in a 3 by 33 grid. In total, each document store contained images of 990,000 documents, a separate system was used to access pages from the Walnut system. Users would look up keywords stored on an IBM1405 hard disk system, the machine produced punched cards that were inserted into the Walnut. The Walnut system retrieved the documents, copied them onto a strip and developed it. The card could be directly on a microfilm reader, or used as negatives for full-sized printouts. When Walnut was successfully delivered in 1961, the San Jose lab turned its attention to commercializing the system under the project name Cypress
33.
Indus script
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The Indus script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilization during the Kot Diji and Mature Harappan periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE. In spite of attempts, the script has not yet been deciphered. There is no known bilingual inscription to help decipher the script, however, some of the syntax varies depending upon location. The first publication of a seal with Harappan symbols dates to 1875, since then, over 4,000 inscribed objects have been discovered, some as far afield as Mesopotamia. In the early 1970s, Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 3,700 seals and 417 distinct signs in specific patterns and he also found that the average inscription contained five symbols, and the longest inscription contained only 14 symbols in a single line. He also established the direction of writing as right to left, Early examples of the symbol system are found in an Early Harappan and Indus civilisation context, dated to possibly as early as the 35th century BCE. Often, animals such as bulls, elephants, rhinoceros, water buffaloes, after 1900 BCE, the systematic use of the symbols ended, following the final stage of the Mature Harappan civilization. A few Harappan signs have been claimed to appear until as late as around 1100 BCE, the thermoluminescence date for the pottery is 1528 BCE. This evidence has been used to claim that a late Harappan script was used until around 1500 BCE, the characters are largely pictorial but include many abstract signs. The inscriptions are thought to have been written from right to left. The number of signs is about 400. Since this is too large a number for each character to be a phonogram, it is taken that it must, instead, Asko Parpola, reviewing the Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel thesis in 2005, stated that their arguments can be easily controverted. He cited the presence of a number of rare signs in Chinese. Revisiting the question in a 2007 lecture, Parpola took on each of the 10 main arguments of Farmer et al. presenting counterarguments for each. A2009 paper published by Rajesh P N Rao, Iravatham Mahadevan, a follow-up study presented further evidence in terms of entropies of longer sequences of symbols beyond pairs. However, Sproat claimed that there existed a number of misunderstandings in Rao et al, Rao et al. s argument against Sproats claims, and Sproats reply, were published in Computational Linguistics in December 2010. The June 2014 issue of Language carries a paper by Sproat that provides evidence that the methodology of Rao et al. is flawed. Rao et al. s rebuttal of Sproats 2014 article and Sproats response are published in the December 2015 issue of Language, over the years, numerous decipherments have been proposed, but there is no established scholarly consensus
34.
Avoiuli
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Avoiuli is a writing system used by the Turaga indigenous movement on Pentecost Island in Vanuatu. It was devised by Chief Viraleo Boborenvanua over a 14-year period, based on designs found in traditional sand drawings and it is used mainly for writing in the areas native Raga language, although it can also be used for other languages including Apma, Bislama and English. Although in some respects it is a relatively straightforward imitation of the Latin alphabet, like the sand drawings on which it is based, Avoiuli words are designed to be formed in a single stroke. The script can be written either left-to-right or right-to-left, a few texts in Avoiuli are in boustrophedon style, with alternating lines of left-to-right and right-to-left writing. Capital letters in Avoiuli are similar to lowercase but are enlarged and drawn around a + shaped frame, capital letters are not used much in everyday writing. Scholars learn to write in Avoiuli at Turagas traditional school at Lavatmanggemu in north-eastern Pentecost, Avoiuli is also used in record-keeping by the Tangbunia indigenous bank
35.
Atlantean language
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The Atlantean language is a constructed language created by Marc Okrand for Disneys film Atlantis, The Lost Empire. C. Within the First or Second Age of Atlantis until the present, to accomplish this, Dr. Okrand looked for common characteristics from various world languages and was also heavily inspired by the Proto-Indo-European language. Atlantean has its own script created expressly for the movie by John Emerson with the help of Marc Okrand, there are, however, different kinds of transliteration into the Roman script. There is no punctuation or capitalization in the native Atlantean Writing System, Okrand based this on ancient writing systems. The Atlantean Script is normally in boustrophedon, that is to say it is left to right for the first line, right to left the second. This order was also suggested by Okrand, based on ancient writing systems, the Atlantean script includes more characters than are actually employed in the language itself. These letters being c, f, j, q, v, x, z, ch, or th, they were created so that Atlantean might be used as a cipher code in the media. They are all based on diverse ancient characters, just like the rest of the alphabet. Apart from the native Atlantean script created for the show, the language can be transcribed using the Roman script, there are two version for doing so, Standard Transcription, how the language is transliterated by Marc Okrand himself. Readers Script, a Berlitz-style notation devised by Okrand, which he hoped would make the Atlantean easier to read for the actors, example, Nishentop Adlantisag, kelobtem Gabrin karoklimik bet gim demottem net getunosentem bernotlimik bet kagib lewidyoh. NEE-shen-toap AHD-luhn-tih-suhg, KEH-loab-tem GAHB-rihn KAH-roak-lih-mihk bet gihm DEH-moat-tem net GEH-tuh-noh-sen-tem behr-NOAT-lih-mihk bet KAH-gihb LEH-wihd-yoakh and this sentence, for example, further breaks down into, Nishentop Adlantisag, kelobtem Gabrin karoklimik bet gim demottem net getunosentem bernotlimik bet kagib lewidyoh. And the following is a table that shows the correspondences between the different modes of transcription and also provides the probable IPA values, John Emerson, Marc Okrand, and the filmmakers also created numerals for 0–9. They are stacked horizontally, however, and hold place values of 1,20 and their components are based on Mayan numerals and internally composed for the font like Roman numerals. If used according to the now-offline Official Websites directions, they are used, alternatively, ordinals are formed adding the suffix -lag, sey three, seydlag third. The d is omitted if the ends with an obstruent or nasal consonant. Fractions are formed with the suffix -lop, kut four, kutlop quarter, sha five, and finally, distributives are formed with the suffix noh, din one, dinnoh one at a time, one each. Where symbols occur in pairs, the left represents the voiceless consonant, notes, Atlanteans phonetic inventory includes a vowel system with the above five phonemes. Most vowels have two prominent allophonic realizations, depending on whether it occurs in a stressed or unstressed syllable, vowels in stressed syllables tend to be tense, and likewise unstressed ones tend to be more lax
36.
Marc Okrand
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Marc Okrand is an American linguist, well known as the creator of the Klingon language. Okrand worked with Native American languages and he earned a bachelors degree from the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1970. He taught undergraduate courses at the University of California, Santa Barbara, from 1975 to 1978, before taking a post doctoral fellowship at the Smithsonian in Washington. After that, Okrand took a job at the National Captioning Institute, the WSC planned to stage an evening of Shakespeare in Klingon in 2010. In 2001, Okrand created the Atlantean language for the Disney film Atlantis, while coordinating closed captioning for the Oscars award show in 1982, Okrand met the producer for the movie Star Trek II, The Wrath of Khan. His first work was dubbing in Vulcan language dialogue for Star Trek II, The Wrath of Khan and he was later also hired for the 2009 Star Trek film in their use of the Romulan and Vulcan languages. He also created a Klingon dialogue for the 2009 movie, and he was also involved in Star Trek Into Darkness, but only during post-production. He has also co-authored the libretto of an opera in the Klingon language, ’u’ and he speaks Klingon, but notes that others have attained greater fluency
37.
Atlantis: The Lost Empire
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Set in 1914, the film tells the story of a young man who gains possession of a sacred book, which he believes will guide him and a crew of mercenaries to the lost city of Atlantis. Development of the film began after production had finished on The Hunchback of Notre Dame, instead of another musical, the production team decided to do an action-adventure film inspired by the works of Jules Verne. Atlantis was notable for adopting the distinctive style of comic book creator Mike Mignola. Linguist Marc Okrand created a language specifically for use in Atlantis, the film was released at a time when audience interest in animated films was shifting away from hand-drawn animation toward films with full CGI. Atlantis, The Lost Empire premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California on June 3,2001, released by Walt Disney Pictures, Atlantis performed modestly at the box office. Budgeted at $100 million, the film grossed over $186 million worldwide, due to the films lackluster box office performance, Disney quietly canceled both a spin-off television series and an underwater attraction at its Disneyland theme park. Some critics praised it as a departure from typical Disney animated features. Atlantis was nominated for a number of awards, including seven Annie Awards, the film was released on VHS and DVD on January 29,2002, the Blu-ray released on June 11,2013. Atlantis is considered to be a favorite, due in part to Mignolas unique artistic influence. A direct-to-video sequel, Atlantis, Milos Return, was released in 2003, many centuries ago, a large tidal wave triggered by a distant explosion threatens to drown the island of Atlantis. The crystal consumes her and creates a barrier that protects the citys innermost district. She leaves behind her daughter, Princess Kida, as the island sinks beneath the ocean. After the museum board declines his proposal to search for the journal, Whitmore has already funded a successful effort to retrieve the journal as repayment of a debt to Milos grandfather, recruiting Milo to lead an expedition to Atlantis, as soon as he receives it. The expedition departs with a team of specialists led by Commander Lyle Rourke and they set out in the Ulysses, a massive submarine. During the journey, they are attacked by the monstrous Leviathan, the Ulysses is subsequently destroyed, but Milo, Rourke, and part of the crew escape by making their way to an underground cavern, described in the journal as the entrance to Atlantis. After traveling through a network of caves and a dormant volcano and they are greeted by Kida who resembles a young woman and discover that the Atlantean language is the basis of many existing languages. Kida enlists Milos aid in deciphering the Atlantean written language, long forgotten by the natives and he is surprised this is not mentioned in the journal, but recalls that a page is missing. Returning to the surface with Kida, Milo discovers Rourke has the missing page, Rourke and the crew betray Milo, intending to bring the crystal to the surface and sell it
38.
Mirror writing
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It is sometimes used as an extremely primitive form of cipher. Some people are able to produce handwritten mirrored text, and Leonardo da Vinci wrote most of his notes in this way. Mirror writing calligraphy was popular in the Ottoman Empire, where it often carried mystical associations, research suggests that the ability to produce handwritten mirror writing is probably inherited and caused by atypical language organization in the brain. Half of the children of people with the ability inherit it, a higher proportion of left-handed people are better mirror writers than right-handed people, perhaps because it is more natural for a left-hander to write backwards. 15% of left-handed people have the language centres in both halves of their brain, the cerebral cortex and motor homunculus are affected by this, causing the person to be able to read and write backwards quite naturally. This hypothesis was proposed because these affect an neural mechanism that controls the higher cerebral function of writing via the thalamus. Another study by the university discovered that damage was not the only cause. Leonardo da Vinci wrote most of his notes in mirror. The purpose of practice by Leonardo remains unknown, though several possible reasons have been suggested. For example, writing left handed from left to right would have been messy because the ink just put down would smear as his hand moved across it, Writing in reverse would prevent such smudging. Matteo Zaccolini may have written his original four volume treatise on optics, color, Mirror writing calligraphy was popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries among the Bektashi order, where it often carried mystical associations. The origins of this mirror writing tradition may date to the period in rock inscriptions of the western Arabian peninsula. Peep show images shown in a zograscope have headers in Mirror writing, boustrophedon Ambigram Media related to Mirror writings at Wikimedia Commons Mirror Writing a genetic trait Jay A. Gottfried, kruba sundar, Feyza Sancar, Anjan chatterjee. Acquired mirror writing and reading, evidence for reflected graphemic representations, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Mirror writing, neurological reflections on an unusual phenomenon
39.
Sator Square
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As can be seen, the text may be read top-to-bottom, bottom-to-top, left-to-right, or right-to-left, and it may be rotated 180 degrees and still be read in all those ways. The Sator Square is the earliest dateable 2D palindrome and it was found in the ruins of Pompeii, at Herculaneum, a city buried in the ash of Mount Vesuvius. It consists of a written in Latin, Sator Arepo Tenet Opera Rotas. Its translation has been the subject of speculation with no clear consensus, other 2D Palindrome examples may be found carved on stone tablets or pressed into clay before being fired. Rotās wheels One likely translation is The farmer Arepo has works wheels, that is, although not a significant sentence, it is grammatical, it can be read up and down, backwards and forwards. C. W. Ceram also reads the square boustrophedon, but since word order is very free in Latin, the translation is the same. If the Sator Square is read boustrophedon, with a reverse in direction, then the words become SATOR OPERA TENET, the word arepo is a hapax legomenon, appearing nowhere else in Latin literature. Its similarity with arrepo, from ad repo, I creep towards, most of those who have studied the Sator Square agree that it is a proper name, either an adaptation of a non-Latin word or most likely a name invented specifically for this sentence. Jerome Carcopino thought that it came from a Celtic, specifically Gaulish, david Daube argued that it represented a Hebrew or Aramaic rendition of the Greek Αλφα ω, or Alpha-Omega by early Christians. J. Gwyn Griffiths contended that it came, via Alexandria, from the attested Egyptian name Ḥr-Ḥp, if arepo is taken to be in the second declension, the -o ending could put the word in the ablative case, giving it a meaning of by means of. Using this definition of arepo and the reading order produces the text The sower works for mastery by turning the wheel. The oldest datable representation of the Sator Square was found in the ruins of Pompeii, others have been found in excavations under the church of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome, at Corinium and Dura-Europos. The Benedictine Abbey of St Peter ad Oratorium, near Capestrano, in Abruzzo, an example discovered at the Valvisciolo Abbey, also in central Italy, has the letters forming five concentric rings, each one divided into five sectors. Other Sator Squares are on the wall of the Duomo of Siena, Italy, outside of Italy, an example found in a group of stones in the grounds of Rivington Church reads SATOR AREPO TENET OPERA ROTAS. The stone is one of a thought to have come from a local private chapel in Anderton. An example is found inserted in a wall of the old district of Oppède, there is a Sator Square in the museum at Conimbriga, excavated on the site. There is one occurrence of the phrase on the rune stone Nä Fv1979,234 from Närke, Sweden. It also occurs in two inscriptions from Gotland, in both of which the whole palindrome is written, by repositioning the letters around the central letter Ν, a Greek cross can be made that reads Pater Noster both vertically and horizontally
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Stoichedon
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The stoichedon style of epigraphy was the practice of engraving ancient Greek inscriptions in capitals in such a way that the letters were aligned vertically as well as horizontally. It was the dominant style of inscription in Athens during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE and was the style for official state proclamations. The last stoichedon text dates from the 3rd century CE and is the inscription from the Heroon of Oenoanda in Lycia. The idiom was common in Latin epigraphy, a rare exception is the Sator square. This form of inscription is of particular interest to scholars of Greek epigraphy due to the chance it affords to reconstruct fragmentary texts, boustrophedon R. P Austin, The Stoichedon Style in Greek Inscriptions, Oxford,1938. M. J. Osborne, ZPE10,1973, 249-70, R. Thomas, Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece, CUP,1992,88. A. G. Woodhead, The Study of Greek Inscriptions,1967, soichedon Style web-page on Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Oxford University
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Henry Liddell
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Lewis Carroll wrote Alices Adventures in Wonderland for Henry Liddells daughter Alice. Liddell received his education at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford and he gained a double first degree in 1833, then became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. Liddell was Headmaster of Westminster School from 1846 to 1855, meanwhile, his life work, the great lexicon, which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first edition of Liddell and Scotts Lexicon appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard Greek–English dictionary, with the 8th edition published in 1897, as Headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, Oxford, in the same year he brought out his History of Ancient Rome and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were for years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford life. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then Prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, while he was Dean of Christ Church, he arranged for the building of a new choir school and classrooms for the staff and pupils of Christ Church Cathedral School on its present site. Before then the school was housed within Christ Church itself, in July 1846, Liddell married Miss Lorina Reeve, with whom he had several children, including Alice Liddell of Lewis Carroll fame. In conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the study of art at Oxford, in 1891, owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on 18 January 1898, Two roads in Ascot, Liddell Way and Carroll Crescent honour the relationship between Henry Liddell and Lewis Carroll. Liddell was an Oxford character in later years and he figures in contemporary undergraduate doggerel, I am the Dean, this Mrs Liddell. She plays first, I, second fiddle and she is the Broad, I am the High – We are the University. The Victorian journalist, George W. E and his father was Henry Liddell, Rector of Easington, the younger son of Sir Henry Liddell, 5th Baronet and the former Elizabeth Steele. His fathers elder brother, Sir Thomas Liddell, 6th Baronet, was raised to the Peerage as Baron Ravensworth in 1821 and his mother was the former Charlotte Lyon, a daughter of Thomas Lyon and the former Mary Wren. On 2 July 1846, Henry married Lorina Reeve and they were parents of ten children, Edward Harry Liddell. Alice Pleasance Liddell, for whom the story of the childrens classic Alices Adventures in Wonderland was originally told, rhoda Caroline Anne Liddell, she was invested as an Officer, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Albert Edward Arthur Liddell, he died in infancy, violet Constance Liddell, she was invested as a Member, Order of the British Empire in 1920. Sir Frederick Francis Liddell, First Parliamentary Counsel and Ecclesiastical Commissioner, lionel Charles Liddell, he was British Consul to Lyons and Copenhagen
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Online Etymology Dictionary
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The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary that describes the origins of English-language words. Douglas Harper compiled the etymology dictionary to record the history and evolution of more than 30,000 words, including slang, the core body of its etymology information stems from Ernest Weekleys An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Other sources include the Middle English Dictionary and the Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology, in producing his large dictionary, Douglas Harper says that he is essentially and for the most part a compiler, an evaluator of etymology reports which others have made. Harper works as a Copy editor/Page designer for LNP Media Group, as of June 2015, there were nearly 50,000 entries in the dictionary. It is cited in articles as a source for explaining the history
