1.
Brazilian real (old)
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The first official currency of Brazil was the real. As the currency of the Portuguese empire, it was in use in Brazil from the earliest days of the period, and remained in use until 1942. The name real was resurrected in 1994 for the new currency unit and this currency is still in use. One modern real is equivalent to 2.75 ×1018 of the old réis, the name comes from the Portuguese word real and was borrowed from a Portuguese currency previously used in Brazil. The dollar-like sign in the symbol, called cifrão in Portuguese, was always written with two vertical strokes rather than one. The real was retained when Brazil became independent in 1822 and it was not sub-divided in smaller units, even though it was affected by significant inflation during its long lifespan. The practical currency unit shifted from the real to the mil réis, amounts under 1,000 réis were typically written prefixed by Rs, as in Rs 350. In amounts of 1,000 réis and over, the Rs remained as the prefix, but the cifrão S ∥, a doubly stroked dollar sign, was inserted just after the thousands digit — as in Rs 1$712 for 1,712 réis. For amounts of one million reais and over, a colon, was inserted just after the millions digit, as in Rs 1. In the 18th century and early 19th centuries, the currency was based on the 22 carat gold piece which weighed ½ ounce. The standard for the silver currency varied during this period, with the 640 real coin fixed at 5⁄8 onça of.917 silver in 1806. In 1834, the peça was revalued at 10$000 réis and the silver 1$200 real coin was set at 415 grains of.917 silver. In 1846, a standard was established with the mil réis set at 822.076 mg gold. After the establishment of the Republic in 1889, the value of the currency fell and this was abandoned in 1933 when the mil réis was pegged to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 12$500 réis =1 dollar. A further devaluation occurred in 1939, when it was pegged to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 22$500 réis =1 USD, in 1942, the real was replaced by the cruzeiro, at a rate of 1$000 réis =1 cruzeiro. In the 1750s, copper coins were in circulation in denominations of 5,10,20 and 40 réis, silver coins for 75,150,300 and 600 réis, and gold coins for 1000,2000,4000 and 6400 réis. The silver coinage was reformed in 1778, with the introduction of 80,160,320 and 640 real coins, between 1780 and 1782, gold 800,1600 and 3200 réis were added. From 1810, Spanish 8 real coins were overstruck to produce 960 real coins, copper 80 réis were introduced in 1811
2.
Rhodesian dollar
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The dollar was the currency of Rhodesia between 1970 and 1980. It was subdivided into 100 cents, the dollar was introduced on 17 February 1970, less than a month before the declaration of a republic on 2 March 1970. It replaced the pound at a rate of 2 dollars to 1 pound, the dollar proved to be a strong currency, at parity with the pound sterling right up to the very end of Rhodesia in 1980, when it was replaced by the Zimbabwean dollar at par. However, the Rhodesian dollar was never a fully convertible currency, the choice of the name dollar was favoured by the then Minister of Finance, John Wrathall, who regarded it as having international substance. New 5 cent coins were introduced in 1973, followed by 10,20 and 25 cents in 1975, on 17 February 1970, the Reserve bank of Rhodesia introduced notes in denominations of 1,2 and 10 dollars. 5 dollar notes were added in 1972 and this table shows the historical value of one Rhodesian dollar. Rhodesian Currency Page, with a description of each note
3.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
4.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
5.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
6.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
7.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
8.
Central Bank of Brazil
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The Central Bank of Brazil is Brazils central bank. It was established on December 31,1964, the Central Bank is linked with the Ministry of Finance. Like other central banks, the Brazilian central bank is the monetary authority of the country. It received this authority when it was founded by three different institutions, the Bureau of Currency and Credit, the Bank of Brazil, one of the main instruments of Brazils monetary policy is the Banco Central do Brasils overnight rate, called the SELIC rate. The Bank is active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. It is also one of the original 17 regulatory institutions to make specific national commitments to financial inclusion under the Maya Declaration during the 2011 Global Policy Forum in Mexico. Presidents of the bank have been, Ilan Goldfajn - 09/06/2016–present Alexandre Tombini - 01/01/2011 - 09/06/2016 Henrique Meirelles - 01/01/2003 - 31/12/2010, arminio Fraga - 03/04/1999 - 01/01/2003
9.
Mint (facility)
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A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins that can be used in currency. The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins, in the beginning, hammered coinage or cast coinage were the chief means of coin minting, with resulting production runs numbering as little as the hundreds or thousands. In modern mints, coin dies are manufactured in large numbers, with the mass production of currency, the production cost is weighed when minting coins. For example, it costs the United States Mint much less than 25 cents to make a quarter, metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great intrinsic value and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The first mint was established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the spread to neighboring Greece. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete, at about the same time, coins and mints appeared independently in China and spread to Korea and Japan. The manufacture of coins in the Roman Empire, dating from about the 4th century BC, the origin of the word mint is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture, Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperors portrait, Ancient coins were made by casting in moulds or by striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, casting is now used only by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bulletshaped or conical moulds, the blank or unmarked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil, and the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower side of the received a rectangular mark made by the sharp edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the anvil was marked in ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts. The spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones, the blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar to that used in striking medals in high relief. With the substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about 300 AD, in the Middle Ages bars of metal were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the sheets were then cut out with shears
10.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
11.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
12.
Font
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
13.
Itamar Franco
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Itamar Augusto Cautiero Franco was a Brazilian politician who served as the 33rd President of Brazil from December 29,1992 to January 1,1995. He had been Vice President of Brazil from 1990 until the resignation of President Fernando Collor de Mello, during his long political career Franco also served as Senator, Mayor, Ambassador and Governor. At the time of his death he was a Senator from Minas Gerais, Franco was born prematurely at sea, aboard a ship traveling between Salvador and Rio de Janeiro. On his fathers side he was of partial German descent, while on the side he was of Italian descent. His mothers name was Itália, which means Italy in Portuguese, Francos father died prior to his birth. His family was from Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, where he grew up and became an engineer in 1955. Entering politics in the mid-1950s, Franco first served as alderman and deputy mayor of Juiz de Fora and he resigned as mayor in 1974 and ran successfully for the Federal Senate as a representative of Minas Gerais. He soon became a figure in the MDB, the official opposition to the military regime that ruled Brazil from 1964 to 1985. Re-elected as a senator in 1982, he was defeated in an attempt to be elected governor of Minas Gerais in 1986 as a candidate of the Liberal Party, during his tenure he was one of the key figures of initiative to immediate restoration of the direct elections for President. During his Senate term, Franco served as PL leader in that chamber, ironically, when Franco became President, Sarney became one of his allies. In 1989, Franco left PL and joined the small PRN to be selected the running-mate of the presidential candidate Fernando Collor de Mello, Collor and Franco won a very narrow election against a man who would later become President, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. On Tuesday, September 29,1992, Collor was charged with corruption and was impeached by the Congress, under the Brazilian Constitution, an impeached presidents powers are suspended for 180 days. As such, Franco served as acting president from October 2,1992 until Collor resigned on December 29, when he became acting President, despite having been Vice President for nearly three years, polls showed that the majority of the population did not know who he was. Franco took power as Brazil was in the midst of a economic crisis, with inflation reaching 1, 110% in 1992 and rocketing to almost 2. Franco developed a reputation as a leader, but he selected as his Finance Minister Fernando Henrique Cardoso. In an unusual gesture, moments before taking office, Franco handed senators a piece of paper on which he had listed his net worth. Initially his approval rating reached 60 percent, after the troubled Collor Presidency, Franco quickly installed a politically-balanced cabinet and sought broad support in Congress. During his Presidency, in April 1993, Brazil held a referendum to determine the political system
14.
Rubens Ricupero
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Rubens Ricupero is a Brazilian academic, economist, bureaucrat and diplomat. He served as the fifth Secretary General of the United Nations Conference on Trade, Ricupero earned a Bachelor in Law from the University of São Paulo in 1959. He also studied at the Rio Branco Institute, a branch of the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Relations, Ricupero was Chairman of the Finance Committee at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development which was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. He was the Brazilian Minister of the Environment and Amazonian Affairs and he is credited with providing continuity during the implementation of the Plano Real. This plan encompassed anti-inflationary monetary reform, the introduction of the modern Brazilian real, ISBN9788571061514, OCLC2545114681995 — Visões do Brasil, ensaios sobre a história e a inserção internacional do Brasil. ISBN9788501043368, OCLC2540901421994 — A Nova inserção internacional do Brasil 1994 — Estabilidade e crescimento, os desafios do real 1993 — NAFTA, coral Gables, Florida, North-South Center, University of Miami. OCLC296615571992 — O Futuro do Brasil, a América Latina e o fim da guerra fria 1991 — Brasil em mudança Dornbusch, Rüdiger, reform, Recovery, and Growth, Latin America and the Middle East. ISBN9780226158457, OCLC246597653 Rubens Ricupero
15.
Economy of Brazil
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Brazil has the worlds ninth largest economy by nominal GDP, and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. The Brazilian economy is characterized by an inward-oriented economy, Brazils economy is the largest of Latin America and the second largest in the Americas. However, Brazils economy growth decelerated in 2013 and the country entered a recession in 2014. Brazil is a member of diverse organizations, such as Mercosur, Unasul, G8+5, G20, WTO. When the Portuguese explorers arrived in the 16th century, the tribes of current-day Brazil. From Portugals colonization of Brazil until the late 1930s, the elements of the Brazilian economy relied on the production of primary products for exports. The economy of Brazil was heavily dependent on African enslaved labour until the late 19th century, in Brazils case, statistics showed that 4.5 million people emigrated to the country between 1882 and 1934.5 million television sets, and 3 million refrigerators. In addition, about 70 million cubic meters of petroleum were being processed annually into fuels, lubricants, propane gas, furthermore, Brazil has at least 161,500 kilometers of paved roads and more than 93 Gigawatts of installed electric power capacity. Its real per capita GDP has surpassed US$10,500 in 2008, due to the strong and its industrial sector accounts for three-fifths of the Latin American economys industrial production. The agricultural sector and the sector also supported trade surpluses which allowed for massive currency gains. Due to a downturn in Western economies, Brazil found itself in 2010 trying to halt the appreciation of the real, data from the Asian Development Bank and the Tax Justice Network show the untaxed shadow economy of GDP for Brazil is 39%. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 67.0 percent, agriculture represents 5.5 percent of GDP. Brazilian labor force is estimated at 100.77 million of which 10 percent is occupied in agriculture,19 percent in the sector and 71 percent in the service sector. Agribusiness contributes to Brazils trade balance, in spite of trade barriers, in the space of fifty five years, the population of Brazil grew from 51 million to approximately 187 million inhabitants, an increase of over 2 percent per year. Brazil created and expanded a complex agribusiness sector, however, some of this is at the expense of the environment, including the Amazon. With regards to agriculture, over 800 thousand rural inhabitants are assisted by credit, research. A special line of credit is available for women and young farmers, the idea is that access to land represents just the first step towards the implementation of a quality land reform program. At the forefront of grain crops, which produce over 110 million tonnes/year, is the soybean, Brazil has the largest cattle herd in the world, with 198 million heads, responsible for exports surpassing the mark of US$1 billion/year
16.
Brazilian cruzeiro real
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The cruzeiro real was the short-lived currency of Brazil between August 1,1993 and June 30,1994. It was subdivided in 100 centavos, however, this unit was used only for accounting purposes, the currency had the ISO4217 code BRR. The cruzeiro real was replaced with the current Brazilian real as part of the Plano Real, the cruzeiro real replaced the third cruzeiro, with 1000 cruzeiros =1 cruzeiro real. The cruzeiro real was replaced in circulation by the real at a rate of 1 real for 2750 cruzeiros reais, before this occurred, the unidade real de valor was used in pricing, to allow the population to become accustomed to a stable currency before the real was introduced. Stainless-steel coins were issued in 1993 and 1994 in denominations of 5,10,50 and 100 cruzeiros reais, in 1993, provisional banknotes were introduced in the form of cruzeiro notes overprinted in the new currency. These were in denominations of 50,100 and 500 cruzeiros reais, regular notes followed in denominations of 1000,5000 and 50,000 cruzeiros reais
17.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
18.
Russian default
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The Russian financial crisis hit Russia on 17 August 1998. It resulted in the Russian government and the Russian Central Bank devaluing the ruble, the crisis had severe impacts on the economies of many neighboring countries. Meanwhile, James Cook, the vice president of The U. S. Russia Investment Fund, suggested the crisis had the effect of teaching Russian banks to diversify their assets. Declining productivity, a fixed exchange rate between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, and a chronic fiscal deficit were the reasons that led to the crisis. The economic cost of the first war in Chechnya, estimated at $5.5 billion, in the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify, two external shocks, the Asian financial crisis that had begun in 1997 and the following declines in demand for crude oil and nonferrous metals, severely impacted Russian foreign exchange reserves. A political crisis came to a head in March when Russian president Boris Yeltsin suddenly dismissed Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin, Yeltsin named Energy Minister Sergei Kiriyenko, then 35 years old, as acting prime minister. On 29 May 1998, Yeltsin appointed Boris Fyodorov as Head of the State Tax Service, in an effort to prop up the currency and stem the flight of capital, in June 1998 Kiriyenko hiked GKO interest rates to 150%. On 12 May 1998, coal miners went on strike over unpaid wages, by 1 August 1998 there were approximately $12.5 billion in debt owed to Russian workers. On 14 August 1998 the exchange rate of the Russian ruble to the US dollar was still 6.29, despite the bailout, July 1998 monthly interest payments on Russia’s debt rose to a figure 40 percent higher than its monthly tax collections. If the ruble threatened to devalue outside of range, the Central Bank would intervene by spending foreign reserves to buy rubles. Similarly, it would sell rubles if the exchange rate threatened to drop below 5.3. Investors fled the market by selling rubles and Russian assets, which also put pressure on the ruble. This forced the Central Bank to spend its foreign reserves to defend Russias currency and it is estimated that between 1 October 1997 and 17 August 1998, the Central Bank expended approximately $27 billion of its U. S. dollar reserves to maintain the floating peg. On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble, defaulted on domestic debt, and declared a moratorium on repayment of foreign debt. On that day the Russian government and the Central Bank of Russia issued a Joint Statement announcing, in essence, that, on 17 August 1998 the government declared that certain state securities would be transformed into new securities. At the same time, in addition to widening the currency band, at the time, the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange set a daily official exchange rate through a series of interactive auctions based on written bids submitted by buyers and sellers
19.
Antonio Palocci
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Antonio Palocci Filho is a Brazilian physician and politician, and former Chief of Staff of Brazil under President Dilma Rousseff. He was the Finance minister of the Brazilian federal government from January 1,2003 until March 27,2006 and he resigned from his office as Chief of Staff on June 7,2011. Raised in Ribeirão Preto, in the state of São Paulo and his father was an artist and teacher. During his youth as a student at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto Medical School. He was one of the founders of the Workers Party and was its President in São Paulo from 1997 to 1998, after graduation, Palocci worked for five years as a civil servant at the Ribeirão Preto regionel office of the São Paulo State Public Health Secretary. He inaugurated the Workers’ Health Ward and was the director of the office of the Public Health Service. When Palocci was 28 years old, after occupying positions in various labour unions, since then, Palocci has never lost an election. However, he completed one of his terms. Palocci was elected councilman in Ribeirão Preto in 1988 and he did not finish his term because he stepped down to run in the election for the office of state deputy. In 1992, he resigned his term as deputy to assume the role of mayor of Ribeirão Preto, after winning the local election. It is during his administrations as mayor that Palocci is alleged to have led a major slush fund operation for the Workers Party, in 1995, he received the UNICEF’s Child and Peace prize for his work for the rights of infants and adolescents. In 2002, he received the Mário Covas Award from SEBRAE again for his work on behalf of small businesses. Palocci was elected deputy in 1998. In 2000, he resigned his office so that he could run again in the election in Ribeirão Preto. He won the election, and thus was mayor of Ribeirão Preto again from 2001 to 2002 and he resigned in 2002 so he could help Luiz Inácio Lula da Silvas campaign for the Brazilian presidency. In 2003, when Lula was elected, Palocci officially resigned as the mayor of Ribeirão Preto and was nominated the Finance Minister of Brazil, along with former minister José Dirceu, Palocci was considered one of the most influential and strong ministers of Lula’s government. On January 1,2011, Palocci was appointed by President Dilma Rousseff as her Chief of Staff, in 2005, Antonio Palocci was also involved in the Mensalão scandal, after being accused by Rogério Buratti, his former secretary in the Ribeirão Preto administration. According to Buratti, between 2001 and 2004, Palocci received a R$50,000 monthly payment from Leão & Leão, Palocci, however, denied this and accused the prosecutors of leaking the preliminary results of an ongoing investigation
20.
Stainless steel
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In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10. 5% chromium content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its resistance, and it is widely used for food handling. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, however, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure, Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present, unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form, since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation and this layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough, Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are made of stainless steel. This also influences its use in kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized. High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% chromium. The chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous, the layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, when forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel. However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile, nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling, low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication
21.
Brass
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Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc, the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is an alloy, atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin, however, bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The term is applied to a variety of brasses. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both terms for objects in favour of the all-embracing copper alloy. It is also used in zippers, Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc, the relatively low melting point of brass and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard, the density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre. Today, almost 90% of all alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet, Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid, aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of oxide to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent. Tin has an effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant, to enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 2%. Since lead has a melting point than the other constituents of the brass. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available surface area which in turn affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface and these effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content
22.
Cupronickel
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Cupronickel is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. Despite its high content, cupronickel is silver in colour. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater because its potential is adjusted to be neutral with regard to seawater. Another common use of cupronickel is in silver-coloured modern-circulated coins, a typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. In the past, true silver coins were debased with cupronickel, Cupronickel alloys are used for marine applications due to their resistance to seawater corrosion, good fabricability, and their effectiveness in lowering macrofouling levels. Alloys ranging in composition from 90% Cu–10% Ni to 70% Cu–30% Ni are commonly specified in heat exchanger or condenser tubes in a variety of marine applications. Desalination plants, Cupronickel alloys are used in brine heaters, heat rejection and recovery, offshore oil and gas platforms and processing and FPSO vessels, Cupronickel alloys are used in systems and splash zone sheathings. Power generation, Cupronickel alloys are used in steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear, seawater system design, Cupronickel alloys are used in tubular heat exchangers and condensers, piping and high pressure systems. Seawater system components, Cupronickel alloys are used in condenser and heat exchanger tubes, tubesheets, piping, fittings, pumps, in Europe, Switzerland pioneered the nickel billon coinage in 1850, with the addition of silver. In 1968, Switzerland adopted the far cheaper 75,25 copper to nickel ratio then being used by the Belgians, the United States, and Germany. From 1947 to 2012, all “silver” coinage in the UK was made from cupronickel, prior to these dates, both denominations had been made only in silver in the United States. Cupronickel is the cladding on either side of United States half-dollars since 1971, currently, some circulating coins, such as the United States Jefferson nickel, the Swiss franc, and the South Korean 500 and 100 won are made of solid cupronickel. Single-core thermocouple cables use a single pair of thermocouple conductors such as iron-constantan. These have the element of constantan or nickel-chromium alloy within a sheath of copper. Cupronickel is used in cryogenic applications, beginning around the turn of the 20th century, bullet jackets were commonly made from this material. It was soon replaced with gilding metal to reduce fouling in the bore. Currently, cupronickel remains the basic material for silver-plated cutlery and it is commonly used for mechanical and electrical equipment, medical equipment, zippers, jewelry items, and as material for strings for string instruments. Fender Musical Instruments used CuNiFe magnets in their Wide Range Humbucker pickup for various Telecaster and Starcaster guitars during the 1970s, for high-quality cylinder locks and locking systems, cylinder cores are made from wear-resistant cupronickel
23.
Tiradentes
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When the plan was discovered, Tiradentes was arrested, tried and publicly hanged. Since the 19th century he has considered a national hero of Brazil. Born to a family in a farm in Pombal, Ritápolis, near to São João del Rey, Minas Gerais, Tiradentes was adopted by his godfather. Tiradentes was raised by a tutor, who was a surgeon and his lack of formal education didnt stop him from working in several fields, including dental medicine, Tiradentes means tooth puller, a pejorative denomination adopted during the trial against him. He practiced several professions—cattle driver, miner, dentist—and was a member of the Minas Gerais Dragoon Regiment, as Tiradentes was not a member of the local aristocracy, he was systematically overlooked for promotion and never rose above the rank of alferes. Tiradentes soon noticed the exploitation to which Brazilians were subjected, he saw how much gold and his trips to Rio put him in contact with people who had lived in Europe and brought from there the liberal ideas. At that time, Portugal was hungry for gold, however, the Brazilians were not meeting the yearly quota of gold that was requested by the crown, and there was pressure from Portugal to ensure all the due taxes were paid. The days of payment of taxes were called derrama, influenced by the writings of Rousseau, and by the American Revolution, Tiradentes joined with a number of like-minded citizens in the Inconfidência Mineira. They wanted a republic with its capital at São João del Rei. The proposed flag for the new republic was white with a triangle surrounded by the Latin motto Libertas Quae Sera Tamen. The flag later became the flag of Minas Gerais, the only modification was the color of the triangle which was changed to red. However, the movement was disclosed to the governor, who canceled the derrama, joaquim Silverio dos Reis, a member of the movement, betrayed the group in exchange for waiving of his taxes. The trial lasted almost three years, Tiradentes assumed complete responsibility for the movement. Ten members of the group were sentenced to death, but Queen Maria I of Portugal commuted all the sentences, except that of Tiradentes, from death to degradation. He began to be considered a hero by the republicans in the late 19th century. Maxwell, Kenneth R, Conflicts and Conspiracies, Brazil & Portugal 1750-1808 ISBN 0-521-20053-9 Museu da Inconfidência Tiradentes at about. com Tiradentes at e-Biografias
24.
Martyr
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A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a belief or cause as demanded by an external party. This refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of the martyr by the oppressor, originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term is now often used in connection with people imprisoned or killed for espousing a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership, Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had effects in secular life, including specific figures such as Socrates, as well as in politics. In its original meaning, the martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible. The term, in this sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom, the early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion. The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr, the word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata, during the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e. g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior, Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning sanctification of Gods name through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. Frend, Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom and it was this Jewish psychology of martyrdom that inspired Christian martyrdom. In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, in particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows, however, over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word martyr developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the follow the example of Jesus in offering up their lives for truth. The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention, analyses of the Gospel passion narratives have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus death as a martyrdom
25.
Triangle
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A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted △ A B C, in Euclidean geometry any three points, when non-collinear, determine a unique triangle and a unique plane. This article is about triangles in Euclidean geometry except where otherwise noted, triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides, An equilateral triangle has all sides the same length. An equilateral triangle is also a polygon with all angles measuring 60°. An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length, some mathematicians define an isosceles triangle to have exactly two equal sides, whereas others define an isosceles triangle as one with at least two equal sides. The latter definition would make all equilateral triangles isosceles triangles, the 45–45–90 right triangle, which appears in the tetrakis square tiling, is isosceles. A scalene triangle has all its sides of different lengths, equivalently, it has all angles of different measure. Hatch marks, also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles, a side can be marked with a pattern of ticks, short line segments in the form of tally marks, two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern. In a triangle, the pattern is no more than 3 ticks. Similarly, patterns of 1,2, or 3 concentric arcs inside the angles are used to indicate equal angles, triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees. A right triangle has one of its interior angles measuring 90°, the side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse, the longest side of the triangle. The other two sides are called the legs or catheti of the triangle, special right triangles are right triangles with additional properties that make calculations involving them easier. One of the two most famous is the 3–4–5 right triangle, where 32 +42 =52, in this situation,3,4, and 5 are a Pythagorean triple. The other one is a triangle that has 2 angles that each measure 45 degrees. Triangles that do not have an angle measuring 90° are called oblique triangles, a triangle with all interior angles measuring less than 90° is an acute triangle or acute-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 > c2, a triangle with one interior angle measuring more than 90° is an obtuse triangle or obtuse-angled triangle. If c is the length of the longest side, then a2 + b2 < c2, a triangle with an interior angle of 180° is degenerate
26.
Pedro I of Brazil
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Dom Pedro I, nicknamed the Liberator, was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. As King Dom Pedro IV, he reigned briefly over Portugal, born in Lisbon, Pedro I was the fourth child of King Dom João VI of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina, and thus a member of the House of Braganza. When their country was invaded by French troops in 1807, he and his family fled to Portugals largest and wealthiest colony, Brazil. The outbreak of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Lisbon compelled Pedro Is father to return to Portugal in April 1821 and he had to deal with threats from revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of which he subdued. The Portuguese governments threat to revoke the autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808 was met with widespread discontent in Brazil. Pedro I chose the Brazilian side and declared Brazils independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822, on 12 October, he was acclaimed Brazilian emperor and by March 1824 had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. A few months later, Pedro I crushed the short-lived Confederation of the Equator, in March 1826, Pedro I briefly became king of Portugal before abdicating in favor of his eldest daughter, Dona Maria II. The situation worsened in 1828 when the war in the south resulted in Brazils loss of Cisplatina, during the same year in Lisbon, Maria IIs throne was usurped by Prince Dom Miguel, Pedro Is younger brother. The Emperors concurrent and scandalous affair with a female courtier tarnished his reputation. Other difficulties arose in the Brazilian parliament, where a struggle over whether the government would be chosen by the monarch or by the legislature dominated political debates from 1826 to 1831. Unable to deal with problems in both Brazil and Portugal simultaneously, on 7 April 1831 Pedro I abdicated in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, Pedro I invaded Portugal at the head of an army in July 1832. Pedro I died of tuberculosis on 24 September 1834, just a few months after he, Pedro was born at 08,00 on 12 October 1798 in the Queluz Royal Palace near Lisbon, Portugal. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara, and his name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and his mother, Doña Carlota Joaquina, was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV of Spain. Pedros parents had an unhappy marriage, Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman, who always sought to advance Spains interests, even to the detriment of Portugals. Reputedly unfaithful to her husband, she went as far as to plot his overthrow in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles, as the second eldest son, Pedro became his fathers heir apparent and Prince of Beira upon the death of his elder brother Francisco António in 1801. Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of his mother, Queen Maria I, by 1802, Pedros parents were estranged, João lived in the Mafra National Palace and Carlota Joaquina in Ramalhão Palace. Pedro and his siblings resided in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I, far from their parents, in late November 1807, when Pedro was nine, the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon
27.
Field marshal
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Field marshal is a very senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually it is the highest rank in an army, and when it is and it is considered as a five-star rank in modern-day armed forces in many countries. The origin of the dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the kings horses. Promotion to the rank of marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general. However, the rank has also used as a divisional command rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton, the baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton, the exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies, examples include marshal and field marshal general. The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force. Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as fleet admiral, Field marshal Mohammad Qasim Fahim was a politician in Afghanistan who served as Vice President from June 2002 until December 2004 and from November 2009 until his death. Between September 2001 and December 2004, he served as Defense Minister under the Afghan Transitional Administration. As military commander of the Northern Alliance, Fahim captured the Afghan capital Kabul in the fall of 2001 from the Taliban government, in 2004 President Hamid Karzai provided Fahim the honorary title Marshal and a year later he became member of the House of Elders. He later became a recipient of the Ahmad Shah Baba Medal, Fahim was a member of Afghanistans Tajik ethnic group. He was affiliated with the Jamiat Islami party of Afghanistan, Sir Thomas Blamey was the first and is the only Australian-born field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of the Australian prime minister, Sir Robert Menzies, Blamey was, at the time of his promotion, seriously ill and mostly bed-ridden in the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital. He was presented with his marshals baton at a ceremony held in the sunroom at the Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital by the Governor-General of Australia. Blameys field marshals baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Currently, the only Australian field marshal is HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, during Imperial rule in China, different dynasty gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is 司馬 in Eastern Han dynasty, which means master of horse
28.
Deodoro da Fonseca
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Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca was a Brazilian politician and military officer who served as the first President of Brazil. He is therefore the first Brazilian President to have resigned from office, Fonseca was born the third child of a large military family in Vila Madalena, Alagoas, a town that today bears his name as Marechal Deodoro, in Northeast Brazil. He was the son of Manuel Mendes da Fonseca Galvão and his wife Rosa Maria Paulina de Barros Cavalcanti, in the period of the Brazilian Empire, his older brother Severino Martins da Fonseca was nominated the first Baron of Alagoas. Another notable relative was the Portuguese humanist Francisco de Holanda, his remote uncle, Fonseca pursued a military career that was notable for his suppression of the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco in 1848, Brazils response to the European year of failed liberal revolutions. He also saw action during the Paraguayan War, attaining the rank of captain, in 1884 he was promoted to the rank of field-marshal, and he later achieved the rank of full marshal. His personal courage, military competence and manly personal style made him a national figure, as Governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Fonseca was courted by republican intellectuals such as Benjamin Constant and Rui Barbosa in the café society of São Paulo. His daughter, Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, abolished entirely in 1888. Enraged oligarchs played a role in the subsequent coup détat, soon, however, he was in conflict with the civilian republican leaders. His election as president on 25 February 1891, by a plurality, was backed with military pressure on Congress. During the first months of his presidency, he permitted his ministers almost unrestricted control of their ministries and this also caused republicans of the South to withdraw their support from the marshal and provisional government. The situation reached a stage when Fonseca dissolved the National Congress. A group of deputies opposed this decision and found support among the officers of the Navy. The marshal found himself on the brink of a civil war, on 23 November 1891 he signed a resignation and turned over the presidency to Floriano Peixoto. Deodoro da Fonseca died in Rio de Janeiro on 23 August 1892, Deodoro da Fonseca in art List of presidents of Brazil Media related to Deodoro da Fonseca at Wikimedia Commons Charles Willis Simmons, Marshal Deodoro and the fall of Dom Pedro II,1966
29.
Coat of arms of Brazil
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The coat of arms of Brazil was created on November 19,1889, four days after Brazil became a republic. The coat of arms consists of the central emblem surrounded by coffee and tobacco branches, in the blue circle in the center, the Southern Cross can be seen. The ring of 27 stars around it represents Brazils 26 states, the blue ribbon contains the official name of Brazil in its first line. Prior to 1964, this contained the previous official name. In the second line, the date of the federative republics establishment is written, the National Arms of the Republic were instituted by Decree No. 4, with alteration made by Law No, II - The shield will be placed on a star parted gyronny of ten pieces, green and gold, bordered by two strips, the inner red and the outer gold. These arms are used by the present imperial house, on 18 September 1822, eleven days after proclaiming Brazils independence Royal Prince Dom Pedro signed a decree instituting these arms stating. On 12 October 1822 when the independent country was declared an Empire and Prince Pedro became the countrys first emperor. The number of stars in the coat of arms reflected the number of provinces in the Brazilian Empire, the design of the Crown in the coat of arms changed twice. That is the version of the imperial coat of arms of Brazil. Brazil Brazilian heraldry Coat of arms Coat of arms of Dutch Brazil Coats of Brazilian states Flagspot
Brazil
) rather than one.[5] However Unicode considers the difference to be only a matter of font design, and does not have a separate code for the two-stroked version.[6]
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