1.
Tim Mason (bowls)
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Tim Mason is a Canadian lawn bowler from Penetanguishene, Ontario. He is a two time Canadian champion and an International medalist and he holds both outdoor and indoor Canadian National Championship titles. He first played for Canada at the 2006 World Cup in Australia becoming a member of the Canadian National Team, along with a North American Championship Gold. He was member of the 2014 Canadian Commonwealth Games Team that participated in Glasgow Scotland, Tim has come on to the Bowls scene and has brought national attention to the sport in his home country of Canada. He is one of few players around the world to represent his country at an Indoor, Outdoor, previously Tim was a professional hockey player and he used his sports background to make the jump to lawn bowling. He currently resides in West Vancouver, BC and is the president of the West Vancouver LBC and the marketing and sport advancement coordinator for Bowls BC
2.
Bowling
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Bowling refers to a series of sports or leisure activities in which a player rolls or throws a bowling ball towards a target. It is one of the forms of throwing sports. In pin bowling variations, the target is usually to knock over pins at the end of a lane, when all the pins are knocked down on the first roll, this is a strike. In target variations, the aim is usually to get the ball as close to a mark as possible. The pin version of bowling is played on a flat wooden or other synthetic surface, while in target bowling. The term bowling in the United States and Canada most frequently refers to ten-pin bowling, in the United Kingdom, the earliest known forms of bowling date to ancient Egypt. Other balls made of porcelain have also found, indicating that these were rolled along the ground rather than thrown due to their size. Some of these resemble the modern day jack used in bowl games. Bowling games of different forms are noted by Herodotus as an invention of the Lydians in Asia Minor. About 400 AD, bowling began in Germany as a ritual to cleanse oneself from sin by rolling a rock into a club representing the heathen. In 1299 the oldest known bowling green for target style bowling to survive to modern times was built, Masters Close in Southampton, England, in 1325 laws were passed in Berlin and Cologne limiting bets on lawn bowling to five shillings. In 1366 the first official mention of bowling in England was made when King Edward III banned it as a distraction to archery practice. In the 15th-17th centuries lawn bowling spread from Germany into Austria, Switzerland, in 1455 lawn bowling lanes in London were first roofed-over, turning bowling into an all-weather game. In Germany they were called kegelbahns, often attached to taverns, in 1463 a public feast was held in Frankfurt, Germany, with a venison dinner followed by lawn bowling. In 1511 English King Henry VIII banned bowling for the lower classes, another English law passed in 1541 prohibited workers from bowling except on Christmas, and only in their masters home and in his presence. About 1520 Protestant Reformation founder Martin Luther set the number of pins at nine, in 1609 Dutch East India Company explorer Henry Hudson discovered Hudson Bay, bringing Dutch colonization to New Amsterdam, Hudsons men brought some form of lawn bowling with them. In 1670 Dutchmen liked to bowl at the Old King’s Arms Tavern near modern-day 2nd, in 1733 Bowling Green in New York City was built on the site of a Dutch cattle market and parade ground, becoming the citys oldest public park to survive to modern times. A photograph of this appeared in the pages of the US-based Bowlers Journal magazine in 1988
3.
Sport
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Usually the contest or game is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a tie game, others provide tie-breaking methods, to one winner. A number of such two-sided contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion, many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, each against each other, however, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. Sports are usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues. Sports betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport, kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The worlds most accessible and practised sport is running, while football is the most popular spectator sport. The word Sport comes from the Old French desport meaning leisure, other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling, hunting, and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Rogets defines the noun sport as an activity engaged in for relaxation, the singular term sport is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept, with sports used to describe multiple activities. American English uses sports for both terms, the precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. They also recognise that sport can be physical, primarily mind, predominantly motorised, primarily co-ordination. The inclusion of sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted. Whilst SportAccord recognises a number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2, other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, in competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their result and often divided into groups of comparable performance
4.
Bowling green
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A bowling green is a finely-laid, close-mown and rolled stretch of turf for playing the game of bowls. Before 1830, when Edwin Beard Budding invented the lawnmower, lawns were often kept cropped by grazing sheep on them, the worlds oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299. Bowling green specifications for the lawn bowls variation of the sport are stipulated in World Bowls Laws of the Sport of Bowls. For the variant known as crown green bowls, no such stipulation is documented by the governing body and bowls clubs are free to form the dimensions. Several games of bowls can be played on a green at the same time. The number of games depends on the dimensions of the green, each game is played on its own portion of the green. These divided portions of the green are called rinks, the length of a green in the direction of play will be between 31 metres and 40 metres. The green should have a level playing surface made of grass or of an approved synthetic material. The green is surrounded by a ditch between 200 millimetres and 380 millimetres wide, and between 50 millimetres and 200 millimetres deep, the ditch has a bank against its outer edge. The top of the bank should be at least 230 millimetres about the level of the green. Generally, greens are built in a shape as close to 40 metres as possible. This allows for games to be played in either direction, the advantages of playing in different directions are that, the wear on the green is more even, and, the players do not need to face towards the sun when playing. In cities, where space is limited, greens are rarely 40 metres in length. It is not unusual to find greens that are rectangular in shape, on rectangular greens games are played in one direction only. The length of a rectangular green is still between 31 metres and 40 metres, the width can vary from as little as 8 metres to as much as 60 metres or more. The width of a rink for outdoor play will be between 4.3 metres and 5.8 metres, the centre line of the rink can be marked along the surface of the green starting at 2 metres from each end ditch. The side boundaries of each rink are shown by boundary pegs, the side boundary of the outside rink should be at least 600 millimetres from the side ditch. Laws of the Game for Crown Green Bowls Crown Green Bowling at Bowls. org. uk
5.
Artificial turf
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Artificial turf is a surface of synthetic fibers made to look like natural grass. It is most often used in arenas for sports that were originally or are played on grass. However, it is now being used on lawns and commercial applications as well. The main reason is maintenance—artificial turf stands up to use, such as in sports. Domed, covered, and partially covered stadiums may require artificial turf because of the difficulty of getting enough sunlight to stay healthy. But artificial turf does have its downside, limited life, periodic cleaning requirements, petroleum use, toxic chemicals from infill, artificial turf first gained substantial attention in the 1960s, when it was used in the newly constructed Astrodome. The specific product used was developed by Monsanto and called AstroTurf, AstroTurf remains a registered trademark, but is no longer owned by Monsanto. The first generation systems of the 1960s have been largely replaced by the second generation. That accomplishment led Sports Illustrated to declare Chaney as the man responsible for major league baseball. Artificial turf was first installed in 1964 on a school recreation area in Rhode Island. The material came to prominence in 1966, when AstroTurf was installed in the Astrodome in Houston. The use of AstroTurf and similar surfaces became widespread in the U. S. and Canada in the early 1970s, more than 11,000 artificial turf playing fields have been installed nationally. More than 1,200 were installed in the U. S. in 2013 alone, maintaining a grass playing surface indoors, while technically possible, is prohibitively expensive. Artificial turf was first used in Major League Baseball in the Houston Astrodome in 1966, for most of the 1965 season, the Astros played on green-painted dirt and dead grass. The solution was to install a new type of grass on the field, ChemGrass. Because the supply of AstroTurf was still low, only a limited amount was available for the first home game, there was not enough for the entire outfield, but there was enough to cover the traditional grass portion of the infield. The outfield remained painted dirt until after the All-Star Break, the team was sent on an extended road trip before the break, and on 19 July 1966, the installation of the outfield portion of AstroTurf was completed. The Chicago White Sox became the first team to install artificial turf in a stadium, as they used it in the infield
6.
Cotula
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Cotula is a genus of flowering plant in the sunflower family. It includes plants known generally as water buttons or buttonweeds, the species within this genus can vary extensively in their habit, leaf division, involucre, receptacle and achenes. This makes it difficult to them by comparing their morphology. The genus can only be defined by looking at the corollas of their flowers and these corollas may be tubular, reduced or even absent. Another characteristic is their solitary heads growing on a peduncle, Cotula is the largest genus found in the Southern Hemisphere of the tribe Anthemideae. This genus was first mentioned by Carl Linnaeus, who described four species in his first edition of Species Plantarum, in 1867 the genus was subdivided by George Bentham into three sections. Since his account, only a few changes have been made, coronopifolia and the widespread species C. turbinata, this section also includes the former genera Cenia and Otochlamys, basic chromosome numbers x =8 and x =10. The species in this section have a characteristic not found in the other sections, inflated pistillate corollas, basic chromosome number. David G. Species Cotula is known to be used in New Zealand as ground cover for bowling greens, a revision of the New Zealand, Subantarctic, and South American species of Cotula, section Leptinella. Data related to Cotula at Wikispecies Media related to Cotula at Wikimedia Commons Jakubowsky, phylogeny of the South African centred plant genus Cotula. South African Journal of Botany 73,2292
7.
Wookey Hole
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Wookey Hole is a village close to Wells in Somerset, England. It is within the parish of St Cuthbert Out, one possible origin for the name Wookey is from the Old English wocig. Although it is also an alteration from a Celtic word ogo referring to Wookey Hole Caves. The village of Wookey Hole is dominated by the Wookey Hole Caves tourist site which has show caves, the village has shops, a pub, restaurants, hotels and a campsite. The former paper mill building, whose water wheel is powered by a canal from the river. The production of handmade paper ceased in February 2008 after the owner Gerry Cottle concluded there was no longer a market for the product, glencot House is a Grade II listed country house dating from 1887, by Ernest George and Harold Peto, for W. S. Hodgkinson. A report of the building appeared in The Building News,13 May 1887, the drawing was exhibited at the Royal Academy. The 18th-century Bubwith farmhouse is also a Grade II listed building, the Monarchs Way and Mendip Way long-distance footpaths both pass through the village, as does National Cycle Route 3. Ebbor Gorge National Nature Reserve is just outside the village, media related to Wookey Hole at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Thomas Becket
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Thomas Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion and he engaged in conflict with Henry II, King of England, over the rights and privileges of the Church and was murdered by followers of the king in Canterbury Cathedral. Soon after his death, he was canonised by Pope Alexander III, the main sources for the life of Becket are a number of biographies that were written by contemporaries. A few of these documents are by unknown writers, although traditional historiography has given them names, the other biographers, who remain anonymous, are generally given the pseudonyms of Anonymous I, Anonymous II, and Anonymous III. Besides these accounts, there are two other accounts that are likely contemporary that appear in the Quadrilogus II and the Thómas saga Erkibyskups. Besides these biographies, there is also the mention of the events of Beckets life in the chroniclers of the time. These include Robert of Torignis work, Roger of Howdens Gesta Regis Henrici Secundi and Chronica, Ralph Dicetos works, William of Newburghs Historia Rerum, Becket was born about 1119, or in 1120 according to later tradition. He was born in Cheapside, London, on 21 December and he was the son of Gilbert Beket and Gilberts wife Matilda. Gilberts father was from Thierville in the lordship of Brionne in Normandy, Matilda was also of Norman ancestry, and her family may have originated near Caen. Gilbert was perhaps related to Theobald of Bec, whose family also was from Thierville. Gilbert began his life as a merchant, perhaps as a textile merchant and he also served as the sheriff of the city at some point. They were buried in Old St Pauls Cathedral, one of Beckets fathers wealthy friends, Richer de LAigle, often invited Thomas to his estates in Sussex where Becket was exposed to hunting and hawking. According to Grim, Becket learned much from Richer, who was later a signatory of the Constitutions of Clarendon against Thomas. Beginning when he was 10, Becket was sent as a student to Merton Priory in England and later attended a school in London. He did not study any subjects beyond the trivium and quadrivium at these schools, later, he spent about a year in Paris around age 20. He did not, however, study canon or civil law at this time, some time after Becket began his schooling, Gilbert Beket suffered financial reverses, and the younger Becket was forced to earn a living as a clerk. Theobald entrusted him several important missions to Rome and also sent him to Bologna. His efficiency in those posts led to Theobald recommending him to King Henry II for the vacant post of Lord Chancellor, as Chancellor, Becket enforced the kings traditional sources of revenue that were exacted from all landowners, including churches and bishoprics
9.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
10.
Shot put
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The shot put is a track and field event involving throwing/putting a heavy spherical object —the shot—as far as possible. The shot put competition for men has been a part of the modern Olympics since their revival in 1896, homer mentions competitions of rock throwing by soldiers during the Siege of Troy but there is no record of any dead weights being thrown in Greek competitions. The first evidence for stone- or weight-throwing events were in the Scottish Highlands, in the 16th century King Henry VIII was noted for his prowess in court competitions of weight and hammer throwing. The first events resembling the modern shot put likely occurred in the Middle Ages when soldiers held competitions in which they hurled cannonballs, shot put competitions were first recorded in early 19th century Scotland, and were a part of the British Amateur Championships beginning in 1866. Competitors take their throw from inside a marked circle 2.135 metres in diameter, the following rules are adhered to for a legal throw, Upon calling the athletes name, the athlete may enter from any part of the throwing circle. They have sixty seconds to commence the throwing motion otherwise they are banned from the game, the athlete may not wear gloves, IAAF rules permit the taping of individual fingers. The athlete must rest the shot close to the neck, the shot must be released above the height of the shoulder, using only one hand. The athlete may touch the surface of the circle or toe board. Limbs may however extend over the lines of the circle in the air, the shot must land in the legal sector of the throwing area. The athlete must leave the circle from the back. The athlete may enter the circle at the location of their choice. Foul throws occur when an athlete, Does not pause within the circle before beginning the throwing motion, does not complete the throwing movement within sixty seconds of having their name called. Allows the shot to drop below his shoulder or outside the plane of his shoulder during the put. At any time if the shot loses contact with the neck then it is technically an illegal throw, during the throwing motion, touches with any part of the body, the top or ends of the toe board the top of the iron ring anywhere outside the circle. Throws a shot which either falls outside the sector or touches a sector line on the initial impact. Leaves the circle before the shot has landed, does not leave from the rear half of the circle. The following are either obsolete or non-existent, but commonly believed rules within professional competition, the athlete entering the circle, then exiting and re-entering it prior to starting the throw results in a foul. Each competition has a set number of rounds of throws, typically there are three preliminary rounds to determine qualification for the final, and then three more rounds in the final
11.
Windsor, Berkshire
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Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the residences of the British Royal Family. The town is situated 23 miles west of Charing Cross, London,7 miles south east of Maidenhead and it is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its ancient twin town of Eton. Windlesora is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the name originates from old English Windles-ore or winch by the riverside. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora was renamed Old Windsor, the early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, from about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the sites link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, after the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Book under the entry for Clewer, although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century, King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century,1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephens reign. At about the time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. It had a merchant guild from the early 13th century and, under patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277. Somewhat unusually, this gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor. Windsors position as town of Berkshire was short-lived, however. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century, as a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century. New Windsor was a significant town in the Middle Ages. Its prosperity came from its association with the royal household
12.
Southampton Old Bowling Green
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Southampton Old Bowling Green, situated on the corner of Lower Canal Walk and Platform Road, Southampton, England, is the worlds oldest surviving bowling green. It was first used in 1299, the Hospital of Gods House was founded in 1185 for pilgrims who were going either to the shrine of St Swithun at Winchester or to Canterbury, until 2011, the gateway housed the museum of archaeology. The green adjoining the Gods House Hospital had been established during the reign of Richard I the Lionheart for the use of the Warden. The club that there now is believed to have been established in the 17th century because of the history of a competition known as the Knighthood. It is also the club that has a Master in charge. Bowling Green House, now occupied by Wainwright Bros. and the Consulate Of The Federal Republic Of Germany, is a Grade II listed building. Built in the century, it is a three-storey brick building with a green slate roof with a central cupola on eight Tuscan columns. A unique occurrence called the Knighthood competition is held annually when the play in top hats and frocked tails suits. Those who win are banned from future Knighthood competitions and this is the annual competition of the club with rules which are different from the normal variant of the game. The competition used to start on 1 August but now starts on the third Wednesday of the month and is open to all members of the club, the game is played roving jack style in that the jack is placed on a penny anywhere on the green. Each player takes it in turns to bowl his two bowls at the jack, each bowl when it comes to rest is measured and the distance from the jack is recorded before the bowl is removed. If a bowl moves the jack, the jack is placed back on the penny before it is measured, if the penny it partially covered by the bowl it is a toucher, if totally covered it is a lodger. After all the players have bowled the player with the closest bowl is awarded one point, if he also has the second nearest he scores two. The jack is then reset at a different position and the game continues until somebody has scored seven points, the winner is made a knight-of-the-green and can never enter this competition again. It is a rarity for the knight to be declared on the first day, amongst the winners of the competition were the former Burnley and Southampton footballer Tom Nicol, who won the 133rd championship in 1907
13.
Francis Douce
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Francis Douce was an English antiquary. His father was a clerk in Chancery, after completing his education he entered his fathers office, but soon quit it to devote himself to the study of antiquities. In 1807 he published his Illustrations of Shakespeare and Ancient Manners, an unfavourable notice of the work in The Edinburgh Review greatly irritated the author, and made him unwilling to venture any further publications. He contributed, however, a number of papers to the Archaeologia. In 1833 he published a Dissertation on the various Designs of the Dance of Death and he died on 30 March 1834. By his will he left his books, illuminated manuscripts. In 1811 Douce resigned from the British Museum citing a series of reasons that have become legendary in institutional circles, the letter is preserved in the Bodleian Library. His list of runs as follows, The Nature of the constitution of the M altogether objectionable. The coldness, even danger, in the frequenting the house in winter. The vastness of the remaining to be done & continually flowing in. The total impossibility of my efforts, limited, restrained & controlled as they are, to do any real, or at least much. An apparent, & I believe real, system of espionage throughout the place & certainly a want of due respect towards and confidence in the officers. The total absence of all aid in my department The want of society with the members, the want of power to do any good, & the difficulty to make the motley & often trifling committees sensible that they could do any. The general pride & affected consequence of these committees and their assumption of power, that I think not vested in them. New General Catalog of Old Books and Authors Attribution Bullen, Arthur Henry, london, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 256–257. Works by Francis Douce at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Francis Douce at Internet Archive Archival material relating to Francis Douce, overview of the Douce bequest at the Bodleian Library MSS. Douce, manuscripts from the collection of Francis Douce at the Bodleian Library
14.
Bodleian Library
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The Bodleian Library, the main research library of the University of Oxford, is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. With over 12 million items, it is the second largest library in Britain after the British Library, known to Oxford scholars as Bodley or the Bod, it operates principally as a reference library and, in general, documents may not be removed from the reading rooms. They do, however, participate in OLIS, the Bodleian Libraries online union catalogue, much of the librarys archives were digitized and put online for public access in 2015. Since the 19th century a number of stores have been built. Before being granted access to the library, new readers are required to agree to a formal declaration and this declaration was traditionally an oral oath, but is now usually made by signing a letter to a similar effect. Ceremonies in which readers recite the declaration are still performed for those who wish to take them, external readers are still required to recite the declaration orally prior to admission. The Bodleian Admissions Office has amassed a collection of translations of the declaration allowing those who are not native English speakers to recite it in their first language. Whilst the Bodleian Library, in its current incarnation, has a history dating back to 1602. The first purpose-built library known to have existed in Oxford was founded in the century under the will of Thomas Cobham. This small collection of chained books was situated above the side of the University Church of St Mary the Virgin on the High Street. A suitable room was built above the Divinity School. This room continues to be known as Duke Humfreys Library, after 1488, the university stopped spending money on the librarys upkeep and acquisitions, and manuscripts began to go unreturned to the library. The late sixteenth century saw the library go through a period of decline, the furniture was sold. During the reign of Edward VI, there was a purge of superstitious manuscripts, six of the Oxford University dons were tasked with helping Bodley in refitting the library in March 1658. Duke Humfrey’s Library was refitted, and Bodley donated a number of his own books to furnish it, the library was formally re-opened on 8 November 1602 under the name “Bodleian Library”. There were around two thousand books in the library at this time, with an ornate Benefactors Register displayed prominently, in 1605, Francis Bacon gave the library a copy of The Advancement of Learning and described the Bodleian as an Ark to save learning from deluge. At this time, there were few books written in English held in the library, Thomas James suggested that Bodley should ask the Stationers Company to provide a copy of all books printed to the Bodleian. In 1610, Bodley made an agreement with the Stationers Company in London to put a copy of every book registered with them in the library, the Bodleian collection grew so fast that the building was expanded between 1610–1612, and again in 1634–1637
15.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
16.
Edward III of England
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Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, Isabella of France, at age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337. This started what would become known as the Hundred Years War, following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England, victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edwards later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity, Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements, Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years. The reign of his father, Edward II, was a problematic period of English history. One source of contention was the inactivity, and repeated failure. Another controversial issue was the kings patronage of a small group of royal favourites. The birth of an heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward IIs position in relation to the baronial opposition. To bolster further the independent prestige of the prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, Charles IV of France, Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger. Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place, the young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have Edward deposed, to build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault. An invasion of England was launched and Edward IIs forces deserted him completely, the king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 and it was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England
17.
Richard II of England
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Richard II, also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed on 30 September 1399. Richard, a son of Edward, the Black Prince, was born in Bordeaux during the reign of his grandfather, Edward III. Richard was the brother of Edward of Angoulême, upon whose death, Richard. Upon the death of Richards father prior to the death of Edward III, Richard, by primogeniture, with Edward IIIs death the following year, Richard succeeded to the throne at the age of ten. During Richards first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of councils, most of the aristocracy preferred this to a regency led by the kings uncle, John of Gaunt, yet Gaunt remained highly influential. The first major challenge of the reign was the Peasants Revolt in 1381, the young king played a major part in the successful suppression of this crisis. By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In 1397, Richard took his revenge on the appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled, the next two years have been described by historians as Richards tyranny. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, the king disinherited Gaunts son, Henry of Bolingbroke, Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Claiming initially that his goal was only to reclaim his patrimony, meeting little resistance, Bolingbroke deposed Richard and had himself crowned as King Henry IV. Richard died in captivity in February 1400, he is thought to have starved to death. Richard was said to have tall, good-looking and intelligent. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years War that Edward III had started, modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, Richard of Bordeaux was the younger son of Edward, the Black Prince, and Joan of Kent. Edward, heir to the throne of England, had distinguished himself as a commander in the early phases of the Hundred Years War. After further military adventures, however, he contracted dysentery in Spain in 1370 and he never fully recovered and had to return to England the next year. Joan of Kent had been at the centre of a dispute between Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent, and William Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, from which Holland emerged victorious. Less than a year after Hollands death in 1360, Joan married Prince Edward, since she was a granddaughter of King Edward I and a first cousin of King Edward III, the marriage required papal approval
18.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
19.
Christmas
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In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
20.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
21.
Central Park
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Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
22.
Lawn mower
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A lawn mower is a machine utilizing one or more revolving blades to cut a grass surface to an even height. The most common source for lawn mowers is a small internal combustion engine. Smaller mowers often lack any form of propulsion, requiring power to move over a surface, walk-behind mowers are self-propelled, requiring a human only to walk behind. Larger lawn mowers are usually either self-propelled walk-behind types, or more often, are ride-on mowers, equipped so the operator can ride on the mower, a robotic lawn mower is designed to operate either entirely on its own, or less commonly by an operator by remote control. Two main styles of blades are used in lawn mowers, there are several types of mowers, each suited to a particular scale and purpose. The smallest types, unpowered push mowers, are suitable for residential lawns and gardens. Electrical or piston engine-powered push-mowers are used for residential lawns. The largest multi-gang mowers are mounted on tractors and are designed for large expanses of grass such as courses and municipal parks. The first lawn mower was invented by Edwin Budding in 1830 in Thrupp, just outside Stroud, in Gloucestershire, England. Buddings mower was designed primarily to cut the grass on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as an alternative to the scythe. Buddings first machine was 19 inches wide with a made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind, cast-iron gear wheels transmitted power from the rear roller to the cutting cylinder, allowing the rear roller to drive the knives on the cutting cylinder, the ratio was 16,1. Another roller placed between the cylinder and the main or land roller could be raised or lowered to alter the height of cut. The grass clippings were hurled forward into a tray-like box and it was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front to help pull the machine along. Overall, these machines were similar to modern mowers. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regents Park Zoological Gardens in London and his machine was the catalyst for the preparation of modern-style sporting ovals, playing fields, grass courts, etc. This led to the codification of rules for many sports, including for football, lawn bowls, lawn tennis. It took ten years and further innovations to create a machine that could be drawn by animals
23.
Drumoak
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Drumoak is a village situated between Peterculter and Banchory in North Deeside, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. There is a church, small shop, bowling green and the Irvine Arms restaurant, drum Castle is run by the National Trust for Scotland and is open to visitors. Relics and portraits of the Irvine family are here. There are a number of housing developments progressing, a primary school with about 100 pupils serves Drumoak. The Dee River gravels also attract gravel extraction on both sides of the river, Drumoak Manse in 1638 was the birthplace of James Gregory, discoverer of diffraction gratings a year after Newtons prism experiments, and inventor of the Gregorian telescope design in 1663. The design is used today in telescopes such as the Arecibo Radio Telescope upgraded to a Gregorian design in 1997 giving Arecibo a flexibility it had not previously possessed. His older brother David was also there in 1620. It was entitled The Parish of Drumoak and was written by Robin Jackson, copies of the book can be obtained from the Aberdeen and North East of Scotland Family History Society,164 King Street, Aberdeen, AB24 5BD
24.
Lawn
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Lawns are used around houses, apartments, commercial buildings and offices. Many city parks also have large lawn areas, in recreational contexts, the specialised names turf, pitch, field or green may be used, depending on the sport and the continent. The term lawn, referring to a managed grass space, dates to no earlier than the 16th century, in many suburban areas, there are bylaws in place requiring houses to have lawns and requiring the proper maintenance of these lawns. In some jurisdictions there are water shortages, local government authorities are encouraging alternatives to lawns to reduce water use. Lawn is a cognate of llan which is derived from the Common Brittonic word landa that originally means heath, barren land, Lawns may have originated as grassed enclosures within early medieval settlements used for communal grazing of livestock, as distinct from fields reserved for agriculture. The word laune is first attested in 1540, and is related to the Celtic Brythonic word lan/llan/laun. Lawns became popular with the aristocracy in northern Europe from the Middle Ages onward, the early lawns were not always distinguishable from pasture fields. It is speculated that the association between the word pasture and biblical mentions made lawns a cultural affinity for some, the damp climate of maritime Western Europe in the north made lawns possible to grow and manage. They were not a part of gardens in other regions and cultures of the world until contemporary influence, before the invention of mowing machines in 1830, lawns were managed very differently. They were an element of wealthy estates and manor houses, in most situations, they were also pasture land maintained through grazing by sheep or other livestock. Areas of grass grazed regularly by rabbits, horses or sheep over a period often form a very low. This was the meaning of the word lawn, and the term can still be found in place names. Some forest areas where extensive grazing is practiced still have these seminatural lawns, for example, in the New Forest, England, such grazed areas are common, and are known as lawns, for example Balmer Lawn. It was not until the 17th and 18th century that the garden and they were made up of meadow plants, such as camomile, a particular favorite. In the early 17th century, the Jacobean epoch of gardening began, during this period, in the early 18th century, landscape gardening for the aristocracy entered a golden age, under the direction of William Kent and Lancelot Capability Brown. They refined the English landscape garden style with the design of natural, or romantic, Brown, remembered as Englands greatest gardener, designed over 170 parks, many of which still endure. His influence was so great that the contributions to the English garden made by his predecessors Charles Bridgeman and his work still endures at Croome Court, Blenheim Palace, Warwick Castle, Harewood House, Bowood House, Milton Abbey, in traces at Kew Gardens and many other locations. His landscapes were fundamentally different from what they replaced, the formal gardens of England which were criticised by Alexander Pope
25.
Swifts Creek
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Swifts Creek is a town in the Tambo Valley of East Gippsland, Victoria, Australia. The town is on the Great Alpine Road between Omeo and Ensay,379 kilometres east of the state capital Melbourne and 300 metres above sea level, the area was originally settled by Europeans in the gold rushes of the mid-1800s. At the 2011 census, Swifts Creek and the area had a population of 419. The Aboriginal name for the site of Swifts Creek was Bun Jirrah Gingee Munjie, the town of Swifts Creek is located at the confluence of Swifts Creek and the Tambo River. The creek was named after an otherwise unknown gold prospector named Swift who worked the creek panning for alluvial gold in the 1850s. The townsite itself was known as Swifts Creek Junction, as it was at the road junction alongside Swifts Creek. Swifts Creek Post Office opened on 1 January 1867 and closed in 1879, Swifts Creek Junction Post Office opened on 1 May 1874 and was renamed Swifts Creek in 1926. In the 1870s McLartys Junction Hotel was established, and a town with stores, service facilities. The butter factory was constructed in 1907 and eventually produced 50 tonnes per annum, due to unreliable seasons, the factory eventually closed down in 1946. The building is no longer in existence, however Factory Lane just past the creek at the end of town marks its former location. A flour mill was planned, but was instead installed in the nearby town of Ensay in 1913. These factories were constructed as a result of demand for flour, milk, butter. The cost of transporting goods was high as wagons from the nearest large town of Bairnsdale took a week in good weather to travel the distance. Around this time, Ian Ezard built the Swifts Creek sawmill, in contrast, the surrounding towns of Cassilis and Tongio West collapsed, as the area lost its potential for gold mining. The primary industries today are timber and farming of sheep and cattle, run by Dormit Industries, the sawmill specialises in making wood pallets out of low grade local mountain ash timber. It uses a system designed in France which aims at utilising the entire log. Besides this, the employers in town are now the local branch of the Department of Sustainability and Environment. There are also a number of retail outlets and services, including a hotel, general store, gallery, bookshop, cafe, bakery
26.
Bias
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Bias is an inclination or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits of alternative points of view. Biases can be learned implicitly within cultural contexts, biased means one-sided, lacking a neutral viewpoint, or not having an open mind. Bias can come in forms and is related to prejudice. In science and engineering, a bias is a systematic error, statistical bias results from an unfair sampling of a population, or from an estimation process that does not give accurate results on average. A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting and that is, a pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably. People create their own subjective social reality from their own perceptions, thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality. However some cognitive biases are taken to be adaptive, and thus may lead to success in the appropriate situation, furthermore, cognitive biases may allow speedier choices when speed is more valuable than precision. Other cognitive biases are a by-product of human processing limitations, coming about because of an absence of appropriate mental mechanisms, anchoring is a psychological heuristic that describes the propensity to rely on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. According to this heuristic, individuals begin with an implicitly suggested reference point, apophenia, also known as patternicity, or agenticity, is the human tendency to perceive meaningful patterns within random data. Apophenia is well documented as a rationalization for gambling, gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers which appear in lotteries, card games, or roulette wheels. One manifestation of this is known as the gamblers fallacy, pareidolia is the visual or auditory form of apophenia. It has been suggested that combined with hierophany may have helped ancient societies organize chaos. An attribution bias can happen when individuals assess or attempt to discover explanations behind their own, people make attributions about the causes of their own and others’ behaviors, but these attributions dont necessarily precisely reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, individuals are inclined to perceptual slips that prompt biased understandings of their social world, there are a wide range of sorts of attribution biases, such as the ultimate attribution error, fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias, and self-serving bias. The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs, people also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization, belief perseverance, confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts, framing involves the social construction of social phenomena by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, and so on. It is an influence over how people organize, perceive, and it can be positive or negative - depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented
27.
Lignum vitae
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Lignum vitae is a wood, also called guayacan or guaiacum, and in parts of Europe known as pockholz, from trees of the genus Guaiacum. The trees are indigenous to the Caribbean and the northern coast of South America and have been an important export crop to Europe since the beginning of the 16th century. The wood was very important for applications requiring a material with its extraordinary combination of strength, toughness. It is also the tree of the Bahamas and the Jamaican national flower. The wood is obtained chiefly from Guaiacum officinale and Guaiacum sanctum, all species of the genus Guaiacum are now listed in Appendix II of CITES as potentially endangered species. Demand for the wood has been reduced by modern materials science, other names for lignum vitae include palo santo and bastard greenheart, lignum vitae is also one of the numerous hard, dense woods loosely referred to as ironwood. Lignum vitae is hard and durable, and is also the densest wood traded, on the Janka Scale of Hardness, which measures hardness of woods, lignum vitae ranks highest of the trade woods, with a Janka hardness of 4500 lbf. Various other hardwoods may also be called lignum vitae and should not be confused with it, some hardwoods from Australasia are also referred to as lignum vitae. Due to the density of the wood, cricket bails, in particular heavy bails used in conditions, are sometimes made of lignum vitae. It is also used to make lawn bowls, croquet mallets. The wood also has seen widespread usage in mortars and pestles. The belaying pins and deadeyes aboard USS Constitution and many sailing ships were made from lignum vitae. Due to its density and natural oils, they require replacement, despite the severity of typical marine weathering conditions. The sheaves of blocks on sailing vessels were made of lignum vitae until the introduction of modern synthetics, due to lignum vitaes toughness, it can also be used as a lap in the process of cutting gems. The wood is covered with powdered industrial diamond, attached to a spindle, master clockmaker John Harrison used lignum vitae in the bearings and gears of his pendulum clocks and his first three marine chronometers, since the wood is self-lubricating. The use of lignum vitae eliminates the need for horological lubricating oil, 18th-century horological oil would get gummy, according to the San Francisco Maritime National Park Association website, the shaft bearings on the WWII submarine USS Pampanito were made of this wood. The aft main shaft strut bearings for USS Nautilus, the worlds first nuclear-powered submarine, were composed of this wood, also, the bearings in the original 1920s turbines of the Conowingo hydroelectric plant on the lower Susquehanna River were made from lignum vitae. The shaft bearings on the turbines at the Pointe du Bois generating station in Manitoba are made from lignum vitae
28.
Official
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An official is someone who holds an office in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority. A government official or functionary is an official who is involved in administration or government, through either election, appointment, selection. A bureaucrat or civil servant is a member of the bureaucracy, an elected official is a person who is an official by virtue of an election. Officials may also be appointed ex officio, some official positions may be inherited. A person who holds an office is referred to as an incumbent. The word official as a noun has been recorded since the Middle English period and it comes from the Old French official, from the Latin officialis, the noun use of the original adjective officialis from officium. The meaning person in charge of public work or duty was first recorded in 1555. The adjective is first attested in English in 1533 via the Old French oficial, the informal term officialese, the jargon of officialdom, was first recorded in 1884. An officialis was the term for any member of the officium of a high dignitary such as a governor. The 1983 Code of Canon Law gives precedence to the title Judicial Vicar, the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches uses only the title Judicial Vicar. The title of principal, together with that of vicar-general, has in Anglicanism been merged in that of Diocesan chancellor of a diocese. The term officer is close to being a synonym, a functionary is someone who carries out a particular role within an organization, this again is quite a close synonym for official, as a noun, but with connotations closer to bureaucrat. Any such person acts in their capacity, in carrying out the duties of their office, they are also said to officiate. A public official is an official of central or local government, some examples, An official holiday is a public holiday, having national recognition. An official language is a recognised by a government, for its own use in administration. An official spokesperson is an individual empowered to speak for the government, or some part of it such as a ministry, on a range of issues and on the record for the media. An official statement is an issued by an organisation as an expression of its position or opinion. Official policy is policy publicly acknowledged and defended by an organisation, in these cases unofficial is an antonym, and variously may mean informal, unrecognised, personal or unacknowledged
29.
Edgworth
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Edgworth is a small village within the borough of Blackburn with Darwen, Lancashire, England. It is north east of North Turton between Broadhead Brook on the west and Quarlton Brook in the south east, the ground ranges from 650 feet to 1,100 feet above sea level. Edgworth is part of the Rossendale and Darwen constituency, jake Berry has been the Member of Parliament for Rossendale and Darwen since 2010. In the 19th century the spelling was Edgeworth, although Edgworth. The village is rich in the number of Folds formed in the 17th century. The title usually indicates the enclosure of a farmstead and associated cottages, isherwood Fold, off Blackburn Road is a good example. Other examples are Horrocks Fold, Thomasson Fold and Brandwood Fold, in 1795 an Act of Parliament was passed for enclosing Edgworth Moor in the whole about 400 acres. Five small hamlets also make up the area of the village – Quarlton, Turton Bottoms at the south-east point, with Entwistle, Round Barn, although the character of Edgworth has always been rural, during the 19th century a number of textile mills were built around the village. Most industry has now left the area and since the 1970s a number of housing developments have expanded the core of the village. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Barlow family showed great generosity to the village, the industrialist James Barlow funded the new Methodist Church, opened in 1863, and the childrens home at Crowthorn. The Edgworth Home, opened in 1872, was the first National Childrens Home, James Barlow was proprietor of textile manufacturers Barlow & Jones Ltd and was also Mayor of Bolton 1867–1869. Jamess son Sir Thomas Barlow was physician to Queen Victoria and Edward VII and he was created a baronet in 1902. The Barlow Institute was built in 1909 and then consisted of a hall, coffee bar, library. The Barlows family home, Greenthorne, was used as a venue during Mahatma Gandhis visit to Lancashire in September 1931. Edgworth is renowned to walkers as it is very picturesque, two large reservoirs, the Wayoh Reservoir, and the Turton and Entwistle Reservoir, are located north-east of the village, and the Jumbles Reservoir is near Turton Bottoms. They supply water to the Bolton area, the village has many fine pubs/restaurants and Bed and Breakfast establishments. Edgworth has a team, Edgworth Cricket Club, in the Greater Manchester Cricket League. Formed in 1902, they now play continuously in the season on the Recreational Ground adjacent to the Barlow Institute, another successful recreational club competing in two leagues is of course the Edgworth Village Institute Bowling Club
30.
Westhoughton
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Westhoughton /wɛstˈhɔːtən/ is a town and civil parish of the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton in Greater Manchester, England. It is 4 miles southwest of Bolton,5 miles east of Wigan and 13 miles northwest of Manchester, historically in Lancashire, Westhoughton was once a centre for coal mining, cotton-spinning and textile manufacture. Today it is predominantly a residential town with a population of 23,056, Westhoughton incorporates several former villages and hamlets which have their own distinctive character, sports traditions and amenities including railway stations. The name Westhoughton is derived from the Old English, halh for a nook or corner of land, and tun for a farmstead or settlement – meaning a westerly settlement in a corner of land. Supposed folklore describes a farmer who found his cow with its head stuck in a five barred gate, the Village of Tideswell in Derbyshire shares this same legend. The campaign came to be known as the Banastre Rebellion and ended with the deaths of most the main protagonists, on 15 December 1642, during the English Civil War, the Battle of Warcock Hill was fought on Westhoughton Common between Lord Derbys Cavalier forces and Parliamentarians. The site of the battle was off the Manchester Road where Wayfaring is today, the Parliamentarians under Captains Bradshaw, Venables and Browne ran into a force of some thousand Royalists from the Wigan garrison under Lord Derby and were forced to surrender. The three captains and 160 men were taken prisoner and it is believed that Prince Rupert of the Rhine gathered his troops in Westhoughton before the attack and ensuing massacre at Bolton in 1644. On 25 March 1812 a group of Luddites burned Rowe and Dunscoughs Westhoughton Mill, twelve people were arrested on the orders of William Hulton, the High Sheriff of Lancashire. James Smith, Thomas Kerfoot, John Fletcher and Abraham Charlston, were sentenced to death for their part in the attack, the Charlston family claimed that Abraham was only twelve years old, but he was not reprieved. The men were hanged outside Lancaster Castle on 13 June 1812. It was reported that Abraham cried for his mother on the scaffold, by this time, however, hanging of those under 18 was rare and of those under 16, in practice, abolished. Nine others were transported to Australia, the riots are commemorated by a blue plaque on the White Lion public house opposite the mill site. In 1891 the Rose Hill Doubling Mill had 8,020 spindles and Higson, Bolton Road Mill housed 564 looms weaving shirtings and Perseverance Mill had 600 looms manufacturing twills, sateens and plain cotton cloth. The looms in John Chadwicks Silk Mills produced broad silks, tie silks, scarves, the Lancashire Hosiery Company produced vests. Thomas Welch was a printer at the Green Vale Print Works. The family of William Hulton of Hulton Park owned many small collieries from the 16th century, after 1828 the pits at Chequerbent were served by the Bolton and Leigh Railway. The Hulton Colliery Company sank Chequerbent Colliery in 1892 and Bank Pit Nos 1–4 between 1897 and 1901, the company mined the Trencherbone, Plodder and Arley seams
31.
Short mat bowls
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The game is a modern variation on lawn bowls, from which the game is derived. The Short Mat Bowls game was first played in Wales by two South Africans who came to work in the area, some time later, they moved to Northern Ireland and took the new game with them. Rules and conditions of play were drawn up and the game became well established in the Province. It was introduced into England by Irish expatriates, but development was slow until the 1980s when its potential as a low cost sport for people of all ages was realised. The English Short Mat Bowling Association was formed in 1984, and is now the body of the sport in England. The sport is administered in England at two levels, The ESMBA oversee administration of the National Championships and Inter County Championships in addition to running the National Squad. At a more level,28 County Associations arrange a series of League, One Day. In 2009 the ESMBA launched a new National Club Championship event, the Finals Day was played at Rugby Thornfield with Kirby Bedon of Norfolk beating Warren Heath of Essex in the final. In 2010 Donnington of Cambridgeshire were the winners followed by Bob Carter of Norfolk in 2011, in 2012 the title was won by a side outside East Anglia for the first time when Cheshires Morley Green lifted the title. The latest figures from the ESMBA puts membership at 25211 bowlers in 928 clubs, the ESMBA rules of the game are followed by the affiliated clubs and also by most others. Most clubs arrange competitions among their own members as well as allowing time for not wishing to take part in competitions to enjoy informal bowling. Administration The ESMBA specify a minimum mat length of 40 ft, the cost of mats depends on the length required and also the quality of the material. The cheapest mats at present cost £650 and starter kits, comprising one 45 ft mat, Short mat bowls is an all-year sport unaffected by weather conditions and it does not require a permanent location as the rink mats can be rolled up and stowed away. The game is played in broadly the same way, and provides the same enjoyment and has the same attractions as lawn bowls and, indeed, the bowls themselves, and the smooth soled heel less footwear are the same as those used outdoors. Bowls that touch the block, and those that come to rest in the area or in the ditch are declared dead. The Short Mat Players Tour was set up by Craig Burgess, phil Mills and Stephen Gale have joined the SMPT team, and together they run 6 world-class singles competitions all over Europe. There is also an Order of Merit that is produced from the 6 ranking events on the Short Mat Players Tour, the player ranked number 1 at the end of the season will be awarded the Short Mat Players Tour Order of Merit sponsored by Henselite Bowls UK. The International Open was the biggest open competition in Short Mat Bowls when it first started in 2010, the competition was organised by Craig Burgess and Barry Hedges of Essex
32.
West Flanders
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West Flanders is the most western province of the Flemish Region, also named Flanders, in Belgium. It borders on the Netherlands, the Flemish province of East Flanders and the Walloon province of Hainaut in Belgium, on France, other important cities are Kortrijk in the south and Ostend on the coast, Roeselare and Ypres. The province has an area of 3,125 km² which is divided into eight administrative districts containing 64 municipalities, the North Sea coast of Belgium, an important tourism destination, lies in West Flanders. A tram line runs the length of the coast, from De Panne on the French border to Knokke-Heist on the Dutch border, West Flanders consists of the North Sea coast, followed by a very flat polder landscape. Only in the south are some hills, with the Kemmelberg being the highest point in the province. The Leie and IJzer are the main rivers, West Flanders is the only Belgian province that borders both France and The Netherlands. In the north of the province, most industry is concentrated in and around the cities of Bruges, both cities also have important seaports, the port of Bruges-Zeebrugge and the port of Ostend. The south is known for its industry, with companies such as Beaulieu. The region around Kortrijk is called the Dallas of Belgium for its entrepreneurship, tourism is also an important industry in West Flanders. Major touristic attractions include the Belgian coast, the center of Bruges, and Flanders Fields. The region has a distinct dialect of Dutch called West Flemish. This distinctive dialect is a part of the sense of identity of the inhabitants of the region. The city of Bruges has one playing at the highest level of football in Belgium. With Cercle Brugge it also has one playing in the Belgian First Division B. Other cities with teams playing at the highest level are Kortrijk, Ostend, the teams Knack Randstad Roeselare and Prefaxis Menen play in the highest volleyball league. Knack Randstad Roeselare also plays in the CEV Champions League, the European Championsleague, BC Oostende is a basketball team which plays in the major basketball league of Belgium. The Province of West Flanders is divided into 4 judicial arrondissements, municipalities that have city status have a behind their name. Official website of the Province of West Flanders
33.
Merewether, New South Wales
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Merewether /ˈmɛrɪˌwɛðə/ is a suburb of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, located 3 km from Newcastles central business district with a population of around 10,000. The suburb stretches 3 km from Merewether Beach in the east to Adamstown in the west, Merewether was originally part of the Burwood Estate, and takes its name from the owner, Edward Christopher Merewether. The Church of England parish church is St. Augustine, in Llewellyn Street and it became the centre of a new Provisional District in the Diocese of Newcastle in 1890. In 1891 the Census gave the population as 4,700, Merewether was incorporated as a Municipality in 1885, covering 1,110 acres and 31 km of streets. The Mayor in 1901 was David Lloyd, a director who resided in Railway Street. The former Council Chambers, opposite the Post Office, are today the clubhouse of the Australian Returned Services League, in 1938 an Act of the New South Wales Parliament created a City of Greater Newcastle, incorporating 11 municipalities into one local government area, including Merewether. The dominant industry within the old municipality was coal mining, with the last colliery, at Glebe, the Happy Valley Colliery, opposite Rowan Street, and worked by the Maheen family, also closed about the same time. Coal mining also took place to the south of Merewether at Glenrock Lagoon and that area is now part of the Glenrock State Conservation Area. Merewether also once had extensive pottery works and brickyards, the last to close being Hughes Pottery, opposite The Junction School, the suburb of Merewether includes some of Newcastles most famous beaches. Dixon Park Beach leads south onto Merewether Beach and a little further to the more isolated Burwood Beach which leads to Glenrock Lagoon, at the southern end of Merewether Beach are the Merewether Ocean Baths, the largest ocean baths in the Southern Hemisphere. Professional Surfer Mark Richards is a resident of Merewether, pupils from the schools feed into the secondary schools of Newcastle High School, Kotara High School, the Catholic St Pius X college at Adamstown or the Anglican-affiliated Newcastle Grammar School. Merewether High School, a selective public school, is actually located 600 m from Merewether in the suburb of Broadmeadow. Merewether, once served by tramways to the city, and today by buses, has excellent road connections to all sections of Newcastle. Merewethers oldest mansion is Hillcrest, originally the residence of the Merewether family, above it is the Scenic Drive with many expensive modern homes, which date from the late 1950s upwards, with spectacular views. Following 18 months construction, Merewether Bowling Club, with one green, was opened on 6 February 1954 upon an old colliery west of the railway line. At Merewether is the Lingard Private Hospital, in the part of Merewether Street. Newcastle -150 Years, edited by Eric Lingard, Newcastle,1947, the Diocese of Newcastle, by A. P. Elkin, Sydney,1955
34.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
35.
Edmonton
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Edmonton /ˈɛdməntən/ is the capital city of the Canadian province of Alberta. Edmonton is on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, the city anchors the north end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 932,546 in 2016, making it Albertas second-largest city, also in 2016, Edmonton had a metropolitan population of 1,321,426, making it the sixth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. Edmonton is North Americas northernmost city with a population over one million. A resident of Edmonton is known as an Edmontonian, Edmontons historic growth has been facilitated through the absorption of five adjacent urban municipalities and a series of annexations ending in 1982. Known as the Gateway to the North, the city is a point for large-scale oil sands projects occurring in northern Alberta. Edmonton is a cultural, governmental and educational centre and it hosts a year-round slate of festivals, reflected in the nickname Canadas Festival City. It is home to North Americas largest mall, West Edmonton Mall, in 1754, Anthony Henday, an explorer for the Hudsons Bay Company, may have been the first European to enter the Edmonton area. By 1795, Fort Edmonton was established on the north bank as a major trading post for the Hudsons Bay Company. The new forts name was suggested by John Peter Pruden after Edmonton, London, the home town of both the HBC deputy governor Sir James Winter Lake, and Pruden. In 1876, Treaty 6, which includes what is now Edmonton, was signed between the Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Queen Victoria as Queen of Canada, as part of the Numbered Treaties of Canada. The agreement includes the Plains and Woods Cree, Assiniboine, and other governments of First Nations at Fort Carlton, Fort Pitt. The area covered by the treaty represents most of the area of the current provinces of Saskatchewan. The arrival of the CPR and the C&E Railway helped bring settlers and entrepreneurs from eastern Canada, Europe, U. S. the Edmonton areas fertile soil and cheap land attracted settlers, further establishing Edmonton as a major regional commercial and agricultural centre. Some people participating in the Klondike Gold Rush passed through South Edmonton/Strathcona in 1897, in November 1905, the Canadian Northern Railway arrived in Edmonton, accelerating growth. During the early 1900s, Edmontons rapid growth led to speculation in real estate, in 1912, Edmonton amalgamated with the City of Strathcona, south of the North Saskatchewan River, as a result, the city extended south of the North Saskatchewan River for the first time. Just prior to World War I, the boom ended, many impoverished families moved to subsistence farms outside the city, while others fled to greener pastures in other provinces. Recruitment to the Canadian army during the war contributed to the drop in population
36.
Commonwealth Games
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The Commonwealth Games is an international multi-sport event involving athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations. The event was first held in 1930, and, with the exception of 1942 and 1946, the games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation, which also controls the sporting programme and selects the host cities. A host city is selected for each edition,18 cities in seven countries have hosted the event. Apart from many Olympic sports, the also include some sports that are played predominantly in Commonwealth countries, such as lawn bowls. Although there are 52 members of the Commonwealth of Nations,70 teams participate in the Commonwealth Games, the four Home Nations of the United Kingdom—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—also send separate teams. Only six countries have attended every Commonwealth Games, Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland, Australia has been the highest achieving team for twelve games, England for seven, and Canada for one. The John Astley Cooper Committees worldwide helped Pierre de Coubertin to get his international Olympic Games off the ground, in 1911, the Festival of the Empire was held at The Crystal Palace in London to celebrate the coronation of George V. In 1928, Melville Marks Robinson of Canada was asked to organise the first British Empire Games, eleven national teams and four hundred competitors took part in six sports. Women competed in the events only. The opening and closing ceremonies as well as took place at Civic Stadium. The 1934 Games had originally been awarded to Johannesburg, but were given to London instead because of the potential for prejudiced treatment of black, seventeen national teams took part, including the Irish Free State. Once again, only six sports were featured in these particular Games, athletics took place at White City and three sports took place at Wembley, at the well established venue of the Empire Pool in Wembley Park, which later became Wembley Arena. The Empire Games flag was donated in 1931 by the British Empire Games Association of Canada, the year and location of subsequent games were added until the 1950 games. The name of the event was changed to the British Empire and Commonwealth Games. The first edition of the event was the 1930 British Empire Games in which 11 nations participated, the quadrennial schedule of the games was interrupted by the Second World War and the 1942 Games and the 1946 Games were abandoned. The games were revived in 1950 and underwent a name change four years later with the first British Empire, over 1,000 athletes participated in the 1958 Games as over thirty teams took part for the first time. The 1978 Games in Edmonton marked a new high as almost 1,500 athletes from 46 countries took part, the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia saw the sporting programme grow from 10 to 15 sports as team sports were allowed for the first time. Participation also reached new levels as over 3500 athletes represented 70 teams at the event, at the Games in Melbourne in 2006, over 4000 athletes took part in sporting competitions
37.
2014 Commonwealth Games
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It took place in Glasgow, Scotland, from 23 July to 3 August 2014. Glasgow was selected as the host city on 9 November 2007 during CGF General Assembly in Colombo, Sri Lanka, defeating Abuja, england finished top of the medal table for the first time since the 1986 Commonwealth Games, also held in Scotland. Kiribati also won its first ever medal at a Commonwealth Games, Scotland was the first country to consider hosting the 2014 Commonwealth Games in 2004, with Scottish cities being invited by the Commonwealth Games Council for Scotland to consider making a bid. In September 2004, Glasgow was announced as the Scottish candidate city over Edinburgh following an analysis by the Commonwealth Games Council for Scotland. In October 2006, the first voting delegates arrived in Glasgow, to inspect the citys existing, Glasgow announced on 16 January 2007, the 17 sports to be included should its bid be successful. Halifax later withdrew its bid on 8 March 2007, following the withdrawal of funding from the municipal government. That left Abuja and Glasgow as the remaining bidders, with Abuja seen as a likely favourite due to the basis of its campaign that an African nation has never hosted the Commonwealth Games. The deadline for submission of bids to the Commonwealth Games Federation. This put Glasgow ahead in terms of the technical comprehensiveness of its bid, each bid city made a presentation to the General Assembly, the order of which was determined by drawing lots. The presentation also included a film narrated by Sean Connery. Abujas delegation was led by General Yakubu Gowon, head of the Abuja 2014 Commonwealth Games bid team, the CGF members later voted for their preferred candidate in a secret ballot. As there were two bids, the winner was announced by the CGF President, Mike Fennel, after the first round of voting. These venues hosted the Badminton as well as Track cycling, the Road cycling and Cycling Time-trial events started and finished at Glasgow Green. Glasgow Green was the venue for Field hockey and saw the construction of a new Glasgow Green Hockey Centre, tollcross International Swimming Centre, was the venue for Swimming events. It already had one Olympic standard 50 metre swimming pool, which was upgraded. The existing permanent seating capacity was increased by 1,000, combined with additional temporary seating there was over 5,000 seats for the Games. Ibrox Stadium, in the South Side, was the venue for the Rugby Sevens tournament, mountain biking was held on the Cathkin Braes in Rutherglen, the Royal Burgh neighbouring the City. The Marathon began and ended at Hampden Park in the South Side, the Clyde Auditorium hosted Weightlifting, whilst the new SSE Hydro was used for the Gymnastics and Netball events
38.
Blackball (film)
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Blackball is a 2003 British sports comedy film. Tim Firth wrote the screenplay, and it was directed by Mel Smith and its fictional plot is based on the bowls player Griff Sanders. Cliff Starkey, is a young bowls player. He dreams of playing for his country but always preferring to play by his own rules, was disapproved by the local bowls club. Picked up by sports agent Rick Schwartz, Starkey is rebranded as the bad boy of bowls, turning the normally sedate sport into a glitzy, in your face competition. He and Speight take on Australias unbeaten Doohan brothers in The Ashes, starkeys confidence, due to Speights concentration and the power of the black balls, leads the film to an exciting finale with the Doohan brothers. In addition to the main charactering being modelled after Griff Sanders, the first movie based on this theme was David Baddiel and Frank Skinners Fantasy Football League, and the other commentator for the match was Angus Loughran, who played Statto on Fantasy Football. Blackball was filmed on the Isle of Man and Torquay during October and November 2002 and it was released on DVD on 16 February 2004. Various internet games were created in promotion of the movie, crackerjack an Australian bowls based film that pre-dates Blackball has been described in some circles as the true inspiration for the English version
39.
Crackerjack (2002 film)
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Crackerjack is a 2002 Australian comedy film starring Mick Molloy, Bill Hunter, Frank Wilson, Monica Maughan, Samuel Johnson, Lois Ramsay, Bob Hornery, Judith Lucy, John Clarke and Denis Moore. Jack Simpson is a wise-cracking, directionless layabout who works at an inner-city telemarketing firm, for years, he has been a member at the Cityside Lawn Bowls Club. But he has never played a game, having only joined to get the free parking spaces from which he makes extra cash by renting them to his work-mates. But Cityside is in financial trouble and a greedy developer, Bernie Fowler. The Club President, Len, decides that all existing members must now play, Jack proves to be a natural player but he soon annoys and upsets the older club members with his brashness and lack of tact. Veteran player Stan, sensing that Jack only needs some guidance, after losing his job and his girlfriend, the Bowls Club suddenly becomes all Jack has in his life and, despite himself, he grows fond of the older members. His flatmate Dave joins the club and he starts a relationship with Nancy, Bernie, determined to take over the club, investigates Jack and exposes his illegal car-park hiring scam, which almost gets him expelled. Cityside enters a tournament at Bernies glitzy club, the prize money from which will save their independence. Jacks selfish show-boating almost costs them the first round but Stan, police arrive to arrest Len as, they discovered marijuana stored at the club. The greenkeeper has been growing it but Jack is blamed by the other members. Dave and two of the ladies Gwen and Eileen approach the State Governor and convince her to over-turn a lifetime ban on Cliff Carew, the clubs best player, and the latter takes Lens place. Cityside fights their way into the lead and Stan throws the winning shot but he suffers a severe heart-attack as he does so and Bernie lodges a protest, Jack insists that the rules allows the team a re-shot and he takes his special shot- the Flipper- which wins the tournament. To rub salt into the wounds, Nancy proves that, whilst spying on the club, Bernie paid Jack for one of his car-park spaces, Cityside is saved and can continue in its old form. Stan passes away and the names the green in his honour. The pot-growing greenkeeper is sacked and Jack takes over his job and he and this is a broad comedy with a televisual style - including some dreadful mugging to camera - so who expected social critique as well. The movie is about Jack getting knocked off the donkey, like St Paul, Jack grows to manhood through bowls. This field of green becomes his Gallipoli, in a way, as a bunch of senior citizens teach him about honour, fidelity, megan Spencer, reviewing the film for Triple J, gave the film a positive review. Etc. … it doesnt patronise its characters, nor over-exploit the middle Australia culture in which it is set, stronger support comes from a fine ensemble of vets, especially saucy octogenarian Esme Melville, and John Flaus as the clubs most enigmatic member
40.
Outrageous Fortune (TV series)
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Outrageous Fortune is a New Zealand family comedy crime drama television series, which ran from 12 July 2005 to 9 November 2010 on TV3. The series followed the lives of the career criminal West family after the matriarch, Cheryl, decided the family should go straight, the show was created by James Griffin and Rachel Lang and produced by South Pacific Pictures. Like the show itself, episodes took their names from Shakespeare quotations, the show concluded after 6 seasons and 107 episodes making it the longest running drama series made in New Zealand. The show premiered on 12 July 2005 and was welcomed by high acclaim and it won many of the major categories in the New Zealand television awards for its first 4 years, with Malcolms performance warmly recognised by most New Zealand reviewers. Following the shows success, both the United States and the United Kingdom adapted Outrageous Fortune into their own respective series, in 2014, TV3 announced a six-part prequel miniseries entitled Westside that chronicles the lives of Ted and Rita West in 1970s Auckland. The series followed the lives of the West family, headed by Cheryl, the family relied on crime for an income, with Cheryl working at a stolen goods shop. When Wolf is incarcerated, Cheryl informs her family, Van, Jethro, Pascalle, Loretta and Ted that they obey the law. Show creator Rachel Lang described the series as an upside down morality tale, the shows initial seasons focused primarily on the West family. However, as the developed, the focus branched out onto the familys affiliates and enemies. Robyn Malcolm as Cheryl West, The family matriarch who, after husband Wolf gets imprisoned, throughout the series she goes through numerous jobs before starting a lingerie business. Antony Starr as Jethro West and Van West, Identical twins with contrasting personalities, Jethro is a lawyer and entrepreneur while Van is a mentally restricted slacker. Siobhan Marshall as Pascalle West, A dimwitted blonde with a heart of gold, the embodiment of a westie chick. Antonia Prebble as Loretta West, The youngest of the West family, Loretta is manipulative and rarely remorseful. By the series end, she is a mother and a wife, frank Whitten as Ted West, Wolfs retired safe cracker father who is eccentric to the point of foul. Kirk Torrance as Detective Sergeant Wayne Judd, Initially the West familys nemesis, stella King as Jane West, Lorettas daughter with Hayden Peters. Grant Bowler as Wolfgang West, The criminal patriarch of the family and he does not approve of Cheryls new way of life. Tammy Davis as Munter, Vans best friend and co owner of business, nicole Whippy as Kasey, Cheryls best friend and eventual wife of Munter. Claire Chitham as Aurora Bay, Van Wests girlfriend who dies after being hit by a bus, shane Cortese as Hayden Peters, Janes father
41.
Basque bowls
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Basque bowls, is one of the few Basque rural sports which do not originate in an activity related to rural or marine work. The game is variously called pirlak, pirleak, bolak and botxak, -ak is a Basque plural ending, there is a large number of different variations of the game, sometimes sharing their rules with varieties in other areas like Cantabria, Burgos or León. Some varieties are extremely localised and with specialised playing areas not found outside the area, for example, of the over 400 playing areas that existed in Biscay in the last century, only some 100 remain. At the same time, organised competitions are also held these days among the provincial federations, always keen to embrace new technologies, enthusiasts are also using the internet to attract new members and players. Many varieties are only by the geographical affiliation, Arabar boloa, Burgosko bola, Gesaltzako bola, Palentziako bola. Known as Aiarako bola jokoa and Aiararra in Basque, ayalés, two bolatoki in Aiara for this variant remain in popular use but other exist in an area between Gueñes, Artziniega, Tertanga and Ibarra. The sunken playing area, called carrejo or boladera is 20–28 m long and 3. 5–4.20 m wide and surrounded by slanting sides, giving the area the appearance of a large. Originally played on clay, many use a wooden floor now, the launching area is up to 5m long and the nine large pins are arranged in a 3x3 square at the far end. There is also a small pin which is four points. The balls have finger and hand-holes, are 28–30 cm in diameter, the player, using spin, launches the ball onto either the left or right long incline and to achieve a valid throw, has to knock over at least the small pin and one large pin. The ball the rebounds from the incline and knocks over more pins. Pins knocked over by other pins also count, called Arabar boloa or lautadakoa in Basque, juego de bolo alavés and bolo de la Llanada in Spanish. The pin area, where the playing area widens again, with markers for the location of the pins, the balls have no handles, weigh between 2. 1-2.5 kg, have a diameter of 16–17 cm and have no finger or hand-holes. There are four pins arranged in a triangle with the point towards the players, the one closes to the parra is the cantón, to the back and left is the carraca, to the back and right the guarda and directly behind the cantón sits the medio. The distance between the carraca and the guarda is about 2. 4m, the players must launch the ball onto the loma, stay on it and at the very least knock over the cantón to score. The aim is to all four over but if the ball rebounds from the side panels and knocks over a pin. Currently, there are over 1000 registered bowlers and more than one hundred bolatoki of this style remain predominantly in the part of Álava. The most important competition is the annual Torneo Interpueblos, the history museum of Baiona has a historic exhibit of a bederatzi txirlo jokoa or nine pin skittles with pins of almost a meter in height
42.
Bocce
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Developed into its present form in Italy, it is played around Europe and also in overseas areas that have received Italian migrants, including Australia, North America, and South America. Bocce was initially played among the Italian migrants but has become more popular with their descendants. The sport is very popular on the eastern side of the Adriatic, especially in Croatia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Slovenia the sport is known as balinanje or colloquially playing boče, Bocce is traditionally played on natural soil and asphalt courts 27.5 metres in length and 2.5 to 4 metres wide. Bocce balls can be made of metal or various kinds of plastic, unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias. A game can be conducted between two players, or two teams of two, three, or four, if the first team misses twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the prescribed zone. The side that first attempted to place the jack is given the opportunity to bowl first, once the first bowl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl. From then on, the side which does not have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, at that point, the other side bowls its remaining balls. The team with the closest ball to the jack is the team that can score points in any frame. The scoring team receives one point for each of their balls that is closer to the jack than the closest ball of the other team, the length of a game varies by region but is typically from 7 to 13 points. Players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action and this is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball away to attain a more favorable position. Tactics can get complex when players have sufficient control over the ball to throw or roll it accurately. A variation called bocce volo uses a ball, which is thrown overhand. In that latter respect, it is similar to the French boules game jeu provençal also known as boule lyonnaise, a French variant of the game is called pétanque, and is more similar in some respects to traditional bocce. Another development, for persons with disabilities, is called boccia and it is a shorter-range game, played with leather balls on an indoor, smooth surface. Fédération Internationale de Boules Confederation Mondiale des Sports de Boules International Bocce Federation
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Boccia
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Boccia is a precision ball sport, similar to bocce, and related to bowls and pétanque. The name boccia is derived from the Latin word for boss – bottia, the sport is contested at local, national and international levels, by athletes with severe physical disabilities. It was originally designed to be played by people with cerebral palsy, in 1984, it became a Paralympic sport, and in 2008 was being practised in over fifty countries worldwide. Boccia is governed by the Boccia International Sports Federation and is one of only two Paralympic sports that have no counterpart in the Olympic program, Boccia can be played by individuals, pairs, or teams of three. The aim of the game is to throw leather balls — coloured red or blue as close as they can to a target ball. In this fashion, each end will continue until one side has played all their balls, at which point, the balls can be moved with hands, feet, or, if the competitors disability is severe, with an assistive device such as a ramp. The team/player with the highest number of points at the end of play is the winner, if both teams have the same number of points after all ends have been played, one additional end is played to determine a winner. The number of ends and balls in each end depends on the side makeup, individual competition consists of four ends and six balls per player per end, whilst paired competition is four ends and six balls per pair per end. Team competition is six ends, and six balls per team per end, in pair and team events, a reserve player is allowed. Between ends a reserve can be substituted for a player during a game, Boccia is played on a court measuring 12.5 ×6 m with 2 m of empty space around it. The surface of the court is flat and smooth, the throwing area is divided into six rectangular throwing boxes in which the athletes must stay completely within during play. On the court is a V-shaped line over which the jack must cross for the throw to be valid, a cross marks the position where the jack must be placed if it touches or crosses the boundary line or in the case of a tie-break. The balls themselves are made of leather and are larger than a tennis ball, weighing approximately 275 grams. They are available in different grades of softness and hardness, Boccia players are assigned to one of four sport classes, depending on their functional ability, BC1 – Players in this class throw the ball with the hand or foot. They may compete with an assistant who stays outside of the competitors playing box, to stabilize or adjust their playing chair, bC2 – Players in this class throw the ball with the hand. They are not eligible for assistance, bC3 – Players in this class have very severe locomotor dysfunction in all four extremities. Players in this class have no sustained grasp or release action and although they may have arm movement and they may use an assistive device such as a ramp to deliver the ball. They may compete with an assistant, assistants must keep their back to the court, bC4 – Players in this class have severe locomotor dysfunction of all four extremities as well as poor trunk control
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bowls". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
