1.
Capital city
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
2.
Chamberlain Bridge
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The Chamberlain Bridge is a bridge in Bridgetown, the capital and largest city of the nation of Barbados. In 1872, it was a bridge across the marine inlet channel of the inner basin of the Careenage at Carlisle Bay. The out moded steel structure was dismantled and rebuilt in 2005–2006 as a bridge with the state-of the-art modern technology of an all-composite single-leaf bascule design. This design is a bridge span that pivots upward, permitting pleasure craft to pass through an inlet channel. The bridge was built using fibre-reinforced plastic, which is lighter, long lasting, there are two bridges in use in Bridgetown. The swing bridge replaced an old wooden bridge named “Indian Bridge and he is also credited with allocation of large funds as grants and loans to subsist the economy of Barbados. The town was known as the town of St. Michael. Indeed, the town was known as Indian Bridgetown or Indian Town for some time after this bridge, the history of this bridge is recorded by Warren Alleyne in his book Historic Bridgetown. According to Alleyne, a bridge, built by the indigenous Arawak, was replaced in 1628 by the Wolverstone settlers. It was rebuilt in 1654 after its condition deteriorated, subsequently, fires gutted the bridge and it had to be rebuilt again in 1668. The problem was compounded by a hurricane in 1675 and again in 1677 and this constant disruption caused inconvenience to traffic and prompted the authorities to build another bridge. The second bridge was built by levying a tax on the slaves, by 1681, Bridgetown had two bridges, the west bridge, which was built at the same location as the Indian Bridge, and the east bridge, built at the present site of the ONeal Bridge. 18th century Floods in 1700 destroyed the west bridge, resulting in one bridge remaining as a link between the two banks of the river. Fifty years later, in 1751, the bridge was rebuilt but it also ended in disaster due to poor construction. This was followed by a constructed in 1760 for pedestrians only. 19th century In 1862, when Trafalgar Square was gutted, an exercise of the entire complex resulted in planning for a swing bridge also. Construction for the bridge started in 1865 but had to be dismantled as it did not conform to the approved design. This was followed by shipping over the metalwork manufactured in London in transportable sections and this exercise also ended in controversy, as both ends could not be joined due to a gap
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
5.
Parishes of Barbados
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The country of Barbados is divided into sub-regions known as parishes. They are legally styled as the Parish of as opposed to the American naming convention with the name Parish coming after the name, the use of the term parish derives from the islands religious Anglican history under the Church of England. This system of churches was based on the system that of the Church of England and was the visible expression forming the basis of the parliamentary representation in Barbados. The differing size and shape of each parish were primarily influenced by the plantation estates of cotton, sugar cane. Thus Barbados was converted into the current eleven parishes of today, as was common under the British system, each Parish had a single main parishional church, which acted as a sort of capital for each parish. The parishes each held their own Local Government Councils until these were abolished in 1959, the nations capital Bridgetown, which is located within the parish of Saint Michael, may one day be made into its own district. Within the country, travel is unrestricted to everyone in moving about from parish-to-parish, with the rise of urban sprawl and new construction projects across the country many neighbourhoods and even parishional border-lines today are ill defined. Stamford Street and Charing Cross, London, William Clowes and Sons, Barbados Parliament, The defined Parish area borders of Barbados Barbados Parishes Barbados Statistical Service Barbados Government census by Parish
6.
Saint Michael, Barbados
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The parish of St. Michael is one of eleven parishes of Barbados. It has an area of 39 km2 and is found at the southwest portion of the island. Saint Michael has survived by name as one of the six parishes created in 1629 by Governor Sir William Tufton. The parish is home to Bridgetown, the capital of Barbados, Bridgetown is the centre of commercial activity in Barbados, as well as a central hub for the public transport network. Other major infrastructure in St. Michael is the seaport of Barbados—the Deep Water Harbour. Therein, a number of cruise ships arrive and depart including various lines such as Royal Caribbean, the harbour features several sugar towers for loading locally produced sugar into transport ships, and a tower for loading flour for transport. Under Barbados historic vestry system, the parish church is seated along St. Michaels Row in Bridgetown. This cathedral replaced the parish church that was formerly located at the site of St. Marys Church. St. Michaels Cathedrals was elevated to its status under Bishop Coleridge who arrived in Barbados in 1825 under the then newly established Diocese of Barbados. Christ Church - South Saint George - East Saint James - Northwest Saint Thomas - Northeast with Christ Church, – Starts from the point of the parishes of St. George. Then it moves westerly along Highway R to its junction at Wildey with the Airport to West Coast Highway, with St. George, – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. This is the point of the parishes of St. George, St. Michael. Kayla Foods Intl Inc. an international division of Yogen Früz, is located in Saint Michael, several schools are located in St
7.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
8.
Garrison Historic Area
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St. Anns Garrison, or more commonly known as The Garrison, is a small district located in the country of Barbados. This Garrison Historic Area is situated about 2 miles south of Heroes Square in the capital-city Bridgetown and it is dominated by its historic horse race-track, located on the 30 acre parade ground called the Garrison Savannah. The Garrison area additionally contains many buildings including barracks for military personnel. The district is bisected by Highway 7, with Saint Anns Fort, during both the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the Garrison was the base and headquarters for members of the British West India Regiment in Barbados. In 1751, the leader of the American Revolution and first president of the United States, George Washington. This restored property remains as a fixture at the Garrison where it is called the George Washington House. By the middle of the century, wealthy prominent Barbadians. There are a number of significant buildings at the location. Many of these housed the Regiment units of the British Garrison, including the building houses the Barbados Museum. Evidence of this includes prison cells of the former Garrison, Barbados Regiment Barbados Defence Force West India Regiment List of historic buildings in Bridgetown and Saint Anns Garrison Hartland, Major Michael. A Concise & Illustrated Military History, Garrison is world heritage site Great Cannons of Barbados, by M. on Facebook
9.
Carlisle Bay, Barbados
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Carlisle Bay is a small natural harbour located in the southwest region of Barbados. The island nations capital, Bridgetown, is situated on this bay, Carlisle Bays marine park is a popular spot on the island for scuba diving. Many relics, like anchors and cannonballs, from ships can be found on the floor in Carlisle Bay. The bay takes its name from Barbados second Lord Proprietor, James Hay, Lord Carlisle claimed the island through Royal grant on behalf of King Charles I of England in 1627. Carlisle Bay is home to one of Barbados historic lighthouses the Needhams Point Lighthouse, during the Second World War a British ship, the Cornwallis, was torpedoed by a German U-Boat, at this location
10.
Ring road
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A ring road is a road or a series of connected roads encircling a town or city. Australia and India also use the ring road, as in Melbournes Western Ring Road. In Canada the term is the most commonly used, with orbital also used to a lesser extent. In Europe, some ring roads, particularly those of standard which are longer in length, are often known as orbital motorways. Examples include the London Orbital, Rome Orbital and Manchester Orbital, in the United States, many ring roads are called beltlines, beltways, or loops, such as the Capital Beltway around Washington, D. C. Some ring roads, such as Washingtons Capital Beltway, use Inner Loop and Outer Loop terminology for directions of travel, the term ring road is occasionally – and inaccurately – used interchangeably with the term bypass. Construction of fully circumferential ring roads has generally occurred more recently, beginning in the 1960s in many areas, Interstate Highway System and similar-quality roads elsewhere were designed. Columbus, Ohio, in the United States, also has two, while Houston, Texas will have three official ring roads, some cities have far more – Beijing, for example, has five ring roads, simply numbered in increasing order from the city center. Geographical constraints can complicate or prohibit the construction of a ring road. Adjacency of international boundaries may also prohibit ring road completion in other cases, sometimes, the presence of significant natural or historical areas limits route options, as for the long-proposed Outer Beltway around Washington, D. C. C. Ring roads can also exist around radio masts carrying an umbrella antenna at the basements of the anchor of the wire of the umbrella antenna, such ring roads are usually only for internal use and closed to the public. Most orbital motorways are purpose-built major highways around a town or city, in the United States, beltways are commonly parts of the Interstate Highway System. Similar roads in the United Kingdom are often called orbital motorways, an excellent example of this is Londons North Circular/South Circular ring road. Such loops not only function as a bypass for through traffic, in the United States, an Interstate highway loop is usually designated by a three-digit number beginning with an even digit before the two-digit number of its parent interstate. Interstate spurs, on the hand, generally have three-digit numbers beginning with an odd digit. Circumferential highways are prominent features in or near large cities in the United States. In many cases, such as Atlanta, Georgia, Interstate 285 serves as a bypass while other highways pass directly through the city center. However, if a primary Interstate passes through a city and a loop bypasses it on one side
11.
ABC Highway
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The ABC Highway is the main urban highway in Barbados. Opened in 1989, it is named after three famous Barbadian politicians, John Michael Geoffrey Manningham Adams, Errol Barrow, and Hugh Gordon Cummins and it roughly encircles the Parish of Saint Michael and wider metropolitan area of Bridgetown. The highway consist of both two-lane and dual carriageway sections with at-grade intersections, mostly roundabouts, a 2006–2007 expansion project enlarged some sections and there was some public sentiment voiced in local media about the projects lack of a competitive tender process or studies to justify costs. The ABC Highway provides relative ease of access to the Deep Water Harbour in Bridgetown, at the official western terminus, the road becomes University Drive. The road proceeds to the Frank Worrel roundabout where it has a junction with Highway 1, from the Frank Worrel roundabout, direct access to the harbour is available via the Spring Garden Highway. At the end of Spring Garden Highway, direct access to the port is accessed by turning right onto President Kennedy Drive, list of highways in Barbados Totally Barbados
12.
Christ Church, Barbados
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The parish of Christ Church is one of eleven historic political divisions of Barbados. It has an area of 57 km2 and is found at the southern end of the island. Christ Church has survived by name as one of the six parishes created in 1629 by Governor Sir William Tufton. The parish contains the Sir Grantley Adams International Airport as well as the last remaining mangrove swamp in the country, under Barbadoss historic vestry, the main parish church was originally seated near Dover. After it and the courtyard were destroyed by flood in 1669, another notable area of Christ Church is Saint Lawrence Gap, which is the most lively tourist area on the island. Many of the taverns and clubs in St. Lawrence are frequented by locals, Saint George - North Saint Michael - West Saint Philip - East with St. George, – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. This is the point of the parishes of St. George, Christ Church. This point is marked by a monument, with St. Michael, – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. with St. Philip, – Starting from the meeting point of the parishes of St. George, St. The Barbados Civil Aviation Department has its office on the property of Grantley Adams International Airport. The District A & C Court maintains a seat in Saint Matthias, the Royal Barbados Police Force maintains posts located as Hastings, and Worthings, and the Barbados Postal Service at Oistins and Worthings. Christ Church covers five geographical constituencies for the House of Assembly, Christ Church-East includes Fairy Valley, there is also a number of public service vehicles which serve Christ Church. Barbadoss primary airport, Grantley Adams International Airport, at Seawell, the town of Oistins once housed a submarine and Coast Guard station. A jetty facility is located for fisher-folk to unload seafood at the Oistins market
13.
Saint James, Barbados
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The parish of Saint James is an area located in the western central part of the country of Barbados. Increasingly St. James is becoming known as the playground of the rich and famous, many Barbadians say within the Platinum Coast there are billionaires such as the deceased Sathya Sai Baba and others own property somewhere within a 6-mile stretch of beach on the island. The parish also has historic significance, as it was here that the first British settlers landed in 1625. Though a haven for tourists and foreign expatriates, St. James is far from exclusive. As one of the parishes, it is home to over 20,000 nationals strewn across its many districts. At its most rural, the many villages are abuzz with activity, near-familial camaraderie. Saint Andrew - East Saint Peter - North Saint Michael - South Saint Thomas - Southeast with St. Andrew, – Starting from the point of the parishes of St. Peter, St. James. This is the point of the parishes of St. James, St. Andrew. This is the point of the parishes of St. James, St. Thomas. Good Shepherd Primary School is an elementary school in Fitts Village. It is located near the hamlets of Prospect and West Terrace
14.
Grantley Adams International Airport
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Grantley Adams International Airport is the international airport of Barbados, located in Seawell, Christ Church. It is the designated port of entry for persons arriving and departing by air in Barbados. The airport has service to destinations in the United States, Canada, Central America, South America and Europe. In 2016, the airport was the 8th busiest airport in the Caribbean region, the airports former name was Seawell Airport before being dedicated posthumously in honour of the first Premier of Barbados, Sir Grantley Herbert Adams in 1976. The airports timezone is GMT −4 and is in World Area Code region No.246, Grantley Adams International Airport lies 12.9 km from the centre of the capital city Bridgetown, in an area officially known as Seawell. This is contrary to most information services stating the airport as being inside the capital, Grantley Adams Airport is the main air transportation hub for the Eastern Caribbean. The terrain is flat and quite suburban. The airport lies in the portion of parish of Christ Church. The airport has easy access to the ABC Highway/highway 7 heading towards the capital and locations to the north, the airport has recently undergone a multi-phase US$100 million upgrade and expansion by the government, which added a new arrivals hall adjacent to the prior arrivals/departures terminals. Construction was made more complicated because the airport has to remain open for up to 16 hours per day. Its current infrastructure is supposed to meet the needs of Barbados until at least 2015, the phase III construction project, which is yet to be completed will see changes made to the aeroplane parking configuration. At the time there was merely a grassy strip as the runway, the strip was paved some time later and in 1949 the first terminal was built on the site, to replace a shed that was being used. This ushered in the facility being known as the Seawell Airport. During the 1960s the eastern flight-range just south-east of the airport known as Paragon. This area became the base of a High Altitude Research Project known as Project HARP. Project HARP was jointly sponsored by McGill University in Canada and the United States military, in 1983, the US-sponsored invasion of Grenada prompted the United States to form another agreement with Barbados. As part of the deal, the US expanded a part of the current airport infrastructure and this prepared Grantley Adams Airport to be used as a base. As part of the plan to maintain for lasting stability in Grenada, the RSS was a security unit focused on providing security for the Eastern Caribbean
15.
Caribbean
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The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
16.
Parliament of Barbados
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The Parliament of Barbados is the national legislature of Barbados. It is accorded legislative supremacy by Chapter V of the Constitution of Barbados, the Parliament is bicameral in composition and is formally made up of, Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, an appointed Senate, and an elected House of Assembly. Both houses sit in separate chambers in the Parliament Buildings, in the national capital Bridgetown in Saint Michael, the Senate is made up of twenty-one Senators and The Queen, while the House consists of thirty Members of Parliament in addition to the Honourable Speaker of the House. The Parliament of Barbados is originally patterned after the Parliament of England, so the structure, functions, sittings of both House and Senate are usually held once per month, with other meetings called as necessary. The House sits on Tuesdays beginning at 10, 30am, and are broadcast live on the radio station. Sittings of the Senate take place on Wednesdays, the Parliament of Barbados is the third oldest legislature in the Americas, and is among the oldest in the Commonwealth of Nations. The genesis of a legislature in Barbados was introduced by Governor Henry Hawley, creating a structure of governance to Barbados, the then unicameral Parliament originally was tasked with establishing a system of laws and was completely under the domination of the islands planter-class. The first meeting of the Barbados Assembly was held in 1639, the initial location known as the Sessions House which was situated in the Marlhill, which is now known as Spry Street. Built by Captain Henry Hawley, the building may have originally accommodated his Courts of Law, by 1653, the Assembly moved to the State House then located in Bridgetown area known as Cheapside. In 1668 the State House was destroyed by a fire started by an explosion of the Bridgetown military magazine. Over the next century, the elected officials assembled at various locations all over Bridgetown. The Roebuck Tavern located on Roebuck Street was an assembly point and was also owned by Henry Hawley. The movement of the Assembly among the various taverns in the town eventually presented an irony for the thriving colony, for many years the Barbados Assembly continued to meet in various places. In 1724 an Act was passed providing for a building for the Council and Assembly, Law Courts, the building located on Coleridge Street was completed in 1731-1732, yet the House of Assembly still often met at times at different private houses and taverns. The Parliament of Barbados in its current form was first introduced following the 1961 general elections, in 1963 the colonial era Legislative Council was disestablished. In its place came the Senate in 1964, as the years went by, governance in Barbados continued to change in structure until both of the present chambers assumed their present numbers. Parliament is empowered by Article 35 of the Constitution to make laws for the Peace, order, the next general election in Barbados is constitutionally due in 2018. According to the Constitution of Barbados elections can take no longer than every five years from the first sitting of Parliament
17.
West Indies Federation
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The West Indian Federation, also known as the West Indies, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. British Guiana and British Honduras held observer status within the West Indies Federation, the total population of the West Indies Federation was between 3 and 4 million people, with the majority being of black West African descent. Minorities included Indians from the subcontinent, Europeans, Chinese, there was also a large population of mixed descent. In terms of religion, most of the population was Protestant, with significant numbers of Catholics and some Hindus, the West Indies Federation consisted of around 24 main inhabited islands and approximately 220–230 minor offshore islands, islets and cays. The largest island was Jamaica, located in the far northwest of the Federation, to the southeast lay the second largest island, Trinidad, followed by Barbados, located at the eastern extremity of the Federation. However, most of the area along either of these distances was taken up by open water, by comparison Great Britain stretches across nearly 10 degrees of latitude and Spain extends across almost 20 degrees of longitude. Most of the islands have mountainous interiors surrounded by narrow coastal plains, the exceptions were Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Trinidad. The narrow coastal plains as well as historical trade is the reason why almost all of the major settlements of the Federation were located on the coast. Chief towns included Kingston, Port of Spain, Bridgetown, Spanish Town, Montego Bay, Mandeville, Castries, Roseau, St. Georges, Kingstown, St. Johns, and Basseterre. The climate in all the islands is tropical, with hot and humid weather, regions falling within the rain shadows are relatively drier. There are two seasons annually, the dry season for the first six months of the year, many of the islands fall within the traditional hurricane belt, with the exception of Trinidad and thus are at risk from potential wind and flood damage. Britain classified the Federation as being part of its Caribbean and North Atlantic Territories region which was shared alongside other possessions such as Bermuda, Guyana opted not to join at that time due to its ongoing political and internal struggles for independence from the UK, started in the 1950s. At issue were the newly formed political party with socialist leanings and it had hoped to join the federation once the issues were resolved. The Bahamas did participate in the 1960 West Indies Federation Games, with a prime minister of the Bahamas, Perry Christie. There was however possible interest by Guyana in a very loose re-attempted Caribbean Federation around 1971, the Federation was an internally self-governing, federal state made up of ten provinces, all British colonial possessions. The federation was created by the United Kingdom in 1958 from most of the British West Indies, Britain intended that the Federation would shortly become a fully independent state, thus simultaneously satisfying the demands for independence from all the colonies in the region. The legal basis for the federation was the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, and her representative, Patrick Buchan-Hepburn, 1st Baron Hailes, was given the title of Governor-General rather than that of Governor more typical for a British colony. The title may have reflected the nature of the state
18.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
19.
Holetown
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Holetown, is a small town located in the Caribbean island nation of Barbados. Holetown is located in the parish of Saint James on the sheltered west coast of the island, in 1625, Holetown was the site of initial English settlement of Barbados. The envoy was blown off-course from South America to England and took the opportunity to claim the island for the Kingdom of England, some personal possessions were left behind and the crew departed Holetown for England. A monument erected to commemorate this first landing on the island erroneously records the date as 1605, since 1977, the town has also celebrated the Barbados Holetown Festival to commemorate this landing. The name Holetown comes from the stream, The Hole, which provided a landing place for the settlers. Also sometimes called Saint James Town, the settlement was, until 1629, Holetown celebrates the founding of the first five plantations in Barbados, the first major fortification, the first place of Justice, and the first Governors House. The town was involved in the transatlantic trade with Bristol, London. After Lord Carlisle gained control of Barbados as a protectorate of The Crown, carlisles move gave way to Bridgetown being settled along Carlisle Bay and a shift of the capital for the island to that location. The Islands oldest church, St. James Parish Church, was erected here in 1628, the town is the home of McGill Universitys Bellairs Research Institute. Holetown is located at 13°11′00″N 59°39′00″W
20.
Cruise ship
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Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising, particularly on cruises that return passengers to their originating port, with the ports of call usually in a specified region of a continent. There are even cruises to nowhere or nowhere voyages where the ship makes 2–3 night round trips without any ports of call, by contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do line voyages and typically transport passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas, the distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to deployment. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the port for months. Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships, such as Marco Polo, the only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner of December 2013 is Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet. The industrys rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, smaller markets, such as the Asia-Pacific region, are generally serviced by older ships. These are displaced by new ships in the growth areas. The worlds largest cruise ship is currently Royal Caribbean Internationals Harmony of the Seas beating her sister ships by about 2.15 meters, the birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company in 1822. The company started out as a line with routes between England and the Iberian Peninsula, adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company. It won its first contract to deliver mail in 1837, in 1840, it began mail delivery to Alexandria, Egypt, via Gibraltar and Malta. The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year, becoming the Peninsular, P&O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844, advertising sea tours to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens, sailing from Southampton. The forerunner of modern cruise holidays, these voyages were the first of their kind, the company later introduced round trips to destinations such as Alexandria and Constantinople. It underwent a period of expansion in the latter half of the 19th century, commissioning larger. Some sources mention Francesco I, flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and she was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833, preceded by an advertising campaign. The cruise ship was boarded by nobles, authorities, and royal princes from all over Europe, however, it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial endeavour. Christian Wilhelm Allers published an account of it as Backschisch. The first vessel built exclusively for cruising, was Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany, designed by Albert Ballin. The ship was completed in 1900, the practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic crossings
21.
Port of Bridgetown
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The Port of Bridgetown, is a seaport in Bridgetown on the southwest coast of Barbados. Situated at the North-Western end of Carlisle Bay, the harbour handles all of the countrys international bulk ship-based trade, in addition to international-shipping the Deep Water Harbour is the port of entry for southern-Caribbean cruise ships. The port is one of three designated ports of entry in Barbados, along with the privately owned Port Saint Charles marina, the ports timezone is GMT –4, and it handles roughly 700,000 cruise passengers and 900,000 tonnes of containerised cargo per year. Construction of the Deep Water Harbour began in 1956 by Costain Group of Britain, the port was formed by creating a man-made isthmus across the shallow strait that existed off the coast of Fontabelle, St. Michael. The isthmus formed 90 acres of new land stretching from the original west coast of Barbados, out to an uninhabited, ex-quarantine island just offshore. After the initial completion, the harbour later underwent a $22 million expansion seventeen years later, in 2002 Barbados Port Inc. contracted with Jan De Nul Group of Companies of Belgium to carry out dredging at the port facility. The dredging was deemed necessary to some of the worlds largest cruise ships to berth in Barbados rather than anchoring offshore. The project followed a rigorous environmental monitoring programme by the Barbados Port Inc, during this operation, the ports depth was increased to 11.6 metres. Reclaimed material from the dredging was added to increase the cargo area by 9 acres. Due to the importance of Tourism to Barbados economy, the government is reviewing a further $70 million upgrade. Due to increased activity at the port, officials say it poised to become a super-hub of the southern Caribbean, in 2012 the Government of Barbados announced the desire to establish a new separate Cruise terminal just to south along the Princess Alice Highway. As advisors to the Government, Royal Caribbean and STI were selected to work with the government on the project to be called The Sugar Point Cruise Development or The Sugar Point Cruise Terminal. The facility will function as a means to separate cruise-traffic to the country from the containerised-traffic which will remain at the Deep Water Harbour. The first phase of the new terminal is expected to cost in the region of BDS$300 million, responsibility for administering the port is vested in the CEO of Barbados Port Incorporated. As a statutory corporation it oversees all matters affecting the efficient operations of the harbour facility, B. P. I. also advises the Ministry of International Business and International Transport who has ultimate authority for the Deep Water Harbour. It has been awarded the title of Caribbean Port of the Year for,1993,1995,1997,1998, the Best Multi-Purpose Terminal in 2004 and 2005, and the safest port in the Caribbean region in 2011. Some of the Cruise Lines which visit or are home ported at the Deep Water Harbour include, Barbados has a small but increasing ships registry
22.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
23.
Saint Lucia
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Saint Lucia is a sovereign island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the island of Saint Vincent, northwest of Barbados and it covers a land area of 617 km2 and reported a population of 165,595 in the 2010 census. The French were the islands first European settlers and they signed a treaty with the native Carib Indians in 1660. England took control of the island from 1663 to 1667, in ensuing years, it was at war with France 14 times, and rule of the island changed frequently. In 1814, the British took definitive control of the island, because it switched so often between British and French control, Saint Lucia was also known as the Helen of the West Indies. Representative government came about in 1840, from 1958 to 1962, the island was a member of the Federation of the West Indies. On 22 February 1979, Saint Lucia became an independent state of the Commonwealth of Nations associated with the United Kingdom, Saint Lucia is a mixed jurisdiction, meaning that it has a legal system based in part on both the civil law and English common law. The Civil Code of St. Lucia of 1867 was based on the Quebec Civil Code of 1866 and it is also a member of La Francophonie. One of the Windward Islands, Saint Lucia was named after Saint Lucy of Syracuse by the French, the islands first European settlers, the French pirate François le Clerc frequently visited Saint Lucia in the 1550s. It was not until around 1600 that the first European camp was started by the Dutch at what is now Vieux Fort, in 1605 an English vessel called the Olive Branch was blown off-course on its way to Guyana, and the 67 colonists started a settlement on Saint Lucia. After five weeks only 19 survived due to disease and conflict with the Caribs, the French officially claimed the island in 1635. The English attempted the next European settlement in 1639, and that too was wiped out by Caribs, in 1643 a French expedition sent out from Martinique established a permanent settlement on the island. De Rousselan was appointed the governor, took a Carib wife. In 1664, Thomas Warner claimed Saint Lucia for England and he brought 1,000 men to defend it from the French, but after two years, only 89 survived with the rest dying mostly due to disease. In 1666 the French West India Company resumed control of the island, in 1722, George I of Great Britain granted both Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent to The 2nd Duke of Montagu. He in turn appointed Nathaniel Uring, a merchant sea captain and adventurer, Uring went to the islands with a group of seven ships, and established settlement at Petit Carenage. Unable to get support from British warships, he and the new colonists were quickly run off by the French. During the Seven Years War Britain occupied Saint Lucia for a year, Britain handed the island back to the French at the Treaty of Paris in 1763
24.
Kalina people
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The Kalina, also known as the Caribs, mainland Caribs and several other names, are an indigenous people native to the northern coastal areas of South America. Today, the Kalina live largely in villages on the rivers and coasts of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and they speak a Cariban language known as Carib. They may be related to the Island Caribs of the Caribbean, traditionally, Westerners have called the Kalina people variants of the Spanish name Caribe, including Caribs in English, Galina in French, and Karaïeb in Dutch. However, the speakers call themselves Kalina or Karìna, spelled variously, variants include Kalina, Cariña, Kariña, Kalihna, Kalinya, other native names include Maraworno and Marworno. Kalina may distinguish themselves as Kalina tilewuyu, partly to differentiate themselves from the mixed Maroon-Kalina inhabitants of Suriname, use of Kalina and related variants has become common practice only recently in publications, many sources continue to use Caribs or associated names. Lacking a written form of language before the arrival of Europeans, Kalina history was passed orally from one generation to the next through tales of myth. For a long time, the few Europeans studying the history of the Amerindian people of area did not distinguish between the various Caribbean tribes. For the reasons given, historical information regarding the Kalina is rare, making up for lack of written records, archaeologists have to date uncovered 273 Amerindian archeological sites on only 310 km² of the land recovered from the Sinnamary River by the Petit-Saut Dam. Some date back as far as two years, establishing the antiquity of the Amerindian presence in this area. In their first contact with Europeans, the Kalina thought they were dealing with the spirits of the sea, Palanakiłi, the Kalina quickly succumbed in large numbers, because their immune systems were not adapted to the viruses and bacteria of the Old World. The second half of the century saw the heyday of Worlds Fairs. Fifteen Kali’na, all members of one living in Sinnamary and Iracoubo, were sent to Pau. Almost nothing is known them, except their names and the fact that they were housed in huts on the lawn of the Jardin dAcclimatation. The trip lasted four months, including three in Paris and a journey by boat. They were accompanied by a Creole who acted as intermediary and, presumably, there are several portraits of them, taken by photographer Pierre Petit. The part of South America where the Kalina live is very sparsely populated, however, the people of this ethnic group are such an extreme minority in all of the countries in which they are well established that locally they are a majority only in certain very secluded areas. Their current geographic distribution covers only a fraction of their Pre-Columbian territory. They are also in the capital of Amapá, Macapá, and in Pará, in Suriname, they are a strong presence on the left bank of the Maroni River and on the banks of the Coppename River
25.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
26.
George Washington House (Barbados)
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George Washington House in Barbados is a historic house where the future first U. S. President George Washington visited, in 1751. He was 19 years old at the time, and with his ailing half-brother, in 2011, the property was designated as a UNESCO protected property within the World Heritage Site of Historic Bridgetown and its Garrison area. Barbados apparently is the country outside the present United States that George Washington ever visited. The house is owned and maintained by the Barbados National Trust, list of historic buildings in Bridgetown and Saint Anns Garrison George Washington House on Facebook George Washington House, TripAdvisor. com
27.
Bridgetown
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Bridgetown is the capital and largest city of Barbados. Formerly The Town of Saint Michael, the Greater Bridgetown area is located within the parish of Saint Michael, Bridgetown is sometimes locally referred to as The City, but the most common reference is simply Town. As of 2014, its population stands at roughly 110,000. The Bridgetown port, found along Carlisle Bay lies on the southwestern coast of the island, parts of the Greater Bridgetown area, sit close to the borders of the neighbouring parishes Christ Church and St. James. While there is no local municipal government, it is governed as a political constituency within the national Parliament. The present day location of the city was established by English settlers in 1628 following a settlement under the authority of Sir William Courten at St. James Town. Bridgetown is a major West Indies tourist destination, and the city acts as an important financial, informatics, convention centre, on 25 June 2011, Historic Bridgetown and its Garrison were added as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO. It was thought that bridge was created by a people indigenous to the Caribbean known as the Tainos. Upon finding the structure, the British settlers began to call what is now the Bridgetown area Indian Bridge, scholars widely believe that the Tianos were driven from Barbados to the neighbouring island of Saint Lucia, during an invasion by the Kalinagos, another indigenous people of the region. Eventually after 1654 when a new bridge was constructed over the Careenage by the British, Bridgetown is the only city outside the present United States that George Washington visited. Two of Washingtons ancestors, Jonathon and Gerrard Hawtaine, were early planters on the island and their grandmother was Mary Washington of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, England. In 2011, historic buildings in Bridgetown were designated as an area by UNESCO. English settlement of Bridgetown began on the 5th July,1628 under Charles Wolverstone, who brought with him 64 settlers to these lands formally claimed by James Hay, Wolverstone, had been dispatched by a group of London Merchants, headed by Sir Marmaduke Rawdon. The group had been granted a lease to 10,000 acres of area by the Earl of Carlisle in settlement of debts. Each of the settlers with Wolverstone were granted by him 100 acres of land, lying on the northern side of the Careenage waterway for the purpose of general settlement. The southern shore on Needhams Point, were claimed by Carlisles agents that coming October, and in 1631, many acres of land directly facing Carlisle Bay were passed to Henry Hawley, reports of dishonest behaviour about this Governor led to his arrest and rendition to England in 1639. After investigation by Commission in 1640, it was found much of Hawleys land transactions were legitimate and properly showed these lands. Bridgetown was built upon a street layout resembling early English Medieval or market towns with its narrow serpentine street and alley configuration
28.
Proprietary colony
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A proprietary colony was a type of British colony mostly in North America and the Caribbean in the 17th century. In the British Empire, all belonged to the ruler. Therefore, all properties were partitioned by royal charter into one of four types, proprietary, royal, joint stock. King Charles II used the solution to reward allies and focus his own attention on Britain itself. He offered his friends colonial charters which facilitated private investment and colonial self-government, the charters made the proprietor the effective ruler, albeit one ultimately responsible to English law and the king. Charles II gave New Netherland to his younger brother The Duke of York and he gave an area to William Penn who named it Pennsylvania. This type of indirect rule eventually fell out of favour as the colonies became established, in medieval times, it was customary in Continental Europe for a sovereign to grant almost regal powers of government to the feudal lords of his border districts, so as to prevent foreign invasion. These districts or manors were often called palatinates or counties palatine, because the lord dwelled in a palace and his power was regal in kind, but inferior in degree to that of the king. This type of arrangement had made in Norman times for certain English border counties. These territories were known as counties palatine and they lasted at least in part to 1830 and for reason, remoteness, poor communications. The monarch and his or her government, retained its right to separate head and body, figuratively or literally. Proprietary colonies in America were governed by a proprietor, who, holding authority by virtue of a royal charter. Eventually, these were converted to royal colonies, barbados The British America colonies before the American Revolution consisted of thirteen colonies that became states of the United States of America. The King also gave Dugua a monopoly in the fur trade for these territories and named him Lieutenant General for Acadia, in return, Dugua promised to bring 60 new colonists each year to what would be called lAcadie. In 1607 the monopoly was revoked and the failed. The Iles Glorieuses, i. e. Glorioso Islands, were on 2 March 1880 settled and named by Frenchman Hippolyte Caltaux, only on 23 August 1892 they were claimed for the French Third Republic, as part of the Indian Ocean colony of French Madagascar. However he was again their proprietor from 1901 till his death in 1907, English colonial empire Proprietary governor Proprietary House Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies Crown colony Commonwealth Settler colonialism Donatorio Quia Emptores Martinez, Albert J. The Palatinate Clause of the Maryland Charter, 1632-1776, From Independent Jurisdiction to Independence, American Journal of Legal History, 305-325
29.
James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle
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James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle was a British noble. A Scot, he was the son of Sir James Hay of Fingask and he was knighted and taken into favour by James VI of Scotland, brought into England in 1603, treated as a prime favourite and made a gentleman of the bedchamber. In 1604, he was sent on a mission to France and pleaded for the Huguenots, the king bestowed on him numerous grants, paid his debts, and secured for him a rich bride in the person of Honoria, only daughter and heir of Edward, Lord Denny. Their marriage was celebrated by Lord Hays Masque, staged on 6 January 1607. In 1610 he was made a knight of the Order of the Bath, and in 1613 master of the wardrobe, while in 1615 he was created Lord Hay of Sawley, at this time, his first wife Honora was buried 16 August 1614 at Waltham Abbey. In 1618 he resigned the mastership of the wardrobe for a sum in compensation. In 1621 and 1622 he was sent to France to obtain peace for the Huguenots from Louis XIII, in which he was unsuccessful, charless marriage in 1625 was by proxy, so the wedding contract was signed by Carlisle and Holland. The kings representative at the wedding was the duke of Chevreuse, yet Carlisle. Carlisle became gentleman of the bedchamber to King Charles I after his accession and he took no further part in public life, and died in March 1636. Carlisle was a man of sense and of accommodating temper. Hay by 1612 was a director of the Virginia Company and he was a patentee and councillor of the plantation of New England, and showed great interest in the colonies. Carlise also had an interest in the Caribbean, there James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough was a rival, who had to be bought off. Another rival was the Earl of Montgomery, on 2 July 1627 Carlisle obtained from the king a grant of all the Caribbean Islands, including Barbados, this being a confirmation of a former concession given by James I. A colonial plantation venture on Barbados was led in 1628 by Marmaduke Roydon, Hays first wife was Honoria Denny. His second wife, Lucy Hay, Countess of Carlisle, was involved in many conspiracies, or allegations thereof, the first earl was succeeded by James, his only surviving son by his first wife. James married Margaret Russell, third daughter of Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford, at his death, the peerage became extinct in the Hay family. The Hay Family currently spans across the world, bagatelle Great House, Restaurant and Wine Bar and Lord Willoughbys Tavern officially open. Archived from the original on 24 December 2005
30.
Marmaduke Roydon
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Sir Marmaduke Roydon was an English merchant-adventurer and colonial planter, known also as a Royalist army officer. The son of Ralph Roydon or Rawdon of Rawden Brandesby in Yorkshire, by Jane, daughter of John Brice of Stillington, he was baptised at Brandesby on 20 March 1583. At sixteen years of age he went to London, where he was apprenticed to Daniel Hall, a Bordeaux merchant and he returned to London about 1610 and was elected a common councilman. Soon afterwards he was presented with the freedom of the Clothworkers Company, in 1614 Roydon joined a mercantile venture to the New England coast, sending out two ships under Thomas Hunt and John Smith, which sailed from the Downs on 3 March 1614. He was also interested in the discovery of the North-West Passage, Roydon was one of the first planters in Barbados. With two others, he was granted 10,000 acres in Barbados, in April 1628, by James Hay and this award set off a sharp struggle between Roydons followers, and those supporting the claims of William Courten. In the end Carlisles grant was upheld, Roydon, however, is said to have lost £10,000. Roydon also ventured to other parts of the West Indies and to Spain, Turkey, in 1622 Roydon built Rawdon House in Hoddesdon. The year 1626 saw him accused of belonging to a cartel trying to monopolise the trade of London. In 1628–9 he became M. P. for Aldeburgh, in the First English Civil War he fought on the kings side, raised a regiment at his own cost, and took part in the defence of Basing House. On 28 December of the year he was knighted. In 1645 he was governor of Faringdon in Berkshire, where he died on 28 April 1646. In 1611, while a clothworker in All Hallows, Barking, he married Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Thorowgood of Hoddesdon and their son Thomas fought as a colonel in the Royalist army, and after the battle of Marston Moor went into exile in the Canaries. His nephew, the younger Marmaduke Rawdon, lived in his house for years from 1626. Martha Moulsworth the poet was Elizabeths stepmother and her Memorandum of Martha Moulsworth Widdowe is believed to have passed in manuscript to Roydon and then his nephew. Evans, A Silent Woman Speaks, The Memorandum of Martha Moulsworth, Widowe, The Yale University Library Gazette Vol.69, published by, Yale University, acting through the Yale University Library. Stable URL, http, //www. jstor. org/stable/40859118 Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Lee, Sidney, ed. Roydon
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Carlisle Bay
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Carlisle Bay is a small natural harbour located in the southwest region of Barbados. The island nations capital, Bridgetown, is situated on this bay, Carlisle Bays marine park is a popular spot on the island for scuba diving. Many relics, like anchors and cannonballs, from ships can be found on the floor in Carlisle Bay. The bay takes its name from Barbados second Lord Proprietor, James Hay, Lord Carlisle claimed the island through Royal grant on behalf of King Charles I of England in 1627. Carlisle Bay is home to one of Barbados historic lighthouses the Needhams Point Lighthouse, during the Second World War a British ship, the Cornwallis, was torpedoed by a German U-Boat, at this location
32.
Henry Hawley
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Lieutenant General Henry Hawley was a British Army officer who entered the army in 1694. He was born about 1685 and was given a commission in the army aged 9 years old and he saw service in the War of Spanish Succession as a captain of Eries Foot. After Almanza he returned to England, and a few years later had become lieutenant-colonel of the 19th, with this regiment he served at Sheriffmuir in 1715, where he was wounded. Four years later he accompanied George II and Stair to Germany, George II was the last British monarch to lead his army into battle. Becoming lieutenant-general somewhat later, he was second-in-command of the cavalry at Fontenoy, less than a month later Hawley suffered a severe defeat at Falkirk at the hands of the Jacobite insurgents. This, however, did not cost him his command, for the Duke of Cumberland, after the end of the Forty-Five he accompanied Cumberland to the Low Countries and led the allied cavalry at Lauffeld. He ended his career as governor of Portsmouth and died at that place in 1759 and he was buried in the parish church of St Mary in Hartley Wintney in Hampshire, near his family home, West Green House. James Wolfe, his brigade-major, wrote of General Hawley in no flattering terms, the troops dread his severity, hate the man and hold his military knowledge in contempt, he wrote. But, whether it be true or false that he was the son of George II, Hawley was always treated with the greatest favour by that king. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Henry Hawley in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, doi,10. 1093/ref, odnb/12696
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Districts of Barbados
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In 1959 the country of Barbados was changed from the Vestry system, into a more modern system of local government patterned after that of the United Kingdom. Both were simply known as the Northern and Southern districts, each of these districts were run by Chairmen, and the city with a mayor affiliated with Barbados political parties. The Northern District contained all parishes northwards of the parishes of Saint Michael, Saint George and these councils were maintained by a Chairman, and was further supported by Aldermen and Councillors. At this time all local matters became transferred to the national level, although the districts have been abolished, the operational structure of the Royal Barbados Police Force still follows closely to the district system that was once in Barbados. There are additional operations located in, Holetown, Saint James, Belleplaine, Saint Andrew, constituency Councils Geography of Barbados History of Barbados
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Leeward Islands
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The Leeward Islands /ˈliːwərd/ are a group of islands in the West Indies. In English, the term refers to the islands of the Lesser Antilles chain. As a group they start east of Puerto Rico and reach southward to Dominica and they are situated where the northeastern Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean. The more southerly part of the Lesser Antilles chain are called the Windward Islands, the name of this island group, Leeward Islands, dates from previous centuries, when sailing ships were the sole form of transportation across the Atlantic Ocean. In the West Indies, the winds, known as the trade winds. The early Spanish colonizers called Puerto Rico and the islands to the west Sotavento, the islands to the south and east of Puerto Rico were then called Islas de Barlovento, meaning windward islands. When the British gained control of many of the Lesser Antilles, they designated Antigua, Montserrat, guadeloupe and the islands to the south were designated Windward Islands. Later on, all north of Martinique became known as the Leeward Islands. Thus, Dominica is the first of the Leeward islands, the islands along the Venezuelan coast, known in English as the Leeward Antilles, in languages other than English are known as the Leeward Islands. The islands are affected by volcanism, and notable eruptions have occurred in Montserrat in the 1990s. The islands were among the first parts of the Americas to fall under the control of the Spanish Empire, mont serrat in Catalan means saw mountain, referring to the serrated appearance of the mountain range. The Leeward Islands became a British colony in 1671, in 1699, prior to the War of the Spanish Succession, Christopher Codrington became the governor of the Leeward Islands. The war lasted from 1701 to 1714, daniel Parke II was the British governor of the Leeward Islands from 1706 to 1710. He was assassinated during a mutiny triggered by his self-enriching enforcement of Stuart imperialism, although comparatively much smaller than the surrounding islands in the Caribbean, the Leeward Islands posed the most significant rebellion to the British Stamp Act. In 1816 the colony was dissolved, with its last governor being James Leith, in 1833, the colony was reformed. From 1833 until 1871, the Governor of Antigua performed the duties of the Governor of the Leeward Islands, today the Islands are governed by a number of national and colonial administrations. Digital Library of the Caribbean−dloc. org, Antigua, Montserrat and Virgin Islands Gazette — openly−freely available, with searchable text and full page images
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City status in the United Kingdom
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The holding of city status gives a settlement no special rights other than that of calling itself a city. Nonetheless, this appellation carries its own prestige and, consequently, the status does not apply automatically on the basis of any particular criteria, although in England and Wales it was traditionally given to towns with diocesan cathedrals. City status in Ireland was granted to far fewer communities than in England and Wales, in Scotland, city status did not explicitly receive any recognition by the state until the 19th century. At that time, a revival of grants of city status took place, first in England, where the grants were accompanied by the establishment of new cathedrals, and later in Scotland and Ireland. The abolition of corporate bodies as part of successive local government reforms. However, letters patent have been issued for most of the cities to ensure the continuation or restoration of their status. At present, Rochester and Elgin are the former cities in the United Kingdom. The name City does not, in itself, denote city status, a number of large towns in the UK are bigger than some small cities, but cannot legitimately call themselves a city without the royal designation. The initial cities of Britain were the fortified settlements organised by the Romans as the capitals of the Celtic tribes under Roman rule, the British clerics of the early Middle Ages later preserved a traditional list of the 28 Cities which was mentioned by Gildas and listed by Nennius. In the 16th century, a town was recognised as a city by the English Crown if it had a diocesan cathedral within its limits. This association between having a cathedral and being called a city was established when Henry VIII founded dioceses in six English towns, a long-awaited resumption of creating dioceses began in 1836 with Ripon. Ripon Town Council assumed that this had elevated the town to the rank of a city, the next diocese formed was Manchester and its Borough Council began informally to use the title city. When Queen Victoria visited Manchester in 1851, widespread doubts surrounding its status were raised, the pretension was ended when the borough petitioned for city status, which was granted by letters patent in 1853. This eventually forced Ripon to regularise its position, its city status was recognised by Act of Parliament in 1865, from this year Ripon bore city status whilst the rapidly expanding conurbation of Leeds – in the Ripon diocese – did not. The Manchester case established a precedent that any municipal borough in which an Anglican see was established was entitled to petition for city status, accordingly, Truro, St Albans, Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne and Wakefield were all officially designated as cities between 1877 and 1888. This was not without opposition from the Home Office, which dismissed St Albans as a fourth or fifth rate market town and objected to Wakefields elevation on grounds of population. In one new diocese, Southwell, a city was not created, because it was a village without a borough corporation and therefore could not petition the Queen. The diocese covered the counties of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, and the boroughs of Derby, the link with Anglican dioceses was broken in 1889 when Birmingham successfully petitioned for city status on the grounds of its large population and history of good local government
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Letters patent
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Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, in the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent granting exclusive rights in an invention. e, the opposite of letters patent are letters close, which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide, letters patent are so named from the Latin verb pateo, to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originators seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read. Thus letters patent do not equate to a letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree. Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and an exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his written orders. They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect an order by Parliament. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch, in their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect. According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of copies of English royal letters patent. In 1634, during the Thirty Years War, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II became convinced that his general Albrecht von Wallenstein was plotting treason, on 24 January 1634 the Emperor signed a secret patent removing him from his command. Finally an open patent, charging Wallenstein with high treason, was signed on 18 February, in the patent, Ferdinand II ordered to have Wallenstein brought under arrest to Vienna, dead or alive. On the basis of patent, several of Wallensteins officers assassinated him and were rewarded by the Emperor. The form of patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office Order 1992. Part III of the schedule lays down nine pro forma texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics. In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the powers of the head of state
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Windward Islands
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The Windward Islands are the southern, generally larger islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies. They lie south of the Leeward Islands, between latitudes 12° and 16° N and longitudes 60° and 62° W in one definition, as a group they start from Dominica and reach southward to the North of Trinidad & Tobago. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the dividing line between the Windward and Leeward islands. Dominica is the line between the Windward and Leeward islands. Guadeloupe and the islands to the south were designated Windward Islands, later on, all islands north of Martinique became known as the Leeward Islands. The chain of Windward Islands forms a part of the easternmost boundary of the Caribbean Sea, most of the present Windward Islands were once colonial island territories of France, also known as the French Antilles
– Bridgetown, Nova Scotia, Canada (9 July 2004)[23]
– Borough of Hackney, London, England
– Wilmington, North Carolina, USA (28 June 2004)
