1.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
2.
Seine-et-Marne
–
Seine-et-Marne is a French department, named after the Seine and Marne rivers, and located in the Île-de-France region. Seine-et-Marne is one of the original 83 departments, created on 4 March 1790 and it had previously belonged to the former province of Île-de-France. With 60% of the used as farmland, Seine-et-Marne is where most agricultural activity occurs within the Île-de-France. Cereals and sugar beet are the exports from Seine-et-Marne. The other key structures are the refinery at Grandpuits and the Snecma research plant. The two new towns are the centre of tourism for the department, mainly due to parks such as Disneyland Park. Seine-et-Marne has a temperate Atlantic climate, the average rainfall is based upon that of Fontainebleau, giving an average rainfall of 650 mm, which is higher than the average of Île-de-France. Average temperature in Melun during the 1953–2002 period was 3.2 °C for January and 18.6 °C for July, the storm of 26 December 1999 led to five deaths in Seine-et-Marne and caused several trees to fall. Seine-et-Marne forms a part of the region, the department covers 49% of the regions land area. It is bordered by Val-dOise, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne, Essonne to the West, Loiret and Yonne to the South, Aube and Marne to the East, the department has many natural reserves, notably Brie and Gâtinais. The highest point of the département is Saint-Georges Hill, people from Seine-et-Marne are known as the Seine-et-Marnais. Originally Seine-et-Marne was very rural and lightly populated, over the past 50 years, however, its population has tripled, due to the development of the Paris conurbation and the building of new towns in the northwest of the region. The population was estimated to be 1,267,496 inhabitants in 2006, the region has changed from consisting only of small villages to forming a large part of the Paris conurbation. Seine-et-Marne as a whole shares a sister city relationship with Orlando, Florida, United States, mutualité, assurance et cycles de lincendie
Seine-et-Marne
–
Prefecture building of the Seine-et-Marne department, in Melun
Seine-et-Marne
–
Wheat field near
Saint-Fargeau-Ponthierry
Seine-et-Marne
–
Throne Room in the
Palace of Fontainebleau
Seine-et-Marne
–
The walls of the medieval city of
Provins
3.
Cow
–
Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
Cow
–
Cattle
Cow
–
Żubroń, a cross between
wisent and cattle
Cow
–
An
Ongole bull
Cow
–
A
Hereford bull
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
5.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
Australia
–
Aboriginal rock art in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
–
Portrait of Captain
James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
–
Tasmania's
Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed
Australian Convict Sites.
6.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
7.
Cheese
–
Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
Cheese
–
Coulommiers cheese
Cheese
–
A platter with cheese and garnishes
Cheese
–
A variety of cheeses for sale in Amsterdam
Cheese
–
Cheese on market stand in
Basel,
Switzerland
8.
Mold
–
A mold or mould is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts, molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism, the hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white threads over the surface. Cross-walls may delimit connected compartments along the hyphae, each containing one or multiple, the dusty texture of many molds is caused by profuse production of asexual spores formed by differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation and shape of spores is traditionally used to classify molds. Many of these spores are colored, making the much more obvious to the human eye at this stage in its life-cycle. Molds are considered to be microbes and do not form a taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. In the past, most molds were classified within the Deuteromycota, molds cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted when it becomes food spoilage or damage to property. They also play important roles in biotechnology and food science in the production of foods, beverages, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals. There are thousands of species of molds, which have diverse life-styles including saprotrophs, mesophiles, psychrophiles and thermophiles. They all require moisture for growth and some live in aquatic environments, like all fungi, molds derive energy not through photosynthesis but from the organic matter on which they live, utilising heterotrophy. Typically, molds secrete hydrolytic enzymes, mainly from the hyphal tips and these enzymes degrade complex biopolymers such as starch, cellulose and lignin into simpler substances which can be absorbed by the hyphae. In this way molds play a role in causing decomposition of organic material. Many molds also synthesise mycotoxins and siderophores which, together with lytic enzymes, molds can also grow on stored food for animals and humans, making the food unpalatable or toxic and are thus a major source of food losses and illness. Many strategies for food preservation are to prevent or slow growth as well as growth of other microbes. Molds reproduce by producing large numbers of spores, which may contain a single nucleus or be multinucleate. Mold spores can be asexual or sexual, many species can produce both types, other mold spores have slimy sheaths and are more suited to water dispersal. Mold spores are spherical or ovoid single cells, but can be multicellular
Mold
–
Mold growing on a
clementine
Mold
–
Mold growth covering a decaying
peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.
Mold
–
Spinellus fusiger growing on the mushroom
Mycena haematopus
Mold
–
Moldy tomatoes
9.
Penicillium candida
–
Penicillium camemberti is a species of fungus in the family Trichocomaceae. It is used in the production of Camembert, Brie, Langres, Coulommiers and Cambozola cheeses, on which colonies of P. camemberti form a hard and it is responsible for giving these cheeses their distinctive taste. An allergy to the antibiotic penicillin does not necessarily imply an allergy to cheeses made using P. camemberti, P. camemberti is responsible for the soft, buttery texture of Brie and Camembert, but a too high concentration may lead to an undesirable bitter taste. Using PCR techniques, cheese manufacturers can control cheese making by monitoring the growth of P. camemberti. This is particularly significant, as controlling the growth is important to maintain levels of compounds for flavor. The fungus was first described by Dr. Charles Thom in 1906, P. camemberti is also important economically for the cheese industry. There are twenty-four isolates of Penicillia, resulting in “considerable taxonomic confusion”, however, these strains are only antigenically related, having similarities in micromorphology, growth rates, toxin production, and the ability to grow in water and at low temperatures. L. Polonelli et al. discovered that the twenty-four isolates can be grouped into nine subdivisions below the species level and this indicates that P. commune Thom is the wild-type, or the strain occurring in nature, ancestor of P. camemberti. The complete genome sequence of P. camemberti was published in 2014, as a fungus, Penicillium camemberti can produce toxins, in this case, cyclopiazonic acid. The amount of the mycotoxin produced depends on the strain of P. camemberti, additionally, the toxin is typically more concentrated on the crust of the fungus rather than the inner part. In regards to safety, generally, consumers would only lower than a four microgram dose of cyclopiazonic acid. Still, it is advised to use weaker strains of the fungus, since the secretion of the toxin appears to be natural and necessary, but unhealthy for cheese consumers. Since P. camemberti is responsible for the flavor and odor of popular cheeses. José M. camemberti on dry, fermented sausages to improve its sensory properties, the fungus created a mycelium, protecting the lipids within, allowing for better flavor and odor of sausages. This is the starter culture for dry, fermented sausages. List of Penicillium species Penicillium camemberti in Index Fungorum
Penicillium candida
–
Penicillium camemberti
10.
Penicillium camemberti
–
Penicillium camemberti is a species of fungus in the family Trichocomaceae. It is used in the production of Camembert, Brie, Langres, Coulommiers and Cambozola cheeses, on which colonies of P. camemberti form a hard and it is responsible for giving these cheeses their distinctive taste. An allergy to the antibiotic penicillin does not necessarily imply an allergy to cheeses made using P. camemberti, P. camemberti is responsible for the soft, buttery texture of Brie and Camembert, but a too high concentration may lead to an undesirable bitter taste. Using PCR techniques, cheese manufacturers can control cheese making by monitoring the growth of P. camemberti. This is particularly significant, as controlling the growth is important to maintain levels of compounds for flavor. The fungus was first described by Dr. Charles Thom in 1906, P. camemberti is also important economically for the cheese industry. There are twenty-four isolates of Penicillia, resulting in “considerable taxonomic confusion”, however, these strains are only antigenically related, having similarities in micromorphology, growth rates, toxin production, and the ability to grow in water and at low temperatures. L. Polonelli et al. discovered that the twenty-four isolates can be grouped into nine subdivisions below the species level and this indicates that P. commune Thom is the wild-type, or the strain occurring in nature, ancestor of P. camemberti. The complete genome sequence of P. camemberti was published in 2014, as a fungus, Penicillium camemberti can produce toxins, in this case, cyclopiazonic acid. The amount of the mycotoxin produced depends on the strain of P. camemberti, additionally, the toxin is typically more concentrated on the crust of the fungus rather than the inner part. In regards to safety, generally, consumers would only lower than a four microgram dose of cyclopiazonic acid. Still, it is advised to use weaker strains of the fungus, since the secretion of the toxin appears to be natural and necessary, but unhealthy for cheese consumers. Since P. camemberti is responsible for the flavor and odor of popular cheeses. José M. camemberti on dry, fermented sausages to improve its sensory properties, the fungus created a mycelium, protecting the lipids within, allowing for better flavor and odor of sausages. This is the starter culture for dry, fermented sausages. List of Penicillium species Penicillium camemberti in Index Fungorum
Penicillium camemberti
–
Penicillium camemberti
11.
Microorganism
–
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
Microorganism
–
A cluster of
Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times
Microorganism
–
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first
microbiologist and the first to observe microorganisms using a
microscope
Microorganism
–
Lazzaro Spallanzani showed that boiling a broth stopped it from decaying
Microorganism
–
Louis Pasteur showed that Spallanzani's findings held even if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out
12.
Smoking (cooking)
–
Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
Smoking (cooking)
–
Pork ribs being smoked
Smoking (cooking)
–
A
Montreal Smoked Meat Sandwich, a well-known Canadian dish
Smoking (cooking)
–
Hot-smoked
chum salmon
Smoking (cooking)
–
A "Little Chief" home smoker and racks with hot smoked
Pacific halibut
13.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
14.
Vitamin B12
–
Vitamin B12, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that has a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, and the formation of red blood cells. It is one of eight B vitamins and it is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body, especially affecting DNA synthesis, fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. No fungi, plants, or animals are capable of producing vitamin B12, only bacteria and archaea have the enzymes needed for its synthesis. Substantial sources of B12 include animal products, fortified food products, vitamin B12 consists of a class of chemically related compounds, all of which show pharmacological activity. It contains the rare element cobalt positioned in the center of a planar tetra-pyrrole ring called a corrin ring. The vitamer is produced by bacteria as hydroxocobalamin, but conversion between different forms of the vitamin occurs in the body after consumption, because intrinsic factor is crucial for the normal absorption of B12, its lack in the presence of pernicious anemia causes a vitamin B12 deficiency. Many other subtler kinds of vitamin B12 deficiency and their biochemical effects have since been elucidated, due to impairment of vitamin B12 absorption during aging, people over age 60 are at risk of deficiency. The Food and Nutrition Board of the U. S, institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for vitamin B12 in 1998. The current EAR for vitamin B12 for women and men ages 14 and up is 2.0 μg/day, RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy equals 2.6 μg/day, RDA for lactation equals 2.8 μg/day. For infants up to 12 months the Adequate Intake is 0. 4-0.5 μg/day. collectively the EARs, RDAs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes. As for safety, the IOM sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for vitamins, in the case of vitamin B12 there is no UL, as there is no human data for adverse effects from high doses. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and also reached the conclusion there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin B12. For U. S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value. For vitamin B12 labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 6.0 μg, a table of the pre-change adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. Food and supplement companies have until July 2018 to comply with the change, vitamin B12 deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system. Vitamin B12 deficiency can cause symptoms of mania and psychosis. Vitamin B12 deficiency is most commonly caused by low intakes, but can result from malabsorption, certain intestinal disorders, low presence of binding proteins
Vitamin B12
–
Methylcobalamin (shown) is a form of vitamin B 12. Physically it resembles the other forms of vitamin B 12, occurring as dark red crystals that freely form cherry-colored transparent solutions in water.
Vitamin B12
–
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
–
Hydroxocobalamin injection USP (1000 µg/mL) is a clear red liquid solution of hydroxocobalamin which is available in a 30 mL brown glass multidose vial packaged in a paper box. Shown is 500 µg B-12 (as 1/2 cc) drawn up in a 1/2 cc U-100 27 gauge x 1/2" insulin syringe, as prepared for subcutaneous injection.
15.
Milk
–
Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
Milk
–
A glass of
pasteurized cow's milk
Milk
–
A human baby feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
A
goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today
16.
Somerset
–
Somerset is a county in South West England which borders Gloucestershire and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south-east and Devon to the south-west. It is bounded to the north and west by the Severn Estuary and its traditional border with Gloucestershire is the River Avon. Somerset is a county of rolling hills such as the Blackdown Hills, Mendip Hills, Quantock Hills and Exmoor National Park. There is evidence of occupation from Paleolithic times, and of subsequent settlement in the Roman. The county played a significant part in the consolidation of power and rise of King Alfred the Great, and later in the English Civil War, the city of Bath is famous for its substantial Georgian architecture and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Somersets name derives from Old English Sumorsǣte, short for Sumortūnsǣte, an alternative suggestion is the name derives from Seo-mere-saetan meaning settlers by the sea lakes. The Old English name is used in the motto of the county, Sumorsǣte ealle, adopted as the motto in 1911, the phrase is taken from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Somerset settlement names are mostly Anglo-Saxon in origin, but some hill names include Brittonic Celtic elements, for example, an Anglo-Saxon charter of 682 refers to Creechborough Hill as the hill the British call Cructan and we call Crychbeorh. Some modern names are Brythonic in origin, such as Tarnock, the caves of the Mendip Hills were settled during the Palaeolithic period, and contain extensive archaeological sites such as those at Cheddar Gorge. Bones from Goughs Cave have been dated to 12,000 BC, examples of cave art have been found in Avelines Hole. Some caves continued to be occupied until modern times, including Wookey Hole, the Somerset Levels—specifically dry points at Glastonbury and Brent Knoll— also have a long history of settlement, and are known to have been settled by Mesolithic hunters. Travel in the area was facilitated by the construction of one of the worlds oldest known engineered roadways, the Sweet Track, the exact age of the henge monument at Stanton Drew stone circles is unknown, but it is believed to be Neolithic. There are numerous Iron Age hill forts, some of which, like Cadbury Castle, on the authority of the future emperor Vespasian, as part of the ongoing expansion of the Roman presence in Britain, the Second Legion Augusta invaded Somerset from the south-east in AD47. The county remained part of the Roman Empire until around AD409, a variety of Roman remains have been found, including Pagans Hill Roman temple in Chew Stoke, Low Ham Roman Villa and the Roman Baths that gave their name to the city of Bath. After the Romans left, Britain was invaded by Anglo-Saxon peoples, by AD600 they had established control over much of what is now England, but Somerset was still in native British hands. The Saxon royal palace in Cheddar was used several times in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot. After the Norman Conquest, the county was divided into 700 fiefs, Somerset contains HM Prison Shepton Mallet, which was Englands oldest prison still in use prior to its closure in 2013, having opened in 1610. In the English Civil War Somerset was largely Parliamentarian, with key engagements being the Sieges of Taunton, in 1685 the Monmouth Rebellion was played out in Somerset and neighbouring Dorset
Somerset
–
A map of the county in 1646, author unknown.
Somerset
–
Flag
Somerset
–
Palladian Pulteney Bridge at
Bath
Somerset
–
The
Avon Gorge, the historic boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset, and also
Mercia and
Wessex; Somerset is to the left.
17.
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin in 1718,
Guillaume de L'Isle map, approximate state area highlighted.
Wisconsin
–
Flag
Wisconsin
–
Jean Nicolet, depicted in a 1910 painting by Frank Rohrbeck, was probably the first European to explore Wisconsin. The mural is located in the
Brown County Courthouse in Green Bay.
Wisconsin
–
The
Little White Schoolhouse in
Ripon, Wisconsin, held the nation's first meeting of the
Republican Party
18.
Brie de Meaux
–
Brie is a soft cows-milk cheese named after Brie, the French region from which it originated. It is pale in color with a grayish tinge under a rind of white mold. The rind is typically eaten, with its flavor depending largely upon the ingredients used, Brie may be produced from whole or semi-skimmed milk. The curd is obtained by adding rennet to raw milk and warming it to a temperature of 37 °C. The cheese is then cast into molds, sometimes with a traditional perforated ladle called a pelle à brie, the 20 cm mold is filled with several thin layers of cheese and drained for approximately 18 hours. The cheese is taken out of the molds, salted, inoculated with cheese culture or Brevibacterium linens. Around the Île-de-France where brie is made, people enjoy soaking this in café au lait, overripe brie contains an unpleasant excessive amount of ammonia, produced by the same microorganisms required for ripening. Some versions of brie cheese are smoked, a thirty-gram serving of brie contains 101 calories and 8.4 grams of fat, of which 5.2 grams are saturated fat. Brie is a source of protein, a serving of brie can provide 5 to 6 grams of protein. Brie contains an amount of both vitamin B12 and vitamin B2. There are now many varieties of brie made all over the world, including brie, herbed varieties, double and triple brie. Indeed, although brie is a French cheese, it is possible to obtain Somerset, despite the variety of bries, the French government officially certifies only two types of cheese to be sold under that name, Brie de Meaux and Brie de Melun. Brie de Meaux is a brie, with an average weight of 2.8 kg for a diameter of 36 to 37 cm. It was granted the protection of Appellation dorigine contrôlée status in 1980 and this brie has an average weight of 1.5 kilograms and a diameter of 27 cm. It is therefore smaller than Brie de Meaux but is considered to have a stronger flavor and it is made with unpasteurized milk. Brie de Melun is also available in the form of Old Brie or black brie and it was granted the protection of AOC status in 1980. Australia King Island Dairy, on King Island between Victoria and Tasmania produce a range of cheeses sold as brie, as does Jindi Cheese in Victoria, UK Cornish Brie, Somerset Brie, Baron Bigod, Cenarth Brie. US The Marin French Cheese Company in California has made an unaged cheese since 1865 described as fresh brie, brazil Brazilian brie is made in the dairy region located in the Southern area of Minas Gerais state and Southeast Minas Gerais
Brie de Meaux
–
Brie
Brie de Meaux
–
Brie noir
Brie de Meaux
–
Brie de Melun
19.
Brie de Melun
–
Brie is a soft cows-milk cheese named after Brie, the French region from which it originated. It is pale in color with a grayish tinge under a rind of white mold. The rind is typically eaten, with its flavor depending largely upon the ingredients used, Brie may be produced from whole or semi-skimmed milk. The curd is obtained by adding rennet to raw milk and warming it to a temperature of 37 °C. The cheese is then cast into molds, sometimes with a traditional perforated ladle called a pelle à brie, the 20 cm mold is filled with several thin layers of cheese and drained for approximately 18 hours. The cheese is taken out of the molds, salted, inoculated with cheese culture or Brevibacterium linens. Around the Île-de-France where brie is made, people enjoy soaking this in café au lait, overripe brie contains an unpleasant excessive amount of ammonia, produced by the same microorganisms required for ripening. Some versions of brie cheese are smoked, a thirty-gram serving of brie contains 101 calories and 8.4 grams of fat, of which 5.2 grams are saturated fat. Brie is a source of protein, a serving of brie can provide 5 to 6 grams of protein. Brie contains an amount of both vitamin B12 and vitamin B2. There are now many varieties of brie made all over the world, including brie, herbed varieties, double and triple brie. Indeed, although brie is a French cheese, it is possible to obtain Somerset, despite the variety of bries, the French government officially certifies only two types of cheese to be sold under that name, Brie de Meaux and Brie de Melun. Brie de Meaux is a brie, with an average weight of 2.8 kg for a diameter of 36 to 37 cm. It was granted the protection of Appellation dorigine contrôlée status in 1980 and this brie has an average weight of 1.5 kilograms and a diameter of 27 cm. It is therefore smaller than Brie de Meaux but is considered to have a stronger flavor and it is made with unpasteurized milk. Brie de Melun is also available in the form of Old Brie or black brie and it was granted the protection of AOC status in 1980. Australia King Island Dairy, on King Island between Victoria and Tasmania produce a range of cheeses sold as brie, as does Jindi Cheese in Victoria, UK Cornish Brie, Somerset Brie, Baron Bigod, Cenarth Brie. US The Marin French Cheese Company in California has made an unaged cheese since 1865 described as fresh brie, brazil Brazilian brie is made in the dairy region located in the Southern area of Minas Gerais state and Southeast Minas Gerais
Brie de Melun
–
Brie
Brie de Melun
–
Brie noir
Brie de Melun
–
Brie de Melun
20.
Meaux
–
Meaux is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 41.1 km east-northeast from the center of Paris, Meaux is a subprefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department. In France, a subprefecture is the chef-lieu of an arrondissement and it is also the chef-lieu of two other smaller administrative land divisions, the cantons of Meaux-Nord and Meaux-Sud. Finally, since its creation in 2003, Meaux has been the center and the town of an agglomeration community. With a population of 51,398 inhabitants, Meaux is the second most populated city in the Seine-et-Marne department after Chelles, inhabitants of Meaux are called Meldois. Both names Meaux and Meldois originated with the Meldi, the Latin name of the original Gaulish tribe who occupied this area of the valley of the Marne river. Although during the Roman period the city was called Iantinum by the Romans, a meander of the Marne river divides the old city into the North Quarter and the South Quarter. The South Quarter of the old city includes the historic covered market. Centuries later, in 1806, during the Napoleonic era, was built the Canal de lOurcq, Meaux is nowadays mainly known for Brie de Meaux and the local variety of mustard. Following the official administrative French AOC there are two designations of Brie de Meaux, Brie de Meaux fermier and Brie de Meaux laitier, several festivals and concerts are celebrated in Meaux, venues for live music like the Music Festival Musikelles. Theres a local concert band in Meaux, LHarmonie du Pays de Meaux. It is constituted by three different ensembles, following different ages, Les Minimes, Les Juniors and LHarmonie de Meaux, the band is also one of the two official music academies of the town. The other one is the conservatory of the city, the show represents the history of Meaux all along the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and also, more recently, during World War I. There is only one cinema in Meaux, The Majestic, a stage theatre. In modern days there are three theatres in the city. One is the Théâtre Gérard Philippe, a theatre, situated close to the covered market. In an eastern area of Meaux, the Beauval quarter, there is the stage theatre of the town, the Salle Champagne, located in the Espace Caravelle. Private theatre companies and community arts associations play in all three theatres, two museums can be found in Meaux, the Musée Bossuet and the Musée de la Grande Guerre du pays de Meaux
Meaux
–
Façade of the Meaux city hall (built in 1900)
Meaux
–
The episcopal palace (bishop's palace). Behind the palace can be seen the
Meaux Cathedral
Meaux
–
La Liberté éplorée or "The American Monument", erected to the memory of the French casualties during the Battle of the Marne
21.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
–
The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
–
The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
–
Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
–
The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
22.
Coulommiers cheese
–
Coulommiers is a soft ripened cheese from Coulommiers in the Seine-et-Marne department of France. It is made from milk, and is usually in the shape of a disc with white, bloomy. When produced as an artisanal or farmhouse cheese from unpasteurised milk, the period of ripening when made of pasteurised whole milk is about four to six weeks. The fat content is 40 per cent, Coulommiers is a lesser-known cousin of Brie, although it has been produced for longer. It is smaller and thicker than Brie and with a nuttier flavour, the cheese may be either farmer-made or industrially produced, however, the industrial version lacks the depth of an unpasteurized cheese. Because it is not an AOC cheese, producers can make it with pasteurized milk, in 1930, there were 250 cheesemakers coming from Coulommiers, selling their cheese to “affineurs” at the Coulommiers market every Wednesday. In 1946, affineurs started to make cheese, meanwhile, the number of cheesemakers declined, they were only 60 left in 1946. They were all making brie de Coulommiers of different sizes, but only the specific size, today, this cheese is commonly called Coulommiers. In 2009, local councillors led by the Franck Riester, Deputy Mayor, and journalists launched the PDO project to raise the importance of a unique Coulommiers cheese
Coulommiers cheese
–
Coulommiers
23.
King Island (Tasmania)
–
The King Island, part of the New Year Group, is one of the islands that make up the state of Tasmania, Australia. The southernmost point is called Stokes Point and the northernmost point is called Cape Wickham, there are three small islands surrounding King Island, namely New Year Island and Christmas Island situated to the northwest, and a smaller island called Councillor Island to the east. King Island was named after Philip Gidley King, Colonial Governor of New South Wales, the local government area of the island is King Island Council. The population as at the 2011 census was 1,566, captain Reed was the first European to discover King Island in 1799 while hunting seals in the schooner Martha. Matthew Flinders’ first map of Van Diemens Land and the Bass Strait, however, before Flinders left Sydney for England in 1800, Reed had informed Flinders of the existence of the island. Flinders’ second map of Van Diemens Land and Basss Strait and published with his Observations in 1801 shows, captain John Black also visited the island just after Reed and named it Kings Island after Governor Philip Gidley King. Captain John Black was sailing in the brig Harbinger, after which the dangerous Harbinger Rocks off the islands north-west coast are named and it was found to abound in both fur seals and Southern elephant seals which were soon exploited to local extinction. The Cumberland arrived just before the French and the British had hastily erected the British Flag in a tree, baudin still circumnavigated and extensively mapped the Island in 1802, giving French names to some localities which are still in use today like Phoques Bay on the north-west coast. As a result of this incident, British settlements were established at the River Derwent and Port Dalrymple in Tasmania, the last of these left the island in 1854 and for many years it was only occasionally visited by hunters and more often castaways from shipwrecks. However it started failing within a few weeks of completion, a later telephone and telegraph cable across Bass Strait operated via King Island from 1936 until 1963. In the 1880s the land was opened for grazing, a township developed at Currie and the post office opened on 1 June 1892. The other localities of King Island are Bungaree, Loorana, Lymwood, Nugara, Pegarah, Reekara, Sea Elephant, Surprise Bay, Wickham and Yarra Creek. Situated in the centre of the entrance to Bass Strait, King Island has been the location of over 60 known shipwrecks. Many King Islanders are descendants of shipwreck survivors, notable shipwrecks include,1801, large unidentified three-masted full rigged ship, probably a whaler. 1835, Neva, convict ship 327 tons,225 lives lost,1840, Isabella, full-rigged ship 287 tons, no lives lost. 1845, Cataraqui, full-rigged ship 802 tons,400 lives lost,1854, Brahmin, full-rigged ship 616 tons,17 lives lost. 1854, Waterwitch, schooner 134 tons, no lives lost,1855, Whistler, American clipper ship,942 tons, two lives lost. 1855, Maypo, brig 174 tons, two lives lost,1865, Arrow, schooner 166 tons, one life lost
King Island (Tasmania)
–
Built in 1861, the
Cape Wickham Lighthouse is Australia's, and the
Southern Hemisphere 's, tallest lighthouse.
King Island (Tasmania)
–
King Island
King Island (Tasmania)
–
Wreck of the
Cataraqui, Australia's deadliest maritime disaster with 400 victims. 314 recovered bodies lie buried on King Island in five graves.
King Island (Tasmania)
–
Currie Harbour, 2007
24.
Marin French Cheese Company
–
The Marin French Cheese Company is a manufacturer of artisan cheese located in rural west Marin County, California. The company was founded in 1865 by Jefferson Thompson, and produces cheeses under the Marin French Cheese brand name and it is the oldest continually operating cheese manufacturer in the United States. Early antecedents of the company may go back as far as 1854, other accounts state that a local woman named Clara Steele roped wild Spanish cattle in the area to make cheese starting in 1857. It is known that Jefferson Thompson established the current company in 1865, the company used the Rouge et Noir brand name from 1906 until 2013, when the Marin French Cheese brand was created. In the 1930s, the herd was decimated by disease. In 1998, Bob Thompson sold the business to the Boyce family of Bishop, California, operators of organic cattle ranches in eastern California, Jim Boyce said that the company has a symbiotic relationship with the local dairy farmers who supply much of its milk. Mr. Boyce died in 2010 and, in 2011, Marin French was purchased by Rians and they still manufacture this breakfast cheese. Other products include brie, camembert, chèvre, bleu and washed-rind triple creme Schloss, in 2015 Petite Breakfast wears the commemorative vintage label, “1865” to celebrate their 150th year and honor their cheesemakers who sustained the craft over decades. In 2005, the companys Triple Creme Brie won top honors in the pasteurized milk brie category at the World Cheese Awards in London and this was the only gold medal awarded in the class that year. Petite Breakfast has been selected a Winner in the 2015 Good Food Awards, although the company has a Petaluma address, it is located 11 miles southwest west of that city. It is 11 miles northwest of Novato, the company also conducts art exhibits at its location. The company collaborates with other local cheesemakers in Marin and Sonoma counties to support the annual California Artisan Cheese Festival, former companys owner, Jim Boyce, describes their philosophy, We remain dedicated to a rich heritage of artisan craftsmanship that has been passed down through the generations
Marin French Cheese Company
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An assortment of Marin French Cheese Company products
Marin French Cheese Company
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The
logo of the Marin French Cheese Company
25.
Wheel
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A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel is one of the components of the wheel. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a ships wheel, steering wheel, potters wheel and flywheel. Common examples are found in transport applications, a wheel greatly reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, cognates within Indo-European include Icelandic hjól wheel, tyre, Greek κύκλος kúklos, and Sanskrit chakra, the latter both meaning circle or wheel. The invention of the falls into the late Neolithic. Note that this implies the passage of several wheel-less millennia even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery, precursors of wheels, known as tournettes or slow wheels, were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required effort to turn. True potters wheels were apparently in use in Mesopotamia by 3500 BCE and possibly as early as 4000 BCE, and the oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur, dates to approximately 3100 BCE. The earliest well-dated depiction of a vehicle is on the Bronocice pot. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination, that from Stare Gmajne near Ljubljana in Slovenia is now dated in 2σ-limits to 3340–3030 BCE, the axle to 3360–3045 BCE. Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known, a type of wagon construction. They both are dated to c, in China, the wheel was certainly present with the adoption of the chariot in c.1200 BCE, although Barbieri-Low argues for earlier Chinese wheeled vehicles, c.2000 BC. In Britain, a wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m in diameter, was uncovered at the Must Farm site in East Anglia in 2016. The specimen, dating from 1, 100–800 years BCE, represents the most complete, the wheels hub is also present. A horses spine found nearby suggests the wheel may have part of a horse-drawn cart. The wheel was found in a settlement built on stilts over wetland and it is thought that the primary obstacle to large-scale development of the wheel in the Americas was the absence of domesticated large animals which could be used to pull wheeled carriages. The only large animal that was domesticated in the Western hemisphere, Nubians from after about 400 BCE used wheels for spinning pottery and as water wheels
Wheel
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Three wheels on an antique
tricycle
Wheel
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A depiction of an
onager -drawn cart on the
Sumerian "battle standard of
Ur " (c. 2500 BC)
Wheel
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A figurine featuring the
New World 's independently invented wheel
Wheel
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An
aluminium alloy wheel
26.
Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing
Ceramic
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A
Ming Dynasty porcelain vase dated to 1403–1424
Ceramic
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Fire test furnace insulated with
firebrick and
ceramic fibre insulation.
Ceramic
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Mid-16th century ceramic tilework on the
Dome of the Rock,
Jerusalem
Ceramic
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Spherical Hanging Ornament, 1575-1585,
Ottoman Period.
Brooklyn Museum.
27.
Camembert (cheese)
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Camembert is a soft, creamy, surface-ripened cows milk cheese. It was first made in the late 18th century at Camembert, Normandy, the first camembert was made from unpasteurized milk, and the AOC variety Camembert de Normandie is required by law to be made only with unpasteurized milk. Many modern cheesemakers, however, use pasteurized milk for reasons of safety, compliance with regulations, the cheese is made by inoculating warmed cow milk with mesophilic bacteria, then adding rennet and allowing the mixture to coagulate. The curd is cut into roughly 1 cm cubes, salted. At this point the fresh cheese is hard, crumbly, the surface of each cheese is then sprayed with an aqueous suspension of the mold Penicillium camemberti, and the cheeses are left to ripen for a legally required minimum of three weeks. This affinage produces the distinctive bloomy, edible rind and creamy interior texture characteristic of the cheese, once the cheeses are sufficiently ripe, they are wrapped in paper and may be placed in wooden boxes for transport. Camembert was reputedly first made in 1791 by Marie Harel, a farmer from Normandy, however, the origin of the cheese known today as camembert is more likely to rest with the beginnings of the industrialization of the cheesemaking process at the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an engineer, M. Ridel, devised the wooden box which was used to carry the cheese and helped to send it for longer distances, in particular to America and these boxes are still used today. Before fungi were understood, the color of camembert rind was a matter of chance, most commonly blue-grey, from the early 20th century onwards, the rind has been more commonly pure white, but it was not until the mid-1970s that pure white became standard. The cheese was famously issued to French troops during World War I and it has many other roles in French culture, literature, and history. It is now known, and many local varieties are made around the world. The variety named Camembert de Normandie was granted a designation of origin in 1992 after the original AOC in 1983. The AOC Camembert can only be made raw, unpasteurized milk from Vaches Normandes cows. Problems with hygiene regulations have caused restrictions on importation and sale in some countries, Camembert cheese gets its characteristic odor from many compounds. These include diacetyl, 3-methylbutanal, methional, 1-octen-3-ol and 1-octen-3-one, phenethyl acetate, 2-undecanone, δ-decalactone, butyric acid, significant contributors to odor of camembert cheese Overripe camembert contains an unpleasant, excessive amount of ammonia, which is produced by the same microorganisms required for ripening. Brie cheese is a soft cheese, also made from cows milk. However, there are such as its origin, typical market shape, size. Brie originates from the Île de France while camembert comes from Normandy, traditionally, brie was produced in large wheels, either 22.9 cm or 36.8 cm in diameter, and thus ripened more slowly than the smaller camembert cheeses
Camembert (cheese)
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Camembert
Camembert (cheese)
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True Camembert cheese of Normandy made with unpasteurized milk
Camembert (cheese)
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Camembert of
Normandy
Camembert (cheese)
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Camembert cheese box
28.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
Normandy
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Roman theatre in
Lillebonne
Normandy
Normandy
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Allied invasion of Normandy,
D-Day, 1944
Normandy
–
A typical northeastern Norman village
29.
Dorling Kindersley
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Dorling Kindersley is a British multinational publishing company specializing in illustrated reference books for adults and children in 62 languages. It is part of Penguin Random House, a publishing company jointly owned by Bertelsmann SE & Co. Bertelsmann owns 53% of the company and Pearson owns 47%, DK has offices in New York, Melbourne, London, Munich, New Delhi and Toronto. Dorling Kindersley was founded as a company by Christopher Dorling and Peter Kindersley in London in 1974. DK Inc. began publishing in the United States in 1991, in 1999 it overestimated the market for Star Wars books and was left with millions of unsold copies, resulting in crippling debt. As a direct result, DK was taken over the year by the Pearson PLC media company and made part of Penguin Group. DK has continued to sell Star Wars books after the takeover, in 2013 Bertelsmann and Pearson Completed a merger to form Penguin Random House. Bertelsmann owns 53% and Pearson 47% of the company, penguins trade publishing activity continued to include DK under the newly formed Penguin Random House. Dorling Kindersley publishes a range of titles internationally for adults and children, most of the companys books are produced by teams of editors and designers who work with freelance writers and illustrators. Some are endorsed by imprimaturs, well-known and respected such as the British Medical Association, the Royal Horticultural Society. Some DK books apparently produced by celebrity authors such as Carol Vorderman are actually ghostwritten by the companys own writers and editors, BradyGames is a publishing company in the United States operating as a DK imprint, which specializes in video game strategy guides, covering multiple video game platforms. It published their first strategy guide in November 1993 as a division of MacMillan Computer Publishing, in 1998, Simon & Schuster divested BradyGames as part of its educational division to Pearson PLC. BradyGames has grown to publish roughly 90-100 guides per year, on 1 June 2015, BradyGames merged with Prima Games, and future strategy guides made by the publishing company will be published under the Prima Games label. During the 1990s, the company published educational videos and a range of educational CD-ROMs under the brand DK Multimedia. During the late 1990s CD-ROMs were rebranded as DK Interactive Learning to reflect an emphasis toward the educational sector. The DK Online section of the business transferred into development work on the anglicised version of the Pearson Education KnowledgeBox product. In December 2010 DK opened an app store, selling digital versions of some of its books as well as products from other publishers, DK commenced publishing books aimed at teens with the release of Heads Up Psychology in May 2014 and further titles following every two to three months. Infographics, sidebars, and photos both create a visual layout and underscore the concepts discussed
Dorling Kindersley
–
Dorling Kindersley
Dorling Kindersley
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Dorling Kindersley's London office is at
Shell Mex House, 80 Strand, a 1930s
Art Deco building easily recognizable from the River Thames by its distinctive clock.
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