1.
Etiquette in Latin America
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Etiquette in Latin America varies by country and by region within a given country. There are several definitions of Latin America, but all of them define a huge expanse of geography with an amount of different customs. It is common to known people by kissing him/her in the cheek. In addition, many Latin American people have a sense of personal space than people from English-speaking cultures. It may be rude to step away from someone when they are stepping closer, at some finer restaurants, it may be considered rude for the staff to bring a customer the check without the customer first requesting it. It is considered impolite to toss objects to people instead of handing it to them. The American come here gesture of palm upwards with the fingers curled back can be considered a romantic solicitation, the following points of etiquette apply most specifically to a certain region, Brazilians speak Portuguese, not Spanish. Addressing someone who speaks Portuguese in Spanish, although most Brazilians understand Spanish to a reasonable degree, in Brazil, a form of the American okay gesture is obscene when directed at someone with the symbol upside down, implying something like go f. yourself. However, the standard okay gesture is used, as is the thumbs up gesture. The gesture of flipping someone off by hitting the wrist against the inside of the elbow is considered playful, giving someone of the opposite gender a gift may be easily misinterpreted as a romantic overture, except for birthdays. In some parts of the country, most notably in rural or suburban areas in which homes may not have doorbells, the appropriate action is to stand in the yard and clap ones hands. If no one comes to the door, then the visitor may approach the door, knock and this is especially applicable in regards to small, thin-walled cottages that offer less privacy than homes in North America. Although tied more closely to France than to Spain or Portugal, entering a household and not greeting the elders or owners of the household is regarded as highly offensive. Say bonjou or bonswa when entering a room or passing by someone on the street, eating is considered a social event and so withdrawing from the center of activities during meals is considered slightly offensive. At restaurants, the one who extended the invitation pays the bill, unless another woman is present, a woman should not buy dinner for a man. Making arrangements for payment before the meal is considered especially polite, when summoning a server, make eye contact, waving or calling their names is very impolite. At the dining table, the European etiquette applies, ladies sit first, fork on the left, elbows off the table, etc. When utensils are not being used, a persons hands are expected to be visible above the table resting the wrists on top of the table, diners are expected to stay at the table for the entire meal, no bathroom breaks
2.
Culture of Brazil
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As consequence of three centuries of colonization by the Portuguese empire, the core of Brazilian culture is derived from the culture of Portugal. The numerous Portuguese inheritances include the language, the predominant religion and these aspects, however, were influenced by African and Indigenous American traditions, as well as those from other Western European countries. Some aspects of Brazilian culture are contributions of Italian, German, Amerindian people and Africans played a large role in the formation of Brazilian language, cuisine, music, dance and religion. This diverse cultural background has helped boast many celebrations and festivals that have become known around the world, such as the Brazilian Carnival and the Bumba Meu Boi. The colourful culture creates an environment that makes Brazil a popular destination for tourists each year, around over 1 million. https. It is spoken by about 99% of the population, making it one of the strongest elements of national identity, there are only some Amerindian groups and small pockets of immigrants who do not speak Portuguese. Reflecting the mixed ethnic background of the country, Brazilian Portuguese is a variation of the Portuguese language that includes a number of words of Indigenous American and African origin. Minorite languages are spoken throughout the nation, one hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants. There are significant communities of German and Italian speakers in the south of the country, not to mention the Slavic communities, Ukrainians and Poles which are also part of these minoritie languages. The Brazilian Sign Language, known by the acronym LIBRAS, is recognized by law, albeit using it alone would convey a very limited degree of accessibility. About 2/3 of the population are Roman Catholics, Catholicism was introduced and spread largely by the Portuguese Jesuits, who arrived in 1549 during the colonization with the mission of converting the Indigenous people. The Society of Jesus played a role in the formation of Brazilian religious identity until their expulsion of the country by the Marquis of Pombal in the 18th century. In recent decades Brazilian society has witnessed a rise in Protestantism, between 1940 and 2010, the percentage of Roman Catholics fell from 95% to 64. 6%, while the various Protestant denominations rose from 2. 6% to 22. 2%. Brazil was a colony of Portugal for over three centuries, about a million Portuguese settlers arrived during this period and brought their culture to the colony. The Indigenous inhabitants of Brazil had much contact with the colonists, many became extinct, others mixed with the Portuguese. For that reason, Brazil also holds Amerindian influences in its culture, mainly in its food, Brazilian Portuguese has hundreds of words of Indigenous American origin, mainly from the Old Tupi language. Black Africans, who were brought as slaves to Brazil, also participated actively in the formation of Brazilian culture, although the Portuguese colonists forced their slaves to convert to Catholicism and speak Portuguese their cultural influences were absorbed by the inhabitants of Brazil of all races and origins. Some regions of Brazil, especially Bahia, have particularly notable African inheritances in music, cuisine, dance, immigrants from Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Austria-Hungary and the Middle East played an important role in the areas they settled
3.
History of Brazil
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The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century, the first European to colonize Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22,1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony, the countrys borders were only finalized in the early 20th century. On September 7,1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal, a military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era and a period of rule under Brazilian military government. When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, the dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called Indians by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500, archaeological remains indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations. At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes, the indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast, initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and Europeans began having children with the Native people right away. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people, the diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. There are so many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the now called Brazil. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the profits gained through commerce with India, China. The system was a failure - only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente, Captaincy of Ilhéus, the captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields, the initial exploration of Brazils interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa, mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously
4.
Race and ethnicity in Brazil
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Other significant groups include Koreans, Chinese, Paraguayans, and Bolivians. Brazil has seen greater racial equality over time, education and migration were important factors in closing the gap, whereas school quality and discrimination may explain its persistence. When the Portuguese reached what is now called Brazil in 1500, up to 1532, the Portuguese made no real effort to colonise the land, limiting to the establishment of feitorias to organise the trade of brazilwood. This resulted not only in the growth of the population of Portuguese origin, during the colonial period, the Portuguese prohibited any influx of other Europeans to Brazil. In consequence, the Portuguese and their descendants constituted the majority of the White population of colonial Brazil. However, in the Southern Brazilian areas disputed between Portugal and Spain, a study suggests that the predominant genomic ancestry of the Brazilian Gaúchos may be Spanish. Also a small number of Dutch settlers remained in the Northeast after the Portuguese retook Dutch Brazil, even then, however, and even after the countrys independence in 1822, immigration to Brazil was mainly Portuguese, though a significant number of German immigrants settled in the Southern region. Brazilian demographics were strongly modified, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as a result, the Brazilian government sought to attract European immigrants. There are few statistics on the Brazilian population before the 1872 census, which counted 9,930,478, of which 3,787,289 Whites,1,954,452 Blacks. These figures do not yet reflect the influx of the five million immigrants mentioned above, there seems to be no easy explanation of why slaves were not employed as wage workers at the abolition of slavery. One possibility is the influence of race-based ideas from the half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. An important, and usually ignored, part of this equation was the situation in Brazil. According to Petrônio Domingues, by 1887 the slave struggles pointed to a possibility of widespread insurrection. On October 23, in São Paulo, for instance, there were violent confrontations between the police and rioting Blacks, who chanted long live freedom and death to the slaveowners. Uprisings erupted in Itu, Campinas, Indaiatuba, Amparo, Piracicaba and Capivari, fights were happening in daylight, guns were spotted among the fugitives, who, instead of hiding from police, seemed ready to engage in confrontation. As an abolitionist newspaper, O Rebate, put it, ten years later, Hadnt the slaves fled massively from the plantations, Hadnt them, in more than 20,000, gone to the famous quilombo of Jabaquara, and maybe they would today be still slaves. Slavery ended because slaves no longer wanted to be slaves, because slaves rebelled against their masters and against the law that enslaved them. The law of 13 May was nothing more than the legal recognition – so that public authority wasnt discredited – of an act that had already accomplished by the mass revolt of slaves
5.
Languages of Brazil
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Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, and is widely spoken by most of population. Brazilian Sign Language is also a language, minority languages include indigenous languages. The population speaks or signs approximately 210 languages, of which 180 are indigenous, less than forty thousand people actually speak any one of the indigenous languages in the Brazilian territory. Language is one of the strongest elements of Brazils national unity, the only groups, and pockets of immigrants who maintain their heritage languages. Within Brazil, there is no major variation of the Portuguese, only moderate regional variation in accent, vocabulary, and use of personal nouns, pronouns. Variations are diminishing as a result of media, especially national television networks that are viewed by the majority of Brazilians. The written language, which is uniform across Brazil, follows national rules of spelling, with the implementation of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990, the orthographic norms of Brazil and Portugal were made virtually identical, with some minor differences. Brazil enacted these changes in 2009, and Portugal enacted them in 2012, written Brazilian Portuguese differs significantly from the spoken language, with only an educated subsection of the population adhering to prescriptive norms. The rules of grammar are complex and allow more flexibility than English or Spanish, many foreigners who speak Portuguese fluently have difficulty writing it properly. Because of Brazils size, self-sufficiency, and relative isolation, foreign languages are not widely spoken, English is often studied in school and is increasingly studied in private courses. It has replaced French as the second language among educated people. In 2002, Brazilian Sign Language was made the language of the Bennidorm deaf community. Before the first Portuguese arrived in 1500, what is now Brazil was inhabited by several Amerindian peoples, according to Aryon DallIgna Rodrigues there were six million Indians in Brazil speaking 1,000 different languages. When the Portuguese settlers arrived, they encountered the Tupi people, the Tupi called the non-Tupi peoples Tapuias, a designation that the Portuguese adopted, however, there was little unity among the diverse Tapuia tribes other than their not being Tupi. This language was spoken in a vast area from São Paulo to Maranhão, as a language for domestic use. Língua Geral was spread by the Jesuit missionaries and Bandeirantes to other areas of Brazil where the Tupi language was not spoken, then, until the 1940s this language based on Tupi was widely spoken in some Northern Amazonian areas where the Tupi people were not present. In 1775, Marquês de Pombal prohibited the use of Língua geral or any indigenous language in Brazil. However, before prohibition, the Portuguese language was dominant in Brazil
6.
Brazilian cuisine
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Brazilian cuisine has European, African and Amerindian influences. It varies greatly by region, reflecting the mix of native and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences, ingredients first used by native peoples in Brazil include cassava, guaraná, açaí, cumaru, cashew and tucupi. From there, the waves of immigrants brought some of their typical dishes. For instance, the European immigrants were accustomed to a diet, and introduced wine, leafy vegetables. When potatoes were not available they discovered how to use the native sweet manioc as a replacement, enslaved Africans also had a role in developing Brazilian cuisine, especially in the coastal states. Root vegetables such as cassava, yams, and fruit like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, guava, orange, passion fruit, pineapple, and hog plum are among the local ingredients used in cooking. Some typical dishes are feijoada, considered the national dish. The national beverage is coffee, while cachaça is Brazils native liquor, cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, caipirinha. Cheese buns, and salgadinhos such as pastéis, coxinhas, risólis and kibbeh are common food items. There is not a single national Brazilian cuisine, but there is an assortment of various regional traditions. This diversity is linked to the origins of the people inhabiting each dam, for instance, the culinary in Bahia is heavily influenced by a mix of African, Indigenous and Portuguese cuisines. Chili and palm oil are very common, but in the Northern states, due to the abundance of forest and freshwater rivers, fish and cassava are staple foods. In Rio, São Paulo and Minas Gerais, the feijoada is popular especially as a Wednesday or Saturday lunch, also consumed frequently is picadinho or rice and beans. In Rio de Janeiro, besides the feijoada, a plate is any variation of grilled bovine fillet, rice and beans, farofa and French fries. Seafood is very popular in areas, as is roasted chicken. In São Paulo, a dish is virado à paulista, made with rice, tutu de feijão, sauteed kale. São Paulo is also the home of pastel, a food consisting of thin pastry envelopes wrapped around assorted fillings and it is a common belief that they originated when Japanese immigrants adapted the recipe of fried spring rolls to sell as snacks at weekly street markets
7.
Religion in Brazil
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Religion in Brazil has a higher adherence level compared to other Latin American countries, and is more diverse. The dominant religion of Brazil is Christianity, Brazil possesses a richly spiritual society formed from the meeting of the Roman Catholic Church with the religious traditions of African slaves and indigenous people. Until recently Catholicism was overwhelmingly dominant, rapid change in the 21st century has led to a growth in secularism, and Evangelical Protestantism to over 22% of the population. The Constitution of Brazil guarantees freedom of religion and strongly prohibits the establishment of any religion by banning government support or hindrance of religion at all levels. In the 2010 census 64. 6% of the population declared themselves as Roman Catholic,22. 2% as Protestant, 8% as non religious, Brazilian religions are very diversified and inclined to syncretism. In recent decades, there has been an increase of Neo-Pentecostal churches and a thriving of Afro-Brazilian religions. About ninety percent of Brazilians declared some sort of affiliation in the most recent census. Roman Catholicism has been Brazils main religion since the beginning of the 16th century and it was introduced among the Native Brazilians by Jesuits missionaries and also observed by all the Portuguese first settlers. During colonial times, there was no freedom of religion, all Portuguese settlers and Brazilians were compulsorily bound to the Roman Catholic faith and forced to pay taxes to the church. After the Brazilian independence, the first constitution introduced freedom of religion in 1824, the Imperial Government paid a salary to Catholic priests and influenced the appointment of bishops. The political-administrative division of the municipalities accompanied the division of the bishoprics in freguesias. There was also some hindrances to the construction of temples and cemeteries that belonged to the Catholic Church, the first Republican Constitution in 1891 separated religion from state and made all religions equal in the Codes of Law, but the Catholic Church remained very influential until the 1970s. For example, due to the opposition of the Catholic Church. The Catholicism practiced in Brazil is full of popular festivities rooted in centuries-old Portuguese traditions, areas that received many European immigrants in the last century, specially Italian and German, have Catholic traditions closer to that practiced in Europe. The largest proportion of Catholics is concentrated in the Northeast and South regions, the smallest proportion of Catholics is found in the Center-West region. The State of Piauí has the largest proportion of Catholics and the State of Rio de Janeiro has the smallest one, among the state capitals, Teresina has the largest proportion of Catholics in the country, followed by Aracaju, Fortaleza, Florianópolis and João Pessoa. Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with American missionaries in the half of the 19th century. Evangelical Protestantism and Pentecostalism has grown rapidly in Brazil since the late 20th century
8.
Brazilian art
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The creation of art in the geographic area now known as Brazil begins with the earliest records of its human habitation. The original inhabitants of the land, pre-Columbian Indian peoples, produced various forms of art and this area was colonized by Portugal in the 16th century and given the modern name of Brazil. Brazilian art is most commonly used as a term for art created in this region post Portuguese colonization. The oldest known art in Brazil is the paintings in Serra da Capivara National Park in the state of Piauí. More recent examples have found in Minas Gerais and Goiás, showing geometric patterns. Statuettes and cult objects, such as the small carved-stone amulets called muiraquitãs, the Mina and Periperi cultures, from Maranhão and Bahia, produced interesting though simpler pottery and statuettes. In the beginning of the 21st century, the ancient Indian traditions of painting, pottery, cult statuettes. The first Western artists active in Brazil were Roman Catholic priests who came from Portugal to “civilize” the Indians, basílio da Gama and Gregório de Mattos were the first secular poets. All of them worked under the influence of the Baroque, the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century, in Minas lived the greatest artists of Brazilian Baroque, painter Manuel da Costa Ataíde and sculptor-architect Aleijadinho. Joachim Lebreton, its leader, proposed the creation of an Academy of Fine Arts, the Academy was the most important center for the visual arts through nearly the whole of the 19th century. It imposed a new concept of education and was the basis for a revolution in Brazilian painting, sculpture, architecture, graphic arts. Victor Meirelles and Pedro Américo, among others, produced lasting visual symbols of national identity, meanwhile, literature too evolved towards a romantic-nationalist school with the works of Casimiro de Abreu and Manuel Antônio de Almeida. Around 1850, a transition began, centered upon Álvares de Azevedo and this second generation of Romantics was obsessed with morbidness and death, and soon after, social commentary could be found in literature, both features not seen in the visual arts. Antônio Castro Alves wrote of the horrors of slavery, and the persecuted Indians were rescued through art by poets and novelists like Antônio Gonçalves Dias, in the late 19th century, Brazilian art became acquainted with Realism. The beginning of the 20th century saw a struggle between old schools and modernist trends. The Week of Modern Art festival, held in São Paulo in 1922, was received with criticism by conservative sectors of the society. It included plastic arts exhibitions, lectures, concerts, and the reading of poems. Due to the radicalism of some of their poems and music, the artists were booed and pelted by the audience
9.
Brazilian literature
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Brazilian literature is the literature written in the Portuguese language by Brazilians or in Brazil, including works written prior to the country’s independence in 1822. Portuguese is a Romance dialect and the official language of Brazil. Lyrically, the poet Olavo Bilac, named it desconhecida e obscura. / Tuba de alto clangor, lira singela, / Que tens o trom e o silvo da procela, / E o arrolo da saudade e da ternura. Which roughly translates as unknown and obscure, / Tuba of high blare, delicate lyre, / That holds the frill, brazil’s most significant literary award is the Camões Prize, which it shares with the entire Portuguese sprachraum. As of 2016, Brazil has eleven recipients of the prize, Brazil also holds its own literary academy, the Brazilian Academy of Letters, a non-profit cultural organization pointed in perpetuating the care of the national language and literature. Brazilian literature has been very prolific, having as birth the letter of Pero Vaz de Caminha, the document that marks the discovery of Brazil, the country’s literature has encompassed several significant writers. One of the first extant documents that might be considered Brazilian literature is the Carta de Pero Vaz de Caminha and it is written by Pero Vaz de Caminha to Manuel I of Portugal, which contains a description of what Brazil looked like in 1500. Matos drew heavily from Baroque influences such as the Spanish poets Luis de Góngora, neoclassicism was widespread in Brazil during the mid-18th century, following the Italian style. Literature was often produced by members of temporary or semi-permanent academies, the most important literary centre in colonial Brazil was the prosperous Minas Gerais region, known for its gold mines, where a thriving proto-nationalist movement had begun. The most important poets were Cláudio Manuel da Costa, Tomás António Gonzaga, Alvarenga Peixoto and Manuel Inácio da Silva Alvarenga, Gonzaga and Costa were exiled to Africa as a consequence. Neoclassicism, lasted for a long time, stifling innovation. It was only in 1836 that Romanticism began influencing Brazilian poetry on a large scale, a number of young poets, such as Casimiro de Abreu, began experimenting with the new style soon afterward. This period produced some of the first standard works of Brazilian literature, the key features of the literature of the newborn country are exaggerated affect, nationalism, celebration of nature and the initial introduction of colloquial language. Romantic literature soon became very popular, novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo, Manuel Antônio de Almeida and José de Alencar published their works in serial form in the newspapers and became national celebrities. Around 1850, a transition began, centered on Álvares de Azevedo, azevedos short story collection Noite na Taverna and his poetry, collected posthumously in Lira dos Vinte Anos, became influential. Azevedo was largely influenced by the poetry of Lord Byron and Alfred de Musset and this second Romantic generation was obsessed with morbidity and death. At the same time, poets such as Castro Alves, who wrote of the horrors of slavery and these traits first appeared in Gonçalves Dias narrative poem I-Juca-Pirama, but soon became widespread. Iracema is especially lyrical, opening with five paragraphs of pure free-style prose poetry describing the title character, the decline of Romanticism, along with a series of social transformations, occurred in the middle of the 19th century
10.
Music of Brazil
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The music of Brazil encompasses various regional music styles influenced by African, European and Amerindian forms. Instrumental music is largely practiced in Brazil, with styles ranging from classical to popular. Among the later, Pixinguinha, Hermeto Pascoal and Egberto Gismonti are significant figures, notable classical composers include Heitor Villa-Lobos, Carlos Gomes and Cláudio Santoro. The country also has a community of modern/experimental composition, including electroacoustic music. The first registration of musical activity in Brazil comes from the activities of two Jesuit priests in 1549, ten years later, they had already founded settlements for indigenous people, with a musical-educational structure. One century later, the Reduções of the southern Brazil, which were founded by Spaniard Jesuits, had a cultural development. Some of the reports of time show the fascination of the indigenous people for European music. The indigenous people took part in the music, with both the construction of musical instruments and practice of vocal and instrumental performance. In the 18th century, there was intense activity in all the more developed regions of Brazil. The previously few private orchestras became more common and the churches presented a variety of music. At this time, the first outstanding Brazilian composers were revealed, the musical pieces were mostly sacred music. Some of the composers of this period were Lobo de Mesquita, Manoel Dias de Oliveira, Francisco Gomes da Rocha, Marcos Coelho Neto. All of them were active, but in many cases few pieces have survived until the present day. Some of the most famous pieces of this period are the Magnificat by Manoel Dias de Oliveira, in the city of Arraial do Tejuco, nowadays Diamantina, there were ten conductors in activity. In Ouro Preto about 250 musicians were active, and in all of the territory of Minas Gerais almost a thousand musicians were active, a crucial factor for the changes in the musical life was the arrival of the Portuguese Royal family to Rio de Janeiro in 1808. Until then, Rio de Janeiro was musically similar to other centers of Brazil but was even less important than Minas Gerais. The presence of the Portuguese Royal family, in exile, radically changed this situation, later, John VI ordered the construction of a sumptuous theater, called the Royal Theater of São João. The works of these strongly influenced the Brazilian music of this time
11.
Television in Brazil
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Television in Brazil has grown significantly since the first broadcasts in 1950, becoming one of largest and most productive commercial television systems in the world. The first broadcasts in Brazil were for the 1950 World Cup, television was formally introduced on September 18 in that same year, with the launch of the now-defunct TV Tupi by media mogul Assis Chateaubriand. It was the first Lusophone or Portuguese-speaking country to introduce television and it was also the fifth nation in the world to have a television station with daily broadcasts, behind the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Mexico. The first image to appear in TV Tupi was that of five-year-old Sônia Maria Dorce and you are in the open TV channel of Brazil. The symbol of Tupi was that of a Native Brazilian kid, in the 1950s, Brazilian television was marked by informality, since there were no trained professionals in the country with any experience in this media field. Another characteristic of television productions of this period was live impromptu. The high costs of TV sets, which were imported, restricted the access of the media to the elites of major cities. Technical resources were primary, offering broadcasters just enough to keep the stations on the air and it was during that period that TV news and telenovelas were established. The advent of videotape around 1960 brought imported programs to Brazilian television, TV Tupi soon faced strong competition from TV Excelsior. Television became a medium in Brazil earlier than in most developing countries. TV Excelsior, an opponent of the regime, on the hand, was forced to close after losing government advertisement. Globo, launched a few months after the 1964 coup, created the first true national network by the late 1960s, censorship of news was extensive under the military governments between 1966 and 1978, but it also encouraged national television program production. While Globo adopted a model for operations,90 percent of its content was produced in Brazil. The 1960s represented a period for television development. By the 1970s, telenovelas were the most popular programs and dominated prime time on the networks, Globo. Globo, in particular, began to attract writers and actors from both film and theater to work in its telenovelas. The Brazilian telenovelas became good enough, as television entertainment, to be exported throughout Latin America, Eastern Europe, Asia. Brazilian exports reached over a hundred countries and the programs have proved to be great international hits
12.
Cinema of Brazil
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Brazilian cinema was introduced early in the 20th century but took some time to consolidate itself as a popular form of entertainment. The film industry of Brazil has gone through periods of ups and downs, a couple of months after the Lumière brothers invention, a film exhibition was held in Rio de Janeiro. He would go on to make documentaries with his brother Paschoal Segreto, neither is much attention given by the state, with legislation for the sector being practically nonexistent. Film theaters only become larger in number in Rio and São Paulo late in the following decade, foreign films as well as short films documenting local events were most common. Some of the first fictional work filmed in the country were the so-called posed films, the first success of this genre is Francisco Marzullos Os Estranguladores. The actors would hide behind the screen and dub themselves singing during projection, during the 1920s film production flourished throughout several regions of the country, Recife, Campinas, Cataguases, Juiz de Fora and Guaranésia. Hollywood films were extremely popular during this time, accounting for as much as 85 percent of film material being exhibited on Brazilian screens in 1928. That year, an estimated 16,464,000 linear feet of film was exported to Brazil, european films, mostly from Germany and France, were also exhibited with relative frequency. Fan magazines like Cinearte and A Scena Muda were published during this time, mário Peixotos Limite was poorly received by audiences but eventually regarded as masterpiece of the silent film era, along with Humberto Mauros Ganga Bruta. Cinédia was founded by Adhemar Gonzaga in 1930 and was dedicated to the production of dramas and burlesque musical comedies. The chanchada would often include satires of Hollywood movies, actress Carmen Miranda gained visibility overseas. In 1946, Gilda de Abreus O Ébrio, a very much representative of typical Latin melodrama, became a major hit. While Vargas decree may be seen as a positive or nationalistic measure, it has also interpreted as a means of state control. During the 40s and 50s, films produced by the Atlântida Cinematográfica peaked and attracted large audiences by continuing with chanchadas, José Lewgoy was commonly cast as a villain while Zézé Macedo often took on the role of the undesired, nagging wife. The films of this period have often been brushed aside as being commercial and americanized. Despite being overlooked by intellectual elites, these films attracted large audiences as none of the Cinema Novo films would achieve, today, the telenovela, especially the novela das sete is sometimes identified as carrying on the spirit of the chanchada. Many of the produced by the company have been lost throughout the years due to fire. The Companhia Cinematográfica Vera Cruz was a company founded in the state of São Paulo during the forties
13.
Sport in Brazil
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Sports in Brazil are those that are widely practiced and popular in the country, as well as others which originated there or have some cultural significance. Brazilians are heavily involved in sports, Football is the most popular sport in Brazil. Other than football, sports like volleyball, mixed martial arts, basketball, Football is the most popular sport in Brazil. Brazil also hosted the 1950 and 2014 World Cups, becoming the country in South America to have hosted two World Cups. It is among the most favorite to win the trophy every time the competition is scheduled, the national football team has also won the Copa América 8 times, the Olympic football tournament once and is the most successful team in the FIFA Confederations Cup, with 4 titles. Some of these players can be considered super-stars, achieving celebrity status internationally and signing multi-million club contracts, capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance and music, and is marked by deft, tricky movements that are often played on the ground or completely inverted. It also has a strong component in some versions and is always played with music. It is a significant sport, developed in colonial times by slaves. Nowadays, capoeira is practiced internationally and found its way into popular culture, mixed martial arts is one of the most popular sports in Brazil. It is considered to be only behind football in terms in national popularity, Brazilian jiu-jitsu originated in Brazil in the 1910s, and emphasizes ground fighting techniques and submission holds involving joint-locks and chokeholds. Hélio Gracie had a small build and changed jiu-jitsu to be used by anyone in a real fight situation. The belt progression system goes in the order, White, Blue, Purple, Brown, Black, Red-black. Footvolley was created by Octavio de Moraes in the 1970s and it is a mix of football and volleyball, where the players must use their feet and head to get the ball over the net and into the opponents side, and is played on the beaches. It is one of the most popular sports in Brazil. Footvolley started out with 5 players on each team but later got cut to 2 players on team and is still so to this day. Maria Esther Bueno is the most successful Brazilian tennis player at the Grand Slam tournaments and she won seven single titles and twelve doubles titles. In the mens game, Gustavo Kuerten is the most successful Brazilian player, however, bad administration and lack of serious support resulted in poor results in the present years and scarcity of national-level competitiveness. Today, Thomaz Bellucci is Brazils best-known player, having ranked among the top 30 players in the world according to the ATP Rankings
14.
Flag of Brazil
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The flag of Brazil is a blue disc depicting a starry sky spanned by a curved band inscribed with the national motto Ordem e Progresso, within a gold rhombus, on a green field. Brazil officially adopted this design for its flag on November 19,1889. The concept was the work of Raimundo Teixeira Mendes, with the collaboration of Miguel Lemos, Manuel Pereira Reis, a blue circle with 27 white five-pointed stars replaced the arms of the Empire of Brazil. The motto Ordem e Progresso is inspired by Auguste Comtes motto of positivism, Lamour pour principe et lordre pour base, le progrès pour, the first Brazilian vexillological symbols were private maritime flags used by Portuguese merchant ships that sailed to Brazil. A flag with green and white stripes was used until 1692, the green and white colors represented the House of Braganza and the national colors of Portugal. In 1692, that flag was no longer used by ships that sailed to Brazil, in 1692, a new flag was introduced for merchant vessels sailing to Brazil. The new flag had a field with a golden armillary sphere. The armillary sphere had served as the emblem of King Manuel I of Portugal. During his reign Portuguese ships used it widely, and eventually it became an emblem of Portugal and, more specifically. A similar flag was introduced for the Portuguese ships that sailed to India and it eventually became the unofficial ensign of Brazil. In 1815, Brazil was elevated to the rank of kingdom, and the kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single state--the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, the Charter Act of 1816 established the insignia of the new kingdom. It specified that the arms of the Kingdom of Brazil was to be composed of an armillary sphere on a blue field. During this time, the flag of Brazil was the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. The imperial flag of Brazil was designed by Jean-Baptiste Debret as the Royal Standard of the Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, Pedro I. After the Brazilian Declaration of Independence, and with the coronation of Pedro I as Emperor of Brazil, the new flag featured the imperial coat of arms within a gold rhombus, on a green field. The green and yellow represented the dynastic houses of Pedro I. The imperial flag was modified during the reign of Pedro II. It was flown from November 15,1889, until November 19,1889, Fonseca suggested that the flag of the new republic should resemble the old imperial flag
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Coat of arms of Brazil
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The coat of arms of Brazil was created on November 19,1889, four days after Brazil became a republic. The coat of arms consists of the central emblem surrounded by coffee and tobacco branches, in the blue circle in the center, the Southern Cross can be seen. The ring of 27 stars around it represents Brazils 26 states, the blue ribbon contains the official name of Brazil in its first line. Prior to 1964, this contained the previous official name. In the second line, the date of the federative republics establishment is written, the National Arms of the Republic were instituted by Decree No. 4, with alteration made by Law No, II - The shield will be placed on a star parted gyronny of ten pieces, green and gold, bordered by two strips, the inner red and the outer gold. These arms are used by the present imperial house, on 18 September 1822, eleven days after proclaiming Brazils independence Royal Prince Dom Pedro signed a decree instituting these arms stating. On 12 October 1822 when the independent country was declared an Empire and Prince Pedro became the countrys first emperor. The number of stars in the coat of arms reflected the number of provinces in the Brazilian Empire, the design of the Crown in the coat of arms changed twice. That is the version of the imperial coat of arms of Brazil. Brazil Brazilian heraldry Coat of arms Coat of arms of Dutch Brazil Coats of Brazilian states Flagspot
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Cooking
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Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
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Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
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Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
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Japanese cuisine
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Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of social and economic changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes, side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth. Seafood is common, often grilled, but also served raw as sashimi or in sushi, seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, as tempura. Apart from rice, staples include noodles, such as soba, Japan also has many simmered dishes such as fish products in broth called oden, or beef in sukiyaki and nikujaga. Foreign food—in particular Chinese food like ramen, fried dumplings, and gyōza—as well as foods like curry, historically, the Japanese shunned meat, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as tonkatsu became common. Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi, has become popular throughout the world, as of 2011, Japan overtook France in number of Michelin-starred restaurants and has maintained the title since. Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed rice or gohan, with one or several okazu or main dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and tsukemono, the phrase ichijū-sansai refers to the makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki, honzen, and yūsoku cuisine. The term is used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays. Rice is served in its own small bowl, and each item is placed on its own small plate or bowl for each individual portion. This is done even at home and it contrasts with the Western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large serving dishes of food presented at the middle of the dining table. Placing okazu on top of rice and soiling it is frowned upon by old-fashioned etiquette. The small rice bowl or chawan doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies, thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the purpose of distinction. In the olden days, among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins called zen, which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be used in zashiki, i. e. tatami-mat rooms. Teishoku means a meal of fixed menu, a dinner à prix fixe served at shokudō or ryōriten, which is somewhat vague, defines it as fare served at teishoku dining hall, etc. Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun, and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months, seasonality means taking advantage of the fruit of the mountains as well as the fruit of the sea as they come into season. Thus the first catch of skipjack tunas that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized, if something becomes available rather earlier than usual, the first crop or early catch is called hashiri
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European cuisine
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The term is used by East Asians to contrast with Asian styles of cooking. When used by Westerners, the term may refer more specifically to cuisine in Europe, in this context. The cuisines of Western countries are diverse by themselves, although there are characteristics that distinguish Western cooking from cuisines of Asian countries. Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent, steak and cutlet in particular are common dishes across the West. Western cuisines also put emphasis on grape wine and on sauces as condiments, seasonings. Many dairy products are utilised in the process, except in nouvelle cuisine. Cheeses are produced in hundreds of different varieties, and fermented products are also available in a wide selection. Maize is much less common in most European diets than it is in the Americas, however corn meal, is a part of the cuisine of Italy. Although flatbreads, and rice are eaten in Europe, they do not constitute an ever-present staple, salads are an integral part of European cuisine. Formal European dinners are served in distinct courses, European presentation evolved from service à la française, or bringing multiple dishes to the table at once, into service à la russe, where dishes are presented sequentially. Usually, cold, hot and savoury, and sweet dishes are served separately in this order, as hors doeuvre or soup, as entrée and main course. Dishes that are sweet and savoury were common earlier in ancient Roman cuisine, but are today uncommon. A service where the guests are free to take food by themselves is termed a buffet, nevertheless, guests are expected to follow the same pattern. Historically, European cuisine has developed in the European royal. European nobility was usually arms-bearing and lived in separate manors in the countryside, the knife was the primary eating implement, and eating steaks and other foods that require cutting followed. In contrast in the Sinosphere, the class were the court officials. The knife was supplanted by the spoon for soups, while the fork was introduced later in the modern period. Today, eating dinner by hand is no longer considered acceptable, all of these countries have their specialities
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Cassava
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Manihot esculenta is a woody shrub native to South America of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is extensively cultivated as a crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root. Though it is often called yuca in Spanish and in the United States, it differs from the yucca, Cassava, when dried to a powdery extract, is called tapioca, its fermented, flaky version is named garri. Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice. Cassava is a staple food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over half a billion people. It is one of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils, Nigeria is the worlds largest producer of cassava, while Thailand is the largest exporter of dried cassava. Cassava is classified as sweet or bitter. Like other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts, the more toxic varieties of cassava are a fall-back resource in times of famine or food insecurity in some places. Farmers often prefer the bitter varieties because they deter pests, animals, the cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 mm thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 cm in diameter at the top, a woody vascular bundle runs along the roots axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish, Cassava roots are very rich in starch and contain small amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin C. However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients, in contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein, but deficient in the amino acid methionine and possibly tryptophan. Forms of the domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4,600 BC, manioc pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, the oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1, 400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén, in El Salvador. With its high potential, it had become a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica. Cassava was a food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art. The Moche people often depicted yuca in their ceramics, spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, for these Christians in the New World, cassava was not suitable for communion since it could not undergo transubstantiation and become the body of Christ
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Guarana
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P. crysan, P. sorbilis) is a climbing plant in the maple family, Sapindaceae, native to the Amazon basin and especially common in Brazil. Guarana features large leaves and clusters of flowers, and is best known for the seeds from its fruit, as a dietary supplement, guarana is an effective stimulant, its seeds contain about twice the concentration of caffeine found in coffee seeds. As with other plants producing caffeine, the concentration of caffeine is a defensive toxin that repels herbivores from the berry. The guarana fruits colour ranges from brown to red and contains seeds which are partly covered by white arils. The colour contrast when the fruit has split open has been likened to eyeballs. According to a myth attributed to the Sateré-Maué tribe, guaranas domestication originated with a deity killing a village child. To console the villagers, a benevolent god plucked the left eye from the child and planted it in the forest. The god then plucked the right eye from the child and planted it in the village, the Guaranís would make an herbal tea by shelling, washing and drying the seeds, followed by pounding them into a fine powder. The powder is kneaded into a dough and then shaped into cylinders and this product is known as guarana bread, which would be grated and then immersed into hot water along with sugar. This plant was introduced to European colonizers and to Europe in the 16th century by Felip Betendorf, Oviedo, Hernández, Cobo and other Spaniard chroniclers. The table contains a listing of some of the chemicals found in guarana seeds. According to the Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank, guaranine is found in guarana, and is identical to caffeine derived from sources, like coffee, tea. Guaranine, theine, and mateine are all synonyms for caffeine when the definitions of words include none of the properties. The main natural phenols found in guarana are -catechin and -epicatechin, guarana is used in sweetened or carbonated soft drinks and energy shots, an ingredient of herbal teas or contained in dietary supplement capsules. Generally, South America obtains most of its caffeine from guarana, Brazil, the third-largest consumer of soft drinks in the world, produces several soft drink brands from guarana extract. Paraguay is also a producer of soft drinks with several brands operating in its market. The word guaraná is widely used in Brazil and Paraguay as a reference to soft drinks containing guarana extract
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Dipteryx odorata
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Dipteryx odorata is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. The tree is native to Central America and northern South America and its seeds are known as tonka beans. They are black and wrinkled and have a smooth, brown interior and they have a strong fragrance similar to sweet woodruff due to their high content of coumarin. The word tonka is taken from the Galibi tongue spoken by natives of French Guiana, it appears in Tupi, another language of the same region. The old genus name, Coumarouna, was formed from another Tupi name for tree, the tree grows up to 25–30 meters, with a trunk of up to one meter in diameter. The tree bark is smooth and gray, whereas the wood is red, the tree has alternate pinnate leaves with three to six leaflets, leathery, glossy and dark green, and pink flowers. Each developed fruit contains one seed, D. odorata is pollinated by insects. The worst pests are the bats because they eat the flesh of the fruit. A few known fungi may cause problems, Anthostomella abdita, Diatrype ruficarnis, Macrophoma calvuligera, the tonka seed contains coumarin, a chemical isolate from this plant, which also gave the name to it. The seeds normally contain about 1 to 3% of coumarin, coumarin is responsible for the seeds pleasant odor and is used in the perfume industry. Coumarin is bitter to the taste, however, and, in large infused doses, it may cause hemorrhages, liver damage and it is therefore controlled as a food additive by many governments. Like a number of plants, the tonka bean plant probably produces coumarin as a defense chemical. Until their research, it had been assumed unlikely that any Amazonian tree could live to old age due to the conditions of the rain forest, Tonka beans had been used as a vanilla substitute, as a perfume, and in tobacco before being banned in some countries. They are used in some French cuisine and in perfumes and its use in food industry is regulated/restricted in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration. Many anticoagulant prescription drugs, such as warfarin, are based on 4-hydroxycoumarin, coumarin, however, does not have anticoagulant properties. There have been calls for removing the restrictions on the use of tonka beans in food in the United States, the regulations are criticized as unreasonable due to the unlikelihood of consuming enough coumarin to cause ill effects and due to the presence of coumarin in unregulated foods. The beans were also spelled tonquin and tonkin, although it has no connection with Tonkin. Tonquin is still used today to flavor some pipe tobaccos, such as Samuel Gawith 1792 Flake, cumaru, also known as Brazilian teak, is an increasingly popular hardwood used for flooring in the United States
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Cashew
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The cashew tree is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew nut and the cashew apple. It can grow as high as 14 m, but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 m, has proved profitable, with earlier maturity. The cashew nut, often called a cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on its own, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter, the shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications from lubricants to paints. The cashew apple is a reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet. The species is native to northeastern Brazil. Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam, Nigeria, India and its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree caju, which itself is derived from the Tupian word acajú, literally meaning nut that produces itself. The generic name Anacardium, originally from the Greek, refers to the location of the seed outside the core or heart of the fruit. A mid-seventeenth century ethnographic painting by Albert Eckhout, who accompanied Dutch governor-general Johan Maurits, the cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 m tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 cm long and 2–15 cm broad. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm long, each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 mm long. The largest cashew tree in the covers a area around 7,500 m2, it is located in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte. The fruit of the tree is an accessory fruit. What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel, called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow and/or red structure about 5–11 cm long. It is edible, and has a sweet smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile. The true fruit of the tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple, within the true fruit is a single seed, which is often considered a nut, in the culinary sense
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Portuguese Brazilians
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Not to be confused with the Portuguese dialect, Brazilian Portuguese. Portuguese Brazilians are Brazilian citizens whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Portugal, most of the Portuguese who arrived throughout the centuries in Brazil sought economic opportunities. Although present since the onset of the colonization, Portuguese people began migrating to Brazil in larger numbers, nowadays, the Portuguese constitute the biggest group of foreigners living in the country, with an estimated 596,000 Portuguese nationals currently living in Brazil. According to Portuguese law, any Brazilian that has at least one Portuguese parent or grandparent is eligible to obtain Portuguese citizenship,5 million Brazilians fall under this category. According to the Constitution of Brazil, the Portuguese people have a status in Brazil. Requirements for the granting of equality are, habitual residence, the age of majority, in Brazil, the Portuguese may require equal treatment with regard to civil rights, moreover, they may ask to be granted political rights granted to Brazilians. In the latter case, this requires a minimum of three years of permanent residence, some of the earliest colonists for whom we have written records are João Ramalho and Diogo Álvares Correia. As a result, many pirates, mainly French, began dealing in pau brasil with the Amerindians and this situation worried Portugal, which in the 1530s started to encourage the colonization of Brazil, principally for defensive reasons. The towns of Cananéia, São Vicente, Porto Seguro and Iguape date from that period, by the mid-16th century, Portuguese colonists were already settling in significant numbers, mainly along the coastal regions of Brazil. Numerous cities were established, including Salvador, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, while most Portuguese settlers came willingly, some were forced exiles or degredados. Such convicts were sentenced for a variety of crimes according to the Ordenações do Reino, there was concern in keeping the control of the territory, hence the policy in promoting the colonization with couples in the border lands. The occupation of the territory was seen as essential, in 1619, about 300 couples arrived in Maranhão, the total number of people being around 1000 individuals, a significant number for that time. Maranhão is the first region to receive Azorean settlers in an organised way, S. da Palma and São Rafael,50 couples arrived, in the ships N. S. da Penha de França and São Francisco Xavier more settlers came. Throughout the 17th century, successive waves of Azorean couples were settled in Maranhão, Azorean couples were also settled in Pará, an example of this being the 50 couples who embarked on 29 March 1677, in the ship Jesus, Maria e José, in Horta, Faial. In the 18th century, immigration to Brazil from Portugal increased dramatically, immigrants to Brazil departed from Portugal via the ports of Lisbon, Porto, and Funchal on Madeira. Two British companies provided the bulk of transport of passengers in this period, many gold and diamond mines were discovered in the region of Minas Gerais, which then led to the arrival of not only Portuguese, but also of native-born Brazilians. Regarding the former, most were peasants from the Minho region in Portugal, in the beginning, Portugal stimulated the immigration of minhotos to Brazil. After some time, however, the number of departures was so great that the Portuguese Crown had to establish barriers to further immigration
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Italian Brazilians
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Italian Brazilians are Brazilian citizens of full or partial Italian descent. There are no official numbers about how many Brazilians have Italian ancestry, as the national census conducted by IBGE does not ask the ancestry of the Brazilian people. In the last census to ask about ancestry, from 1940,1,260,931 Brazilians said to be the child of an Italian father, Italians were 285,000 and naturalized Brazilians,40,000. Therefore, Italians and their children were just over 3. 8% of Brazils population in 1940, an Italian source, from 1996, cites the number of 22,753,000 descendants. The Embassy of Italy in Brazil, in 2013, reported the number of 31 million descendants of Italian immigrants in Brazil, according to García, the number of Brazilians with actual links to Italian identity and culture would be around 3.5 to 4.5 million people. Many Brazilian politicians, artists, footballers, models and personalities are or were of Italian descent, amongst Italian-Brazilian one finds several State Governors, Congressmen, mayors and ambassadors. Three Presidents of Brazil were of Italian descent, Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli, Itamar Franco, Médici was also of Basque descent. According to the Brazilian Constitution, anyone born in the country is a Brazilian citizen by birthright, in addition, many who were born in Italy have become naturalized citizens after settling in Brazil. The Brazilian government used to prohibit multiple citizenships, however, this changed in 1994 with a new constitutional amendment. After the changes in 1994 over half a million Italian-Brazilians have requested the recognition of their Italian citizenship, according to the Italian legislation an individual with an Italian parent is automatically recognized as an Italian citizen, the jus sanguinis principle being applied. In order to exercise the rights and obligations of citizenship an individual needs to have all documents registered in Italy, after constitutional reform in Italy, Italian citizens abroad can also elect representatives to the Italian Chamber of Deputies and the Italian Senate. Italian citizens residing in Brazil elect representatives together with Argentina, Uruguay, according to Italian senator Edoardo Pollastri, currently there are over half a million Brazilians in line to have their Italian citizenship recognized. Italy only united as a national state in 1861. Before that Italy was politically divided in several kingdoms, ducates and this fact influenced deeply the character of the Italian migrant. Before 1914, the typical Italian migrant was a man without a national identity but with strong attachments to his town or village or region of birth. During the 19th century, many Italians fled the persecutions in Italy led by the Imperial Austrian government after the failure of unification movements in 1848 and 1861. Although very small, these well educated and revolutionary group of emigrants left a mark where they settled. In Brazil, the most famous Italian in this period was Líbero Badaró, despite that, the mass Italian immigration that contributed to shape Brazilian culture after the Portuguese and the German migration movements started only after Italian unification
27.
Brazilians of Spanish descent
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Spanish Brazilians are Brazilians of full or partial Spanish ancestry. Spanish immigration was the third largest among immigrant groups in Brazil, how many Spaniards came to Brazil before independence are unknown. Brazilian censuses do not research ethnic origins or ancestry, which makes it difficult to give accurate numbers of Brazilians of Spanish descent. Brazilians of Spanish descent can be estimated as being 15 million people or 20 million according to the Spanish government, more than half of modern Brazils territory was attributed to Spain by the Treaty of Tordesillas. However, Spain was unable to settle that region, during the dynastic union between Portugal and Spain, many Spaniards settled in Brazil, particularly in São Paulo. As a consequence, there are a number of Brazilian descendants of these early settlers. The descendants of Bartolomeu Bueno de Ribeira, born in Seville around 1555, Spaniards from Galicia also settled in Brazil during that time, like Jorge de Barros, for example. The family names Bueno, Godody, Lara, Saavedra, Camargo, etc. tracing back to early settlers, are quite popular throughout Southeast Brazil, Southern Brazil. Silva Leme, in his work Genealogia Paulistana, addresses several of these families, except for the Missions, no Spanish settlements actually existed in the territory of future Brazil by the middle of the 18th century, when most of it was under Portuguese control. This de facto control was recognized in 1750 when sovereignty over the vast area – including the Missions – was transferred from Spain to Portugal by the Treaty of Madrid. The study itself cautions that there may be difficulties with its identification of the respective Iberian contributions to the population of southern Brazil. Spanish emigration peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, between 1882 and 1930,3,297,312 Spaniards emigrated, of whom 1,594,622 went to Argentina and 1,118,960 went to Cuba. Brazil only started to be an important destination for immigrants from Spain in the 1880s, and it is estimated that since Brazils independence some 750,000 Spaniards have entered Brazil. Spanish immigrants were among those who had a rate of permanent residence in Brazil, overtaken by the Japanese but above nationalities such as Portuguese. This may be due to the number of families traveling with passage paid by the Brazilian government that left their native Spain to work on coffee plantations of the state of São Paulo. Most Spanish immigrants entered Brazil between 1880 and 1930, with the period between 1905 and 1919, when their annual entrances overcame those of Italians. After São Paulo, the second largest contingent came to Rio de Janeiro, while states such as Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Mato Grosso, Pará. In all those states, immigrants from Galicia were the vast majority, at about 80%, Galician smallholders settled mainly in urban areas of Brazil
28.
German Brazilians
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German Brazilians refers to Brazilian people of ethnic German ancestry or origin. German Brazilians live mostly in the countrys South Region, with lesser, German dialects together make up the second most spoken first language in Brazil after Portuguese. A few Brazilian municipalities have Brazilian Hunsrückisch and Germanic Pomeranian as co-official with Portuguese and they are located in Southern Brazil and Espírito Santo. In the year 2000 Brazilian census 12 million people in Brazil claimed to be of German descent, between 1824 and 1972, about 260,000 Germans settled in Brazil, the fifth largest nationality to immigrate after the Portuguese, the Italians, the Spaniards, and the Japanese. The vast majority settled in states of São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, less than 5% of Germans settled in Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, and Espírito Santo. The most influenced state by the German immigration was Santa Catarina, Germans and Austrians were about 50% of all immigrants settled in Santa Catarina, and between 15–20% in Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná. In the rest of the country, Germans accounted for less than 5% of immigrants, the 19th century was marked by an intense emigration of Europeans to different parts of the world, which led to a process of Europeanisation of these areas. Between 1816 and 1850,5 million people left Europe, between 1850 and 1880 another 22 million people emigrated, between 1846 and 1932,60 million Europeans emigrated. Many Germans left the German states after the revolutions of 1848. Germans appeared in place among immigrants to Brazil, but dropped to fifth place when Japanese immigration increased after 1908. Even though the immigration of Germans to Brazil was small, it had a impact on the ethnic composition of the country. Different factors led to large influence. First of all, German immigration to Brazil is an old phenomenon which started as early as 1824, for example, the first significant groups of Italians to immigrate to Brazil only arrived in 1875, many decades after the arrival of the first Germans. When the settlement of other Europeans in Brazil began, the Germans had already been living there for many generations, another factor was the high birth rates among German Brazilians. Research has found that between 1826 and 1828 a first-generation German Brazilian woman had an average of 8.5 children, in the book The Monroe Doctrine by T B Edgington is said, The natural increase of the German population in southern Brazil is marvelous. As a rule they rear from ten to fifteen children in each family, Blumenau, a colony which was settled by the Germans over fifty years ago, more than doubles itself every ten years. Southern Brazil is now called ‘Greater Germany’, and the Germans exercise there a commercial and financial supremacy, even though the population of German descent makes up a small minority in Brazil, they represent a very large percentage of the population of the South. Jean Roche estimated that people of German descent made up 13. 3% of the population in Rio Grande do Sul in 1890, by 1920, the vast majority of the population of German descent was Brazilian-born
29.
Polish Brazilians
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Also, a Polish Brazilian can be a child of a Brazilian mother and Polish father. Polish immigrants began arriving in Brazil in the late 19th century, the Brazilian State of Paraná is a dominantly Polish area in Brazil. The Polish immigrants brought native folk music and dance music to Brazil such as mazurka, in addition to the musical elements of the Polish culture, immigrants also brought customs, manners, and styles of clothing. Polish culture has also influenced aspects of the cuisine and architecture of Brazil, Poles live in Guarapuava, Curitiba, Campo Largo, Contenda, Araucária, Lapa Săo Mateus do Sul, and Irati. With the immigrants there was an increase in employment on planted lands with the use of new tools, like the plow, the grille, there was the introduction of new types of jobs and professions, like blacksmith, carpenter, joiner and tailor. The immigrants work helped a lot on the growth in Paraná. The first Polish immigrants arrived in the port of Itajaí, Santa Catarina and they were 78 Poles from the area of Southern Silesia. Commandant Redlisch, of the ship Victoria, brought people from Eastern Europe to settle in Brusque, the Poles were placed in the colonies Príncipe Dom Pedro and Itajaí, in the area of Brusque. Fewer Poles immigrated to Brazil than Portuguese or Italians, but many Poles have settled in Brazil, from 1872 to 1959,110,243 Russian citizens entered Brazil. In fact, the vast majority of them were Poles, since Poland was under Russian rule, and ethnic Poles immigrated with Russian passports. The State of Paraná received the majority of Polish immigrants, who settled mainly in the region of Curitiba, in the towns of Mallet, Cruz Machado, São Matheus do Sul, Irati, and União da Vitória. Most Polish immigrants to Southern Brazil were Catholics who arrived between 1870–1920 and worked as farmers in the State of Paraná. Others went to the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina and São Paulo. After the 1920s, many Polish Jews immigrated seeking refuge from Europe, today most Brazilian Jews are of Polish descent. In a 1991 poll with Polish immigrants residents in Southeastern Brazil,48. 5% reported to be Jewish,36. 4% Catholic,10. 7% adherents of religions and 4. 5% non-religious. The State of Paraná still retains an influence from the Polish culture. Many small towns have a majority of Polish-descendants and the Polish language is spoken by some of them, the city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and culture are quite common in the region. Curitiba was largely influenced by a mayor Jaime Lerner, after the proclamation of the Republic, the Brazilian government practically opened the doors of the country to immigration
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Swiss Brazilians
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Swiss Brazilians are Brazilian citizens of full or partial Swiss ancestry, who remain culturally connected to Switzerland, or Swiss-born people permanently residing in Brazil. In 1818, King John VI of Portugal, then resident in Rio de Janeiro, the parish was given the name of São João Batista de Nova Friburgo and was founded in 1820. The history of Swiss immigration to Brazil began with the foundation of the colony of Nova Friburgo in 1819, Nova Friburgo was the first colonial company contracted by the Portuguese government. The immigrant colonists wrote letters for publication in Swiss newspapers of the period, and their arrival in Rio de Janeiro was on November 4, spenting 55 days, a very good time for the epoch. And, finally, they arrive in Morro-Quiemado on November 15,1819 – about 12000 kilometers in 105 days, approximately 114 kilometers a day. About 20 years after, Marie Rosalyne married with Swiss Henri Monnerat, son of Swiss immigrants François Xavier Monnerat and Elizabeth Köhler Monnerat and leaves a prolific, clóvis Bornay José Carlos Bauer A
31.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
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Leaf vegetable
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Leaf vegetables, also called potherbs, greens, vegetable greens, leafy greens, or salad greens, are plant leaves eaten as a vegetable, sometimes accompanied by tender petioles and shoots. Although they come from a wide variety of plants, most share a great deal with other leaf vegetables in nutrition. Nearly one thousand species of plants with leaves are known. Leaf vegetables most often come from short-lived herbaceous plants such as lettuce, woody plants whose leaves can be eaten as leaf vegetables include Adansonia, Aralia, Moringa, Morus, and Toona species. The leaves of many crops are also edible for humans. Examples include alfalfa, clover, and most grasses, including wheat and these plants are often much more prolific than more traditional leaf vegetables, but exploitation of their rich nutrition is difficult, primarily because of their high fiber content. This obstacle can be overcome by further processing such as drying and grinding into powder or pulping and pressing for juice, Leaf vegetables contain many typical plant nutrients, but since they are photosynthetic tissues, their vitamin K levels are particularly notable. Phylloquinone, the most common form of the vitamin, is involved in photosynthesis. This causes leaf vegetables to be the primary food class that interacts significantly with the anticoagulant warfarin, Leaf vegetables are typically low in calories and fat, and high in protein per calorie, dietary fiber, vitamin C, pro-vitamin A carotenoids, folate, manganese and vitamin K. The vitamin K content of leaf vegetables is particularly high, since these are photosynthetic tissues, accordingly, users of vitamin K antagonist medications, such as warfarin, must take special care to limit consumption of leaf vegetables. If leaves are cooked for food, they may be referred to as boiled greens, Leaf vegetables may be stir-fried, stewed, steamed, or consumed raw. Leaf vegetables stewed with pork are a dish in soul food. They are also eaten in a variety of South Asian dishes such as saag. Leafy greens can be used to other ingredients into an edible package similar to how a tortilla is used. Many green leafy vegetables, such as lettuce or spinach, can also be eaten raw, a green smoothie enables large quantities of raw leafy greens to be consumed by blending the leaves with fruit and water. In certain countries of Africa, various species of amaranth are very widely eaten boiled. Celosia argentea var. argentea or Lagos spinach is one of the main boiled greens in West African cuisine, in Greek cuisine, khorta are a common side dish, eaten hot or cold and usually seasoned with olive oil and lemon. Preboggion, a mixture of different wild boiled greens, is used in Ligurian cuisine to stuff ravioli, one of the main ingredients of preboggion are borage leaves
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Dairy
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A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption. A dairy is located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned with the harvesting of milk. For example, in the United States, the dairy farm is commonly called a dairy. The building or farm area where milk is harvested from the cow is called a milking parlor or parlor. The farm area where milk is stored in tanks is known as the farms milk house. Milk is then hauled to a plant, also referred to as a dairy. In New Zealand, farm areas for milk harvesting are also called milking parlours, as in the United States, sometimes milking sheds are referred to by their type, such as herring bone shed or pit parlour. Parlour design has evolved from simple barns or sheds to large structures in which the workflow is very efficiently handled. This on-site processing is a method of producing specialist milk products. In New Zealand English the singular use of the word dairy almost exclusively refers to a corner shop and this usage is historical as such shops were a common place for the public to buy milk products. As an attributive, the word refers to milk-based products, derivatives and processes. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products and these establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food industry. Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years, initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them, protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders. In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic and local consumption, the animals might serve multiple purposes. In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the size was quite small. These tasks were performed by a dairymaid or dairyman, the word dairy harkens back to Middle English dayerie, deyerie, from deye and further back to Old English dæge. With industrialisation and urbanisation, the supply of milk became an industry, with specialised breeds of cattle being developed for dairy
34.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
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States of Brazil
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The Federative Republic of Brazil is a union of 27 Federative Units,26 states and one federal district, where the federal capital, Brasília, is located. The states are based on historical, conventional borders which have developed over time. The Federal District is not formally a state, but shares some characteristics of a state as well as some of a municipality, the codes given below are defined in ISO 3166-2, BR. The first administrative divisions of Brazil were the hereditary captaincies, stretches of land granted by the Portuguese Crown to noblemen or merchants with a charter to colonize the land, as the map shows, these divisions generally followed lines of latitude. Each of the holders of these captaincies was referred to as a captain donatary and these captaincies were to be passed from father to son, but the Crown retained the power to revoke them, which the King indeed did in the 16th century. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown appointed Tomé de Sousa as the first governor-general of the vast Portuguese dominion in South America and this dominion overall became known as the State of Brazil. In several periods of history, the half of the dominion was detached from the State of Brazil. Unlike Spanish America, the territory remained united under a single governor-general. This arrangement later helped to keep Brazil as a unified nation-state, in 1759, the heritability of the captaincies was totally abolished by the government of the Marquis of Pombal, with all captains becoming appointed by the Crown. The captaincies were officially renamed provinces on 28 February 1821, with independence, in 1822, the former captaincies became provinces of the Empire of Brazil. Most internal boundaries were unchanged from the colonial period, generally following natural features such as rivers. Minor changes were made to domestic politics, as well as additions resulting from diplomatic settlement of territorial disputes by the end of the 19th century. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, all provinces immediately became states, after the war, the first four territories became states, with Rio Branco and Guaporé being renamed Roraima and Rondônia, respectively, whilst Ponta Porã and Iguaçu remained as territories. In 1960, the square-shaped Distrito Federal was carved out of Goiás in preparation for the new capital, Brasília. The previous federal district became Guanabara State, but in 1975 it was merged with Rio de Janeiro State, retaining its name, in 1977, Mato Grosso was split into two states. The northern area retained the name Mato Grosso while the area became the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The new Mato Grosso do Sul incorporated the territory of Ponta Porã, central Iguaçu went to Paraná, and southern Iguaçu went to Santa Catarina. In 1988, the portion of Goiás became the state of Tocantins
36.
Japanese Brazilians
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Japanese Brazilians are Brazilian citizens who are nationals or naturals of Japanese ancestry, or Japanese immigrants living in Brazil. The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil in 1908, Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan. According to the IBGE, as of 2009 there were approximately 1.6 million people of Japanese descent in Brazil, between the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, coffee was the main export product of Brazil. At first, Brazilian farmers used African slave labour in the plantations, but in 1850. To solve the shortage, the Brazilian elite decided to attract European immigrants to work on the coffee plantations. This also supported the push toward Whitening the country. The hope was that through procreation that the large African and Native American groups would be eliminated or reduced, the government and farmers offered to pay European immigrants passage. The plan encouraged millions of Europeans, most of them Italians, because of this, in 1902, Italy enacted Decree Prinetti, prohibiting subsidized immigration to Brazil. The end of feudalism in Japan generated great poverty in the rural population, by the 1930s, Japanese industrialisation had significantly boosted the population. However, prospects for Japanese people to immigrate to other countries were limited, at the same time in Australia, the White Australia Policy prevented the immigration of non-whites to Australia. In 1907, the Brazilian and the Japanese governments signed a treaty permitting Japanese migration to Brazil, the first Japanese immigrants came to Brazil in 1908 on the Kasato Maru. They travelled from the Japanese port of Kobe via the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, many of them became owners of coffee plantations. Japanese immigrants began arriving in 1908, as a result of the decrease in the Italian immigration to Brazil, in the first seven years,3,434 more Japanese families arrived. The vast majority of Japanese immigrants intended to work a few years in Brazil, make some money, however, “getting rich quick” was a dream that was almost impossible to achieve. The immigrants were paid a low salary and worked long hours of exhausting work. Also, everything that the immigrants consumed had to be purchased from the landowner, soon, their debts became very high. The land owners in Brazil still had a slavery mentality, immigrants, although employees, had to confront the rigidity and lack of labour laws. Indebted and subjected to hours of work, often suffering physical violence
37.
Yam (vegetable)
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Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea that form edible tubers. Yams are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Asia, Africa, Central and South America, the tubers themselves are also called yams. There are many different cultivars of yams, Yams are monocots, related to lilies and grasses. Native to Africa and Asia, yam tubers vary in size from that of a potato to over 60 kg. Over 600 varieties of yams are known, and 95% of these crops are grown in Africa, differences between true yam and sweet potato yam Yams are a monocot from the Dioscoreaceae family. Sweet potatoes are a dicot from the Convolvulaceae family, therefore, they are about as distantly related as two flowering plants can be. Culinarily, yams are starchier and drier than sweet potatoes, the table below lists some differences between yams and sweet potatoes. Yam tubers can grow up to 1.5 m in length, the vegetable has a rough skin which is difficult to peel, but softens after heating. The skins vary in color dark brown to light pink. The majority of the vegetable is composed of a much softer substance known as the meat and this substance ranges in color from white or yellow to purple or pink in mature yams. Many cultivars of yams are found throughout the humid tropics, the most economically important are discussed below. Dioscorea rotundata, the yam, and D. cayenensis. They are the most important cultivated yams, in the past, they were considered as two separate species, but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. Over 200 varieties between them are cultivated, white yams tuber is roughly cylindrical in shape, the skin is smooth and brown, and the flesh is usually white and firm. Yellow yam has yellow flesh, caused by the presence of carotenoids and it looks similar to the white yam in outer appearance, its tuber skin is usually a bit firmer and less extensively grooved. The yellow yam has a period of vegetation and a shorter dormancy than white yam. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips and they are large plants, the vines can be as long as 10 to 12 m. The tubers most often weigh about 2.5 to 5 kg each, after 7 to 12 months growth, the tubers are harvested
38.
Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
39.
Mango
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Mangoes are juicy stone fruit from numerous species of tropical trees belonging to the flowering plant genus Mangifera, cultivated mostly for their edible fruit. The majority of species are found in nature as wild mangoes. The genus belongs to the cashew family Anacardiaceae, mangoes are native to South Asia, from where the common mango or Indian mango, Mangifera indica, has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most widely cultivated fruits in the tropics. Other Mangifera species are grown on a more localized basis. It is the fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines. Mango trees grow to 35–40 m tall, with a radius of 10 m. The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years, in deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m, with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots, the tree also sends down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet of soil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm long, and 6–16 cm broad, when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm long, each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm long, with a mild, over 400 varieties of mangoes are known, many of which ripen in summer, while some give double crop. The fruit takes three to six months to ripen, the ripe fruit varies in size and color. Cultivars are variously yellow, orange, red, or green, and carry a single flat, oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, ripe, unpeeled mangoes give off a distinctive resinous, sweet smell. Inside the pit 1–2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single seed, the seed contains the plant embryo. Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds, they do not survive freezing and drying, the English word mango originated from the Malayalam word māṅṅa via Portuguese during spice trade with Kerala in 1498. The origin of the -o ending in English is unclear, when mangoes were first imported to the American colonies in the 17th century, they had to be pickled because of lack of refrigeration. Other fruits were also pickled and came to be called mangoes, especially bell peppers, and by the 18th century, in Mandarin Chinese, mango is 芒果, or mángguǒ in Pinyin. This is most likely a loanword from English, mangoes have been cultivated in South Asia for thousands of years and reached Southeast Asia between the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. By the 10th century CE, cultivation had begun in East Africa, the 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported it at Mogadishu. Cultivation came later to Brazil, Bermuda, the West Indies, and Mexico, the mango is now cultivated in most frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates, almost half of the worlds mangoes are cultivated in India alone, with the second-largest source being China
40.
Papaya
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The papaya, papaw, or pawpaw is the plant Carica papaya, one of the 22 accepted species in the genus Carica of the family Caricaceae. It is native to the tropics of the Americas, perhaps from southern Mexico and it was first cultivated in Mexico several centuries before the emergence of the Mesoamerican classical civilizations. The papaya is a small, sparsely branched tree, usually with a stem growing from 5 to 10 m tall. The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred where leaves and fruit were borne, the leaves are large, 50–70 cm in diameter, deeply palmately lobed, with seven lobes. All parts of the plant contain latex in articulated laticifers, unusually for such large plants, the trees are dioecious. The flowers are 5-parted and highly dimorphic, the flowers with the stamens fused to the petals. The female flowers have a superior ovary and five contorted petals loosely connected at the base, male and female flowers are borne in the leaf axils, the males in multiflowered dichasia, the female flowers is few-flowered dichasia. The flowers are sweet-scented, open at night and are moth-pollinated, the fruit is a large berry about 15–45 cm long and 10–30 cm in diameter. It is ripe when it feels soft and its skin has attained an amber to orange hue, Papaya is native to Mexico and extends to South America and has become naturalized throughout the Caribbean Islands, Florida and several countries of Africa. Additional crops are grown in India, Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Papaya plants grow in three sexes, male, female, hermaphrodite. The male produces only pollen, never fruit, the female will produce small, inedible fruits unless pollinated. The hermaphrodite can self-pollinate since its flowers contain both male stamens and female ovaries, almost all commercial papaya orchards contain only hermaphrodites. Originally from southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, in cultivation, it grows rapidly, fruiting within three years. It is, however, highly frost-sensitive, limiting its production to tropical climates, temperatures below −2 °C are greatly harmful if not fatal. In Florida and California, growth is limited to southern parts of the states. It prefers sandy, well-drained soil, as standing water will kill the plant within 24 hours, India and Brazil are the major producers of papaya, together providing 57% of the world total of 12.4 million tons in 2013. Gaining in popularity among tropical fruits worldwide, papaya is now ranked fourth in total tropical fruit production after bananas, oranges, global papaya production has grown significantly over the last few years, mainly as a result of increased production in India. Papaya has become an important agricultural export for developing countries, where export revenues of the fruit provide a livelihood for thousands of people, especially in Asia, Carica papaya was the first transgenic fruit tree to have its genome sequenced
41.
Guava
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Guavas are common tropical fruits cultivated and enjoyed in many tropical and subtropical regions. Psidium guajava is a tree in the Myrtle family, native to Mexico, Central America. Although related species may also be called guavas, they belong to species or genera. The most frequently eaten species, and the one often referred to as the guava, is the apple guava. Guavas are typical Myrtoideae, with tough dark leaves that are opposite, simple, elliptic to ovate, the flowers are white, with five petals and numerous stamens. The genera Accara and Acca were formerly included in Psidium, the term guava appears to derive from Arawak guayabo guava tree, via the Spanish guayaba. It has been adapted in many European and Asian languages, having a similar form, another term for guavas is peru, derived from pear. It is common in countries bordering the western Indian Ocean and probably derives from Spanish or Portuguese, in parts of the Indian subcontinent and Middle-East, guava is called amrood, possibly a variant of armoot meaning pear in the Arabic and Turkish languages. Guavas originated from a thought to extend from Mexico or Central America and was distributed throughout tropical America. They were adopted as a crop in subtropical and tropical Asia, the southern United States, guavas are now cultivated in many tropical and subtropical countries. Several species are grown commercially, apple guava and its cultivars are those most commonly traded internationally, mature trees of most species are fairly cold-hardy and can survive temperatures slightly colder than 25 °F for short periods of time, but younger plants will likely freeze to the ground. Guavas were introduced to Florida in the 19th century and are now grown in Florida as far north as Sarasota, Chipley, Waldo and Fort Pierce. However, they are a primary host of the Caribbean fruit fly, guavas are of interest to home growers in subtropical areas as one of the few tropical fruits that can grow to fruiting size in pots indoors. When grown from seed, guavas bear fruit as soon as two years and as long as 40 years, Psidium species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera, mainly moths like the Ello Sphinx, Eupseudosoma aberrans, E. involutum, and Hypercompe icasia. Mites, like Pronematus pruni and Tydeus munsteri, are known to be pests of the apple guava. The bacterium Erwinia psidii causes rot diseases of the apple guava, by contrast, several guava species have become rare due to habitat destruction and at least one, is already extinct. Guava wood is used for smoking in Hawaii and is used at barbecue competitions across the United States. In Cuba and Mexico, the leaves are used in barbecues, Guava fruits, usually 4 to 12 centimetres long, are round or oval depending on the species
42.
Orange (fruit)
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The orange is the fruit of the citrus species Citrus × sinensis in the family Rutaceae. It is also called orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium. The sweet orange reproduces asexually, varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations, the orange is a hybrid between pomelo and mandarin. It has genes that are ~25% pomelo and ~75% mandarin, however, it is not a simple backcrossed BC1 hybrid, the chloroplast genes, and therefore the maternal line, seem to be pomelo. The sweet orange has had its genome sequenced. Earlier estimates of the percentage of pomelo genes varying from ~50% to 6% have been reported, sweet oranges were mentioned in Chinese literature in 314 BC. As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world, orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. As of 2012, sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production, in 2014,70.9 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 24% of the world total followed by China and India. All citrus trees belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely interfertile and this includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry, different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange – Citrus sinensis Osbeck, the orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of 9 to 10 m, although some very old specimens can reach 15 m. Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm long and have crenulate margins, when unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange. Like all other fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics, common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, other citrus groups also known as oranges are, Bitter orange, also known as Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, bergamot orange, grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid, probably bitter orange x limetta, trifoliate orange, sometimes included in the genus
43.
Passiflora edulis
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Passiflora edulis is a vine species of passion flower that is native to southern Brazil through Paraguay to northern Argentina. Its common names include passion fruit or passionfruit, maracuya, grenadille or fruit de la passion, maracujá and it is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The passion fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, the fruit is both eaten and juiced, passion fruit juice is often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma. The passion fruit is so called because it is one of the species of passion flower, leading to the English translation of the Latin genus name. There are two varieties in the species of Passiflora edulis. One is a shallow-rooted, woody, perennial that possesses many tendrils, the young tendrils are finely-toothed and typically have a red or purple hue. Usually the vine produces a single flower 5-7.5 cm wide at each node, the flower has 5 oblong, green sepals and 5 white petals. The sepals and petals are 4-6mm in length and form a fringe. The base of the flower is a rich purple with 5 stamens, an ovary, the styles bend backward and the anthers, which are located on top of the styles, have a very distinct head. The berry produced is fleshy and spherical and it is 1-1.4 cm long and 9-13 mm thick with a thick layer of pith. The outside color of the ranges from hues of dark-purple to black with fine white specks light yellow in color. Within the berry, there is typically 250 black seed 2.4 mm in length, the seeds are surrounded by a membranous sac filled with pulpy juice. The flavor of the juice is acidic and musky. The passion fruits flavor can be compared to that of the guava fruit, the yellow form of the passion fruit flower is self-sterile. Pollination of flowers is most effective when done by the carpenter bee, there are three types of passion fruit flower classified by curvature of style. To help assure the presence of carpenter bees, place decaying logs near the vines, Passion fruit is widely grown in tropical and semitropical regions of the world. Within the United States, it is grown in Florida and California, certain cultivars are resilient against light frosts, and thus can survive perennially, even in more temperate climates such as that of Great Britain. Passion fruit flower is the flower of Paraguay. Several distinct varieties of fruit with clearly differing exterior appearances exist
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Pineapple
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The pineapple is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a cutting of the fruit, possibly flowering in 5-10 months. Pineapples do not ripen significantly after harvest, pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in an array of cuisines. The fiber is used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings. The word pineapple in English was first recorded to describe the organs of conifer trees. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in the Americas, they called them pineapples, other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine, as well, in other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña, or ananá, the pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, when creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots are produced in the axils of the main stem. These may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant, commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem, in the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into an inflorescence up to 15 cm long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender, through light purple to red, the ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction,13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number. The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis, fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, seed formation needs pollination, but the presence of seeds harms the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples open their flowers only at night
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