1.
Bread
–
Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely, as do modes of preparation. As a result, types, shapes, sizes, and textures of breads differ around the world, Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Some bread is cooked before it can leaven, including for traditional or religious reasons, non-cereal ingredients such as fruits, nuts and fats may be included. Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day. It is eaten as a snack, and used as an ingredient in other preparations, such as sandwiches. It forms the main component of bread pudding, as well as of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip out. Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance as nourishment and it plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture. Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language, where it appears in proverbs, colloquial expressions, in prayer and in the etymology of words, the Old English word for bread was hlaf, which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a rock, placed over a fire. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age, yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread, airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce a kind of bread than other peoples. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the day to use as a form of sourdough starter. In 1961 the Chorleywood bread process was developed, which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period, the process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories
Bread
–
Various leavened breads
Bread
–
Bread shop,
Tacuinum Sanitatis from Northern Italy, beginning of the 15th century
Bread
–
White bread (left) and brown bread.
Bread
–
Classic French bread, boule.
2.
Pastry
–
Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening that may be savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are often described as bakers confectionery, the word pastries suggests many kinds of baked products made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs. Small tarts and other baked products are called pastries. The French word pâtisserie is also used in English for the same foods, common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties. Pastry can also refer to the dough, from which such baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products, pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content, which contributes to a flaky or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the weight of the filling, when making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and flour thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the granules are adequately coated with fat. On the other hand, overmixing results in long gluten strands that toughen the pastry, Shortcrust pastry Shortcrust pastry is the simplest and most common pastry. It is made with flour, fat, butter, salt and this is used mainly in tarts. It is also the pastry that is used most often in making a quiche, the process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and flour, adding water, and rolling out the paste. A related type is the sweetened sweetcrust pastry, also known as pâte sucrée, in which sugar, Flaky pastry Flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to the number of layers. It bakes into a crisp, buttery pastry, the puff is obtained by the shard-like layers of fat, most often butter or shortening, creating layers which expand in the heat of the oven when baked. Puff pastry Puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or puff when baked, Puff pastry is made using flour, butter, salt, and water. The pastry rises up due to the water and fats expanding as they turn into steam upon heating, Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender. Choux pastry Choux pastry is a very light pastry that is filled with cream. Unlike other types of pastry, choux is in closer to a dough before being cooked which gives it the ability to be piped into various shapes such as the éclair. Its name originates from the French choux, meaning cabbage, owing to its rough cabbage-like shape after cooking, Choux begins as a mixture of milk or water and butter which are heated together until the butter melts, to which flour is added to form a dough
Pastry
–
Palmier pastries
Pastry
–
Blackberry pie made with a pastry crust
Pastry
–
Pecan and maple
Danish pastry, a puff pastry type
Pastry
–
Profiterole or cream puff, a
choux pastry
3.
Breakfast
–
Breakfast is the first meal of a day, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the days work. Among English speakers, breakfast can be used to refer to meal or to refer to a meal composed of traditional breakfast foods served at any time of day. The word literally refers to breaking the fasting period of the prior night, the meal has managed to generate a vast variety of popular restaurant chains dedicated to serving breakfast, namely, IHOP and Dennys. While current professional opinions are largely in favor of eating breakfast, the influence of breakfast on managing body weight is unclear. The Old English word for dinner, disner, means to break a fast, in Burma the traditional breakfast is htamin jaw, fried rice with boiled peas, and yei nway jan, especially among the poor. Glutinous rice or kao hnyin is steamed and wrapped in banana leaf often served with peas as kao hnyin baung with a sprinkle of crushed and salted toasted sesame. Equally popular is the variety of rice known as nga cheik which is cooked the same way. Si damin is sticky rice cooked with turmeric and onions in oil which is served with crushed and salted toasted sesame. Assorted fritters such as baya jaw are often served as a complement, nan bya or naan again with pè byouk or simply buttered, is served with Indian tea or coffee. Fried chapati, blistered like nan bya but crispy, with pè byouk, a hundred layers, is flaky multi-layered fried paratha served with either pè byouk or a sprinkle of sugar. Eeja gway with Indian tea or coffee is another favourite, add fritters such as split chickpea, urad dal or gourd, boiled egg and fried fish cake. As China is made up of many distinct provinces each with their own unique cuisine, in general, basic choices include sweet or salty pancakes, soup, deep fried bread sticks or doughnuts, buns, porridge, and fried or soup-based noodles. These options are accompanied by tea or sweetened soy bean milk. However, condiments for porridge and the soup base tend to vary between provinces and regions, the types of teas that are served and spices that are used can also differ significantly between the provinces. Cha Chaan Teng breakfasts often include Hong Kong style milk tea, pan fried egg, bread, each dish is designed to be sampled and diners can go through a large selection of dim sum quickly accompanied by a generous amount of good tea. Iron Buddha tea is the most common accompaniment, but other such as puer. Fried and rice-based noodles and cakes are also popular, in modern times, dim sum is commonly prepared and served in Yum Cha restaurants rather than home because of the skill and efforts involved in the preparation. Breakfast in modern Japanese households comes in two variations, Japanese style and Western style
Breakfast
–
A traditional Japanese breakfast for a tourist at Buddhist temple
Chion-in. Rice, Japanese pickles (
umeboshi and
takuan), a slice of grilled salmon, egg,
nori, some vegetable; perhaps a kind of いんげん (
Phaseolus vulgaris) with sesame powder
Breakfast
–
A
full English breakfast with scrambled eggs,
sausage,
black pudding, bacon, mushrooms, baked beans,
hash browns, and half a tomato
Breakfast
–
A bowl of
Rice Krispies breakfast cereal served with milk
4.
Dessert
–
Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
Dessert
–
A
flourless chocolate cake (
torte)
Dessert
–
Apple Pie
Dessert
–
Baked
custard
Dessert
–
An assortment of desserts on a table
5.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
6.
Flour
–
Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
Flour
–
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour
–
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Flour
–
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour
–
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in
Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan
7.
Egg (food)
–
Eggs are laid by female animals of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, and fish, and have been eaten by humans for thousands of years. Bird and reptile eggs consist of an eggshell, albumen. The most popular choice for egg consumption are chicken eggs, other popular choices for egg consumption are duck, quail, roe, and caviar. Egg yolks and whole eggs store significant amounts of protein and choline, due to their protein content, the United States Department of Agriculture categorizes eggs as Meats within the Food Guide Pyramid. Despite the nutritional value of eggs, there are potential health issues arising from egg quality, storage. Chickens and other egg-laying creatures are widely kept throughout the world, in 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens. There are issues of variation in demand and expectation, as well as current debates concerning methods of mass production. In 2012, the European Union banned battery husbandry of chickens, bird eggs have been valuable foodstuffs since prehistory, in both hunting societies and more recent cultures where birds were domesticated. The chicken was probably domesticated for its eggs before 7500 BCE, chickens were brought to Sumer and Egypt by 1500 BCE, and arrived in Greece around 800 BCE, where the quail had been the primary source of eggs. In Thebes, Egypt, the tomb of Haremhab, built about 1420 BCE, shows a depiction of a man carrying bowls of ostrich eggs and other large eggs, presumably those of the pelican, as offerings. In ancient Rome, eggs were preserved using a number of methods, the Romans crushed the shells in their plates to prevent evil spirits from hiding there. In the Middle Ages, eggs were forbidden during Lent because of their richness, the word mayonnaise possibly was derived from moyeu, the medieval French word for the yolk, meaning center or hub. Egg scrambled with acidic fruit juices were popular in France in the 17th century, the dried egg industry developed in the 19th century, before the rise of the frozen egg industry. In 1878, a company in St. Louis, Missouri started to transform egg yolk and white into a light-brown, the production of dried eggs significantly expanded during World War II, for use by the United States Armed Forces and its allies. In 1911, the egg carton was invented by Joseph Coyle in Smithers, British Columbia, early egg cartons were made of paper. Bird eggs are a food and one of the most versatile ingredients used in cooking. They are important in many branches of the food industry. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, duck and goose eggs, and smaller eggs, such as quail eggs, are occasionally used as a gourmet ingredient in western countries
Egg (food)
–
A brown and white
chicken egg
Egg (food)
–
A cracked raw chicken egg
Egg (food)
–
Quail eggs (upper left), chicken egg (lower left) and
ostrich egg (right)
Egg (food)
–
A raw chicken egg within its membrane, the shell removed by soaking in vinegar
8.
Butter
–
Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
Butter
–
Butter at the Borough Market,
London
Butter
–
Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a
butter knife.
Butter
–
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Butter
–
Liquid
clarified butter
9.
Milk
–
Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
Milk
–
A glass of
pasteurized cow's milk
Milk
–
A human baby feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
A
goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today
10.
Water
–
Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Water
–
Water in three states: liquid, solid (
ice), and gas (invisible
water vapor in the air).
Clouds are accumulations of water droplets,
condensed from vapor-saturated air.
Water
–
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.
Water
–
Snowflakes by
Wilson Bentley, 1902.
Water
–
Dew drops adhering to a
spider web.
11.
Cream
–
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
Cream
–
A milk bottle showing cream risen to the top
Cream
–
Stewed
nectarines and heavy cream
Cream
–
Meiji whipping cream
12.
French cuisine
–
French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France. In the 14th century Guillaume Tirel, a chef known as Taillevent, wrote Le Viandier. During that time, French cuisine was influenced by Italian cuisine. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations, gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country, knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education, in November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the worlds intangible cultural heritage. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy, multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers, the sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which changed into the modern dessert. The ingredients of the time varied according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse, livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked, bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt, fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, artificial freshwater ponds held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today
French cuisine
–
A
nouvelle cuisine presentation
French cuisine
–
French
haute cuisine presentation
French cuisine
–
French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine
French cuisine
–
John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting with a
cardinal at the high table, under a luxurious
baldaquin, in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants, including a
carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden
salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; illustration from
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, circa 1410.
13.
Proofing (baking technique)
–
Proofing, as the term is used by bakers, is the final rise of shaped bread dough before baking. It refers to a specific rest period within the more generalized process known as fermentation, Fermentation is a step in creating yeast breads and baked goods where the yeast is allowed to leaven the dough. Fermentation rest periods are not always named, and can appear in recipes as Allow dough to rise. When they are named, terms include bulk fermentation, first rise, second rise, final proof, proofing yeast refers to the process of first dissolving yeast in warm water, a needed hydration step when using active dry yeast. Proofing can also refer to testing the viability of yeast by dissolving it in water, if the yeast is viable, it will feed on the sugar and produce a visible layer of bubbles on the surface of the water mixture. The process of making yeast-leavened bread involves a series of alternating work, work periods occur when the dough is manipulated by the baker. Some work periods are called mixing, kneading, and folding, as well as division, shaping, work periods are typically followed by rest periods, these occur when dough is allowed to sit undisturbed. Particular rest periods include, but are not limited to, autolyse, bulk fermentation, proofing, also sometimes called final fermentation, is the specific term for allowing dough to rise after it has been shaped and before it is baked. Some breads begin mixing with an autolyse and this refers to a period of rest after the initial mixing of flour and water, a rest period that occurs sequentially before the addition of yeast, salt and other ingredients. This rest period allows for better absorption of water and helps the gluten, the autolyse is credited to Raymond Calvel, who recommended it as a way to reduce kneading time and thereby improve the flavor and color of bread. Proofing the yeast is a hydration or dissolving process that occurs when dry yeast is mixed with warm water, the minimum weight of water required may be calculated, yeast weight x 4 = water weight. Typically, using US customary volume units, ¼ cup water at 105–115 °F and ½ teaspoon of sugar are used, or expressed differently, while this sugar may be sucrose or table sugar, instead it may be glucose or maltose. Fermentation typically begins when viable bakers yeast or a culture is added to flour. Enzymes in the flour and yeast create sugars, which are consumed by the yeast, specifically, the grain enzyme diastase begins to convert starch in the grain to maltose. Sourdough starters also produce lactic and acetic acids, further contributing to flavor, different bread varieties will have different process requirements. These are generally classified as straight or sponge dough processes. Straight doughs will require only a single mixing period, sponge doughs will need multiple mixing periods. Overproofing occurs when a fermenting dough has rested too long and its bubbles have grown so large that they have popped and tunneled, and dough baked at this point would result in a bread with poor structure
Proofing (baking technique)
–
Challah proofing in loaf pans. Bread covered with
linen proofing cloth in the background.
Proofing (baking technique)
–
Croissants proofing on plastic tray
Proofing (baking technique)
–
Dough, resting and rising in bulk fermentation
Proofing (baking technique)
–
Bread proofer for home use
14.
Viennoiserie
–
Viennoiseries are typically eaten at breakfast or as snacks. The popularity of Viennese-style baked goods in France began with the Viennese Bakery opened by August Zang in 1839, the first usage of the expression pâtisseries viennoises appears in a book by French author Alphonse Daudet, Le Nabab in 1877. The use of puff pastry to make them came later, however, List of baked goods List of French desserts Beignet
Viennoiserie
–
Pain au chocolat is a type of viennoiserie
Viennoiserie
–
Croissant
Viennoiserie
–
Brioche
Viennoiserie
–
Chausson aux pommes
15.
Pain aux raisins
–
Pain aux raisins or escargot is a spiral pastry often eaten for breakfast in France. Its names translate as raisin bread and snail, respectively and it is a member of the pâtisserie viennoise family of baked foods. In France, it is typically a variant of the croissant or pain au chocolat, however, in many areas of Northern Europe and North America, it is generally made with sweetened bread dough or brioche dough, rather than pastry. It is often consumed for breakfast as part of a Continental breakfast, chelsea bun Danish pastry Cinnamon roll Raisin bread
Pain aux raisins
–
A French style pain aux raisins
16.
Chocolate chip
–
Chocolate chips are small chunks of sweetened chocolate, which are used as an ingredient in a number of desserts, in trail mix and less commonly in some breakfast foods such as pancakes. They are often sold in a round, flat-bottomed teardrop shape, another variety of chocolate chips has rectangular or square chocolate chunks. They are available in sizes from large to miniature, but are usually less than 10 millimetres in diameter. The cookies were a success, and Wakefield reached an agreement in 1939 with Nestlé to add her recipe to the chocolate bars packaging in exchange for a lifetime supply of chocolate. Initially, Nestlé included a small chopping tool with the chocolate bars, in 1941, Nestlé and at least one of its competitors started selling the chocolate in chip form. Originally, chocolate chips were made of chocolate, but today there are many flavors. These include bittersweet, peanut butter, butterscotch, mint chocolate, white chocolate, dark chocolate, milk chocolate, chocolate chips can be used in cookies, pancakes, waffles, cakes, pudding, muffins, crêpes, pies, hot chocolate, and various pastries. They are also found in other retail food products such as granola bars, ice cream. Chocolate chips can also be melted and used in sauces and other recipes, the chips melt best at temperatures between 104 and 113 °F. The melting process starts at 90 °F, when the butter starts melting in the chips. The cooking temperature must never exceed 115 °F for milk chocolate and white chocolate, or 120 °F for dark chocolate, although convenient, melted chocolate chips are not always recommended as a substitute for baking chocolate. Because most chocolate chips are designed to retain their shape when baking, they contain less cocoa butter than baking chocolate, in the 2010s, chocolate chips were popular as a baking ingredient in the United States. The chocolate chip cookie is a quintessential American dessert, chocolate chips are also widely available in Australia, Canada, and less commonly in Europe and other parts of the world. Nestlé and The Hershey Company are among the top producers of chocolate chips, m&Ms History of Toll House from NestleCafe. com
Chocolate chip
–
Semi-sweet chocolate chips
Chocolate chip
–
Chocolate chips in a chocolate chip cookie
Chocolate chip
–
Overview
17.
Foie gras
–
Foie gras is a luxury food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been specially fattened. By French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by force-feeding corn with a feeding tube, in Spain and other countries outside France it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. Ducks are force-fed twice a day for 12.5 days, Ducks are typically slaughtered at 100 days and geese at 112 days. Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine and its flavor is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté, French law states that Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France. The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, and the production, import or sale of foie gras, even where it is legal, as early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, at the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese. The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean, the earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese, the emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign. After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine, some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasants food animals were mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a gooses liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea or earlier from Egyptians, the Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe. The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, the delicate taste of the gooses liver was soon appreciated, Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions, the chasam sofer, Rabbi Moses Sofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food as none of its limbs are damaged. This matter remained a topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that, however, as liver is regarded as wholly blood, properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practiced
Foie gras
–
Foie gras with mustard seeds and green onions in duck
jus
Foie gras
–
A
Mulard duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production
Foie gras
–
A
bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese
Foie gras
–
Bartolomeo Scappi
18.
Cervelat
–
Cervelat, also cervelas, servelat or zervelat, is a sausage produced in Switzerland, France and parts of Germany. The recipe and preparation of the sausage vary regionally, the sausages are called cervelas in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, Cervelat in the German-speaking part, and servelat in the Italian-speaking part. The terms ultimately derive from cerebrum, the Latin word for brain, the term Cervelat is the oldest of the three. It was first recorded in 1552 by Rabelais, and is derived from zervelada, modern recipes do not include brains, and arose towards the end of the 19th century in Basel, as a reworking of the traditional recipe. Various European semi-dry cervelat are similar to sausage in the U. S. In Switzerland, cervelats are cooked or served raw and they contain a mixture of beef, bacon and pork rind. The modern Swiss variety is packed into zebu intestines, the cervelat is often referred to as the national sausage of Switzerland. Some 160 million cervelats weighing 27,000 metric tons are produced in Switzerland annually, Swiss cervelats are made of roughly equal parts of beef, pork, bacon, pork rind and ice, which helps bind the ingredients, along with spices, curing salt and cutter additives. The ingredients are finely minced in a cutter, packed into beef intestines, smoked for an hour, processed and packaged varieties sold in Swiss supermarkets also contain nitrites and antioxidants. A cervelat may weigh from about 100 to 200 grams, Swiss cervelats are prepared and eaten cooked or raw. They are boiled, grilled or fried and they can also be served uncooked, either in a salad or with bread and mustard. Sometimes sold smoked and uncooked, cervelat can be seasoned, salted, however, beginning on 1 April 2006, the European Union banned the import of many animal parts from Brazil as a measure aimed at preventing the spread of mad cow disease. Although Switzerland is not an EU member state, it is bound to observe European food protection laws through other treaty agreements, hence, Swiss and German stockpiles of zebu intestines became very low by 2008, threatening production altogether, and causing some controversy in Switzerland. In January of that year, the Swiss meat industry announced that a national task force had failed in an exhaustive search for an acceptable alternative to zebu intestines. The New York Times noted that the demise of cervelas visibly upset the Swiss. The cervelat production crisis was covered closely by the Swiss media and in a newspaper poll, by August 2008, most of the Swiss demand for bovine intestines had been met with imports from Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay. Cervelas de Lyon are a specialty of Lyonnaise cuisine. They contain finely minced pork, and either truffles or pistachios, sold uncooked, the sausage has to be boiled before it is eaten
Cervelat
–
A grilled cervelat with its ends cut open in the traditional Swiss manner
Cervelat
–
Cervelat cut in pieces typically used for
Wurstsalat
Cervelat
–
Cervelas à l'alsacienne with cheese and bacon
Cervelat
–
A
St. Galler bratwurst (white one),
schüblig and cervelat, cooked and served hot
19.
Epiphany (Christian)
–
Epiphany, also Theophany or Three Kings Day, is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally the visit of the Magi to the Christ child, moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some Western Christian denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. Eastern Christians, on the hand, commemorate the baptism of Jesus on both sides of the Jordan River, seen as his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Qasr el Yahud in the West Bank, and Al-Maghtas in Jordan on the east bank, Al-Maghtas is considered to be the site of the baptism of Jesus. The traditional date for the feast is January 6, however, since 1970, the celebration is held in some countries on the Sunday after January 1. In many Western Christian Churches, the eve of the feast is celebrated as Twelfth Night, the Monday after Epiphany is known as Plough Monday. Popular Epiphany customs include Epiphany singing, chalking the door, having ones house blessed, consuming Three Kings Cake, winter swimming, the word Epiphany is from Koine Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epiphaneia, meaning manifestation or appearance. It is derived from a meaning to appear. In classical Greek it was used of the appearance of dawn, of an enemy in war, in the Septuagint the word is used of a manifestation of the God of Israel. In the New Testament the word is used in 2 Timothy 1,10 to refer either to the birth of Christ or to his appearance after his resurrection, and five times to refer to his Second Coming. Epiphany may have originated in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire as a feast to honor the baptism of Jesus, around 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that, But the followers of Basilides celebrate the day of His Baptism too, spending the previous night in readings. And they say that it was the 15th of the month Tybi of the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar, and some say that it was observed the 11th of the same month. The Egyptian dates given correspond to January 6 and 10, the Basilides were a Gnostic sect. The reference to readings suggests that the Basilides were reading the Gospels, in ancient gospel manuscripts, the text is arranged to indicate passages for liturgical readings. If a congregation began reading Mark at the beginning of the year, it might arrive at the story of the Baptism on January 6, If Christians read Mark in the same format the Basilides did, the two groups could have arrived at the January 6 date independently. The earliest reference to Epiphany as a Christian feast was in A. D.361, the holiday is listed twice, which suggests a double feast of baptism and birth. The Nativity was assigned to the date as the birth because Luke 3,23 was misread to mean that Jesus was exactly 30 when he was baptized. Epiphanius of Salamis says that January 6 is Christs Birthday, that is, His Epiphany and he also asserts that the Miracle at Cana occurred on the same calendar day
Epiphany (Christian)
–
Adoration of the Magi by
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, 17th century
Epiphany (Christian)
–
Adoration of the Magi by
El Greco, 1568,
Museo Soumaya,
Mexico City
Epiphany (Christian)
–
The
Three Magi: Balthasar, Melchior, and Gaspar, from a late 6th century
mosaic at the
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in
Ravenna,
Italy.
Epiphany (Christian)
–
K † M † B † 2009 written on a door of rectory in Lstiboř (cs) village, Czech Republic to bless the house by Christ
20.
Provence
–
The largest city of the region is Marseille. The Romans made the region into the first Roman province beyond the Alps and called it Provincia Romana and it was ruled by the Counts of Provence from their capital in Aix-en-Provence until 1481, when it became a province of the Kings of France. While it has been part of France for more than five hundred years, it retains a distinct cultural and linguistic identity. The coast of Provence has some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Europe. Primitive stone tools dated to 1 to 1.05 million years BC were found in the Grotte du Vallonnet near Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, tools dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic were discovered in the Observatory Cave, in the Jardin Exotique of Monaco. The Paleolithic period in Provence saw great changes in the climate, with the arrival, at the beginning of the Paleolithic period, the sea level in western Provence was 150 meters higher than it is today. By the end of the Paleolithic, it had dropped 100 to 150 metres lower than sea level. The cave dwellings of the inhabitants of Provence were regularly inundated by the rising sea or left far from the sea. The changes in the sea led to one of the most remarkable discoveries of signs of early man in Provence. In 1985, a diver named Henri Cosquer discovered the mouth of a submarine cave 37 metres below the surface of the Calanque de Morgiou near Marseille, the entrance led to a cave above sea level. Inside, the walls of the Cosquer Cave are decorated with drawings of bison, seals, auks, horses and outlines of human hands, dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC. The end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Neolithic period saw the sea settle at its present level, a warming of the climate and the retreat of the forests. The disappearance of the forests and the deer and other easily hunted game meant that the inhabitants of Provence had to survive on rabbits, snails, since they were settled in one place they were able to develop new industries. Inspired by the pottery from the eastern Mediterranean, in about 6000 BC they created the first pottery to be made in France. Around 6000 BC, a wave of new settlers from the east and they were farmers and warriors, and gradually displaced the earlier pastoral people from their lands. They were followed in about 2500 BC by another wave of people, also farmers, known as the Courronniens, traces of these early civilisations can be found in many parts of Provence. A Neolithic site dating to about 6,000 BC was discovered in Marseille near the Saint-Charles railway station, and a dolmen from the Bronze Age can be found near Draguignan. Between the 10th and 4th century BC the Ligures were found in Provence from Massilia as far as modern day Liguria and they were of uncertain origin, they may have been the descendants of the indigenous neolithic peoples
Provence
–
The historical province of Provence (orange) within the modern region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur in southeast France
Provence
–
The modern region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Provence
–
Mont Ventoux and a field of
lavender
Provence
–
The old port of
Marseille.
21.
Maillard Reaction
–
The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared steaks, pan-fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows and it is named after French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 °C, at higher temperatures, caramelization and subsequently pyrolysis become more pronounced. This process is accelerated in an environment, as the amino groups are deprotonated and. The type of the acid determines the resulting flavor. This reaction is the basis for many of the flavoring industrys recipes, at high temperatures, a potential carcinogen called acrylamide can be formed. In the process, hundreds of different flavor compounds are created and these compounds, in turn, break down to form yet more new flavor compounds, and so on. Each type of food has a distinctive set of flavor compounds that are formed during the Maillard reaction. It is these same compounds that flavor scientists have used over the years to make artificial flavors, in 1913 Maillard published a paper to explain what happens when amino acids react with sugars at elevated temperatures. However, it was chemist John E. Hodge, working at the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Peoria, Illinois, who published a paper in 1953 that established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction. The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has a smell, and occurs also naturally without heating and gives varieties of cooked rice. Both compounds have odor thresholds below 0.06 ng/l, caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning, though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked eye. Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the foods in which the Maillard reaction occurs. They both are promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction involves amino acids, as discussed above, in making silage, excess heat causes the Maillard reaction to occur, which reduces the amount of energy and protein available to the animals who feed on it. Dicarbonyls react with amine to produce Strecker aldehyde through Strecker degradation, the Maillard reaction also occurs in the human body. It is a step in the formation of advanced glycation endproducts and it is tracked by measuring pentosidine. Although the Maillard reaction has been studied most extensively in foods, it has shown a correlation in numerous different diseases in the human body. In general, these diseases are due to the accumulation of AGEs on nucleic acids, proteins, though AGEs have numerous origins, they can form from the oxidation and dehydration of Amadori adducts, which themselves are products of nonenzymatic Maillard reactions
Maillard Reaction
–
The crusts of most
breads, such as this
brioche, are golden-brown due to the Maillard reaction
Maillard Reaction
–
Pork browned using maillard reaction
Maillard Reaction
–
French fries
Maillard Reaction
–
Types
22.
Cotgrave
–
Cotgrave is a town and civil parish in the borough of Rushcliffe in Nottinghamshire, England, about 5 miles south-east of the centre of Nottingham. The village sits at the edge of the South Nottinghamshire Wolds about 131 feet above sea level, cotgraves 2001 population of 7,373 people fell to 7,203 at the 2011 Census, even when Owthorpe was included. With an ancient heart that has largely escaped development, Cotgrave still has a village atmosphere despite its population and it is sandwiched between the A52, A606 and A46. To the west are Tollerton and Nottingham Airport, which has facilities for private planes, cotgraves origins may be in the Iron Age. A 6th-century Anglo-Saxon burial ground has been excavated at Mill Hill to the north of the old village, there was certainly a Saxon church a century before the Norman Conquest. The Roman Fosse Way passes a mile to the east, where it changes direction slightly, the A46 follows its course, and during improvements in 2012–13, excavations uncovered Ice Age flint tools. The place-name Cotgrave seems to contain an Old English personal name, Cotta, + grāf, the present substantial church, All Saints, dates from the 12th century, with several subsequent alterations and additions. An arson attack in 1996 caused considerable damage, but the church has since fully restored at great expense. The church has a ring of eight bells, most made by Taylors, a team of ringers practise regularly on Fridays and Sundays. An outbreak of plague in 1637 killed 93 of a population of 500, All Saints was used as a food store for the village during the outbreak. Money to pay for goods was disinfected as it was passed through a stone filled with vinegar to the men who had locked themselves away in the church. This stone is still in the church, on Scrimshire Lane, near the church, can be found an old wall, dubbed the Thousand-Year Wall. It is riddled with holes made by, and providing a home for a large group of solitary bees. Nearby, through a gate, is a graveyard that is, unusually. There can be there a pillar on three tiers commemorating those of the village lost in service during the world wars. The church has a glass window, by J. F. Gascoyne & Son of Nottingham. There is also a window on the aisle, east of the north door, depicting the koepe towers and underground workings of Cotgrave Colliery. The window was installed after the fire at the church in 1996, Cotgrave has a war memorial sited in the graveyard at Scrimshaw Lane to the west of All Saints
Cotgrave
–
The Cross
Cotgrave
–
All Saints' from the east
Cotgrave
Cotgrave
–
Cotgrave Colliery (courtesy AM500)
23.
Tsoureki
–
Tsoureki, also known as شوريك, panarët, choreg or chorek, çörək, kozunak, cozonac or çörek ), is a sweet, egg-enriched bread, rooted in the cuisines of Europe and Western and Central Asia. It is formed of braided strands of dough, such rich brioche-like breads are also traditional in many other countries, such as Hungary and the Czech Republic. Rich brioche-like breads are known by various Greek names that represent three major holidays for Greeks, Easter, Christmas and New Years. There are many varieties of these festive breads, based on milk, flour, eggs, sugar, yeast, butter. The butter is added after kneading, the dough is stretched, brushed with melted butter, folded and stretched again repeatedly, the result of this technique is that the baked bread separates easily into strands. A good tsoureki should be soft, moist and fluffy, yet stringy, tsoureki may be eaten at any time of year, often for breakfast, but it is also associated with several holidays. Another name for the bread is lamprokouloura, κουλούρα means round and, therefore, various forms of cookies and this braided bread can be shaped either into a circle or into two large braids and sprinkled with nuts, usually slivered, blanched almonds. It is served with red Easter eggs that have been dyed to represent the blood of Christ or red rosebuds and this bread was traditionally prepared with an essence drawn from the seeds of Mediterranean wild cherries, called mahlepi. The bread can also be flavoured with mastic, the resin from Pistacia lentiscus, in more recent years, vanilla-scented tsoureki has also become popular. If going for the full effect, a fourfold melange of aromatics is used, makhlepi, Chios mastic. Sometime tsoureki is used as a gift for special occasion, for instance, Christopsomo, which translates as Christs bread, is a Greek bread decorated with an early form of the Christian cross with ends that split and curl into circles. Sometimes dough shapes representing initials, birth dates, ages and aspects of the familys life, Christopsomo is a rich, round loaf scented with wine soaked figs, anise and orange. It sometimes contains such ingredients as nuts, raisins, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and mastic, the bread is sometimes served with honey on Christmas Eve. Families leave pieces of bread on the table believing that Christ will come, the preparation of Christopsomo is considered a sacred tradition in Greek Orthodox homes, and the care with which it is made is said to ensure the well-being of the home in the year to come. In earlier times, Greek cooks baked large quantities of bread to last for ten to fifteen days, the cook would begin by crossing him/herself before starting baking. Tsourekaki, A variant which consists of biscuits in the shape of the original tsoureki and it is common to add orange flavour. The traditional New Years Cake, Vasilopita is sometimes a tsoureki, in Armenian tradition, a big batch of chureg is baked for Easter, with one of the choregs containing a coin for good luck to whomever gets it. Cozonac, the Romanian and Bulgarian variant Cardamom bread Pulla Zopf Vánočka Lokum Nut roll
Tsoureki
–
Paskalya çöreği (Easter çörek) and coloured eggs from
Istanbul
24.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Rousseau in 1753, by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with
Mme. de Warens in 1735–6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio
Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador
25.
Confessions (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)
–
The Confessions is an autobiographical book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In modern times, it is published with the title The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau in order to distinguish it from Saint Augustines Confessions. The Confessions was two distinct works, each consisting of six books. Books I to VI were written between 1765 and 1767 and published in 1782, while books VII to XII were written in 1769–1770, Rousseau alludes to a planned third part, but this was never completed. For instance, some parts of his own education are clearly present in his account of ideal education, Emile, Rousseaus work is notable as one of the first major autobiographies. Prior to the Confessions, the two great autobiographies were Augustines own Confessions and Saint Teresas Life of Herself. Rousseau recognized the nature of his work, it opens with the famous words, I have resolved on an enterprise which has no precedent. My purpose is to display to my kind a portrait in every way true to nature, and his example was soon followed, not long after publication, many other writers wrote their own similarly-styled autobiographies. The Confessions is also noted for its account of Rousseaus more humiliating. For instance, Rousseau recounts an incident when, while a servant, in addition, Rousseau explains the manner in which he disposes of the five children he had with Thérèse Levasseur. According to historian Paul Johnson, Rousseaus autobiography contains many inaccuracies, vaughn have reached judgments in favor of Rousseau. Let them eat cake, a saying deriving from this book The New Confessions, allegories of Reading, Figural Language in Rousseau, Nietzsche, Rilke, and Proust. Character and Conversion in Autobiography, Augustine, Montaigne, Descartes, Rousseau, the Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau at Project Gutenberg – English translation. Note that this is a translation, certain incidents in the original
Confessions (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)
–
"The Stealing of The Apple" Aldus edition, 1903
26.
Princess
–
Princess is a regal rank and the feminine equivalent of prince. Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince or for the daughters of a king or sovereign prince, some princesses are reigning monarchs of principalities. There have been instances of reigning princesses than reigning princes. Examples of princesses regnant have included Constance of Antioch, princess regnant of Antioch in the 12th century, as the President of France, an office for which women are eligible, is ex-officio co-Prince of Andorra, Andorra could theoretically be ruled by a co-Princess. For many centuries, the princess was not regularly used for a monarchs daughter. Old English had no equivalent of prince, earl, or any royal or noble title aside from queen. Royal women were addressed or referred to as The Lady. For example, Elizabeth and Mary, daughters of Henry VIII of England were often referred to as the Ladies Elizabeth. This practice, however, was not consistent, in the marriage contract between Prince George of Denmark and Anne, daughter of James I of Great Britain, Anne is referred to as The Princess Anne. Practice in Britain began to change in the 18th century, queen Victoria confirmed this practice in Letters Patent dated 30 January 1864. In European countries, a woman who marries a prince will almost always become a princess, from 1301 onward, the eldest sons of the Kings of England have generally been created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, and their wives have been titled Princess of Wales. This has so far applied to Diana, Princess of Wales and Sarah, Duchess of York
Princess
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
27.
Let them eat cake
–
Let them eat cake is the traditional translation of the French phrase Quils mangent de la brioche, supposedly spoken by a great princess upon learning that the peasants had no bread. While it is attributed to Queen Marie Antoinette, there is no record of this phrase ever having been said by her. It appears in Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Confessions, his autobiography, as he wrote in Book 6, Enfin je me rappelai le pis-aller d’une grande princesse à qui l’on disait que les paysans n’avaient pas de pain, et qui répondit, Qu’ils mangent de la brioche. Finally I recalled the stopgap solution of a princess who was told that the peasants had no bread. Rousseau does not name the princess and he may have invented the anecdote, as Confessions was, on the whole. The quotation, as attributed to Marie Antoinette, was claimed to have been uttered during one of the famines that occurred in France during the reign of her husband, Louis XVI. Upon being alerted that the people were suffering due to widespread bread shortages, however, there is no evidence that Queen Marie-Antoinette ever uttered this phrase. It was first attributed to her by Alphonse Karr in Les Guêpes of March,1843, for example, the Queens English-language biographer, Antonia Fraser, wrote in 2002, was said 100 years before her by Marie-Thérèse, the wife of Louis XIV. It was a callous and ignorant statement and she, Marie Antoinette, was neither, the attribution also has little credibility. Thus, Louis XVIII is as likely as others to have had his recollection affected by the spreading and distorting of Rousseaus original remark. This makes it unlikely that Marie-Antoinette ever said this, letters from Marie-Antoinette to her family in Austria at this time reveal an attitude totally different to the Let them eat cake mentality. It is quite certain that in seeing the people who treat us so well despite their own misfortune, the King seems to understand this truth. There is a problem with the dates surrounding the attribution in that Marie-Antoinette was not only too young. Although only published in 1782, Rousseaus Confessions were finished in 1769, Marie Antoinette, age 14, didnt arrive at Versailles from Austria until 1770. She was unknown to him at the time of writing his work so she could not have been the great princess mentioned by Rousseau. During her marriage to Louis XVI, her perceived frivolousness and her very real extravagance were often cited as factors that only worsened Frances dire financial straits. Her Austrian birth and sex were also a factor in a country where xenophobia. In fact, many anti-monarchists were so convinced that it was Marie Antoinette who had single-handedly ruined Frances finances that they nicknamed her Madame Déficit
Let them eat cake
–
The phrase is commonly misattributed to
Marie Antoinette
Let them eat cake
–
Brioche, whose term is used in the French phrase
28.
Marie-Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
Marie-Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette with the Rose Portrait by
Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, 1783.
Marie-Antoinette
–
Archduchesses Maria Carolina (in blue dress) and Maria Antonia (in pink dress). Watercolor on ivory by Antonio Pencini, 1764. Vienna, Hofburg.
Marie-Antoinette
–
Maria Antonia aged 12 by
Martin van Meytens, c. 1767-1768.
29.
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis XVI, born Louis-Auguste, was the last King of France and Navarre before the French Revolution, during which he was also known as Louis Capet. In 1765, at the death of his father, Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir apparent of Louis XV of France, Louis XVI was guillotined on 21 January 1793. The first part of his reign was marked by attempts to reform France in accordance with Enlightenment ideas and these included efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the taille, and increase tolerance toward non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted to the reforms with hostility. Louis implemented deregulation of the market, advocated by his liberal minister Turgot. In periods of bad harvests, it would lead to food scarcity which would prompt the masses to revolt, from 1776, Louis XVI actively supported the North American colonists, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain, which was realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The ensuing debt and financial crisis contributed to the unpopularity of the Ancien Régime and this led to the convening of the Estates-General of 1789. In 1789, the storming of the Bastille during riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Louiss indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to view him as a symbol of the tyranny of the Ancien Régime. The credibility of the king was deeply undermined, and the abolition of the monarchy, Louis XVI was the only King of France ever to be executed, and his death brought an end to more than a thousand years of continuous French monarchy. Louis-Auguste de France, who was given the title Duc de Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of Versailles. Out of seven children, he was the son of Louis, the Dauphin of France. His mother was Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. A strong and healthy boy, but very shy, Louis-Auguste excelled in his studies and had a taste for Latin, history, geography, and astronomy. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grandfather, and rough-playing with his brothers, Louis-Stanislas, comte de Provence. From an early age, Louis-Auguste had been encouraged in another of his hobbies, locksmithing, upon the death of his father, who died of tuberculosis on 20 December 1765, the eleven-year-old Louis-Auguste became the new Dauphin. His mother never recovered from the loss of her husband, and died on 13 March 1767, throughout his education, Louis-Auguste received a mixture of studies particular to religion, morality, and humanities. His instructors may have also had a hand in shaping Louis-Auguste into the indecisive king that he became
Louis XVI of France
–
King Louis XVI by
Antoine-François Callet
Louis XVI of France
–
Marie Antoinette Queen of France with her three eldest children,
Marie-Thérèse,
Louis-Charles and
Louis-Joseph. By
Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis XVI at the age of 20
Louis XVI of France
–
Louis-Charles, the dauphin of France and future Louis XVII. By
Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun.
30.
Metz
–
Metz is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers. Metz is the prefecture of the Moselle department and the seat of the parliament of the Great East region, located near the tripoint along the junction of France, Germany, and Luxembourg, the city forms a central place of the European Greater Region and the SaarLorLux euroregion. The city has been steeped in Romance culture, but has strongly influenced by Germanic culture due to its location. Because of its historical, cultural, and architectural background, Metz has been submitted on Frances UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List, Metz is home to some world-class venues including the Arsenal Concert Hall and the Centre Pompidou-Metz museum. A basin of urban ecology, Metz gained its nickname of The Green City, as it has extensive open grounds, the historic city centre is one of the largest commercial pedestrian areas in France. A historic garrison town, Metz is the heart of the Lorraine region, specialising in information technology. In ancient times, the town was known as city of Mediomatrici, after its integration into the Roman Empire, the city was called Divodurum Mediomatricum, meaning Holy Village or Holy Fortress of the Mediomatrici, then it was known as Mediomatrix. During the 5th century AD, the name evolved to Mettis, Metz has a recorded history dating back over 3,000 years. Before the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BC, between the 6th and 8th centuries, the city was the residence of the Merovingian kings of Austrasia. After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Metz became the capital of the Kingdom of Lotharingia and was integrated into the Holy Roman Empire. During the 12th century, Metz rose to the status of Republic, with the signature of the Treaty of Chambord in 1552, Metz passed to the hands of the Kings of France. Under French rule, Metz was selected as capital of the Three Bishoprics, with creation of the departments by the Estates-General of 1789, Metz was chosen as capital of the Department of Moselle. Metz remained German until the end of World War I, when it reverted to France, however, after the Battle of France during the Second World War, the city was annexed once more by the German Third Reich. In 1944, the attack on the city by the U. S, Third Army freed the city from German rule and Metz reverted one more time to France after World War II. During the 1950s, Metz was chosen to be the capital of the newly created Lorraine region, with the creation of the European Community and the later European Union, the city has become central to the Greater Region and the SaarLorLux Euroregion. Metz is located on the banks of the Moselle and the Seille rivers,43 km from the Schengen tripoint where the borders of France, Germany, and Luxembourg meet. The city was built in a place where branches of the Moselle river creates several islands. The terrain of Metz forms part of the Paris Basin and presents a plateau relief cut by river valleys presenting cuestas in the north-south direction
Metz
–
The
Saint-Stephen Cathedral, view of the northern façade
Metz
–
Henry II of France entering Metz in 1552, putting an end to the Republic of Metz.
Metz
–
Dawn sky in Metz
Metz
–
Paul Verlaine by
Edmond Aman-Jean, 1892, oil on canvas,
Golden Courtyard museums — Paul Verlaine, Ode to Metz, Invectives, 1896
31.
Cougnou
–
The cougnou or bread of Jesus is a bread baked during Christmas time and is typical of the southern Low Countries. Quéniolle in Cambraisis, Volaeren or Folarts in West Flemish-speaking French Flanders like Dunkirk, the bread of Jesus is a sweet bread formed like a baby Jesus. It is made with flour, eggs, milk, yeast, raisins, usually, it is given to children on Christmas and St. Martins Day and usually enjoyed with a cup of hot chocolate. This bread seems to have originated in ancient Hainaut but the bread of Jesus is now throughout the southern Low Countries. It is usually decorated, also differently across the provinces, with circles in Hainaut and Romance Flanders, with incisions in Cambraisis, elsewhere it is with flowers. The Rond were traditionally made with clay coming from Baudour but are now made with plaster, histoire de rond et de cougnou
Cougnou
–
A quéniole of Valenciennes
Cougnou
–
A cougnou
32.
Panettone
–
It has a cupola shape, which extends from a cylindrical base and is usually about 12–15 cm high for a panettone weighing 1 kg. Other bases may be used, such as an octagon, or a frustum with a star section shape more common to pandoro and it is made during a long process that involves curing the dough, which is acidic, similar to sourdough. The proofing process takes several days, giving the cake its distinctive fluffy characteristics. It contains candied orange, citron, and lemon zest, as well as raisins, many other variations are available such as plain or with chocolate. It is served in wedge shapes, vertically cut, accompanied with hot beverages or a sweet wine. Efforts are under way to obtain Protected Designation of Origin and Denominazione di origine controllata status for this product, but, as of late 2008, in the early 20th century, two enterprising Milanese bakers began to produce panettone in large quantities in the rest of Italy. In 1919, Angelo Motta started producing his eponymous brand of cakes, the recipe was adapted shortly after by another baker, Gioacchino Alemagna, around 1925, who also gave his name to a popular brand that still exists today. The stiff competition between the two that then ensued led to production of the cake. Nestlé took over the brands together in the late 1990s, but Bauli, as a result of this fierce competition, by the end of World War II panettone was cheap enough for anyone and soon became the countrys leading Christmas sweet. In some places, it replaces the King cake, in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Peru. Perus Antonio DOnofrio, son of immigrants hailing from Caserta, Italy, spawned his own using a modified form of the Alemagna formula. This brand is now owned by Nestlé and exported throughout Latin America. In recent years, Brazilian Panettone have increased in quality and in popularity due to their low cost, Italian food manufacturing companies and bakeries produce 117 million panettone and pandoro cakes every Christmas — worth 579 million euros. There is an event in Milan since 2013 that awards the Best Traditional Panettone of Italy, in 2016 the prize was awarded to Giuseppe Zippo, from Salento. Panettone is also popular in Australia owing to the large number of Italian immigrants. Some non-Italians may use it as an alternative to the somewhat stodgier Christmas Cake, by 2011 panettone had become popular in the UK. In Italy the panettone comes with a varied history. The word panettone derives from the Italian word panetto, a small loaf cake, the augmentative Italian suffix -one changes the meaning to large cake
Panettone
–
Panettone
Panettone
–
Traditional packaging of Italian Maina Panettone
33.
Alsace
–
Alsace is a cultural and historical region in eastern France now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Alsace is located on Frances eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany, from 1982 until January 2016, Alsace was the smallest of 22 administrative regions in metropolitan France, consisting of the Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin departments. Territorial reform passed by the French legislature in 2014 resulted in the merger of the Alsace administrative region with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine to form Grand Est. The predominant historical language of Alsace is Alsatian, a Germanic dialect also spoken across the Rhine, but today most Alsatians primarily speak French, the political status of Alsace has been heavily influenced by historical decisions, wars, and strategic politics. The economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg, the city is the seat of several international organizations and bodies. The name Alsace can be traced to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, an alternative explanation is from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning seated on the Ill, a river in Alsace. In prehistoric times, Alsace was inhabited by nomadic hunters, by 1500 BC, Celts began to settle in Alsace, clearing and cultivating the land. It should be noted that Alsace is a surrounded by the Vosges mountains. It creates Foehn winds which, along with irrigation, contributes to the fertility of the soil. In a world of agriculture, Alsace has always been a region which explains why it suffered so many invasions and annexations in its history. By 58 BC, the Romans had invaded and established Alsace as a center of viticulture, to protect this highly valued industry, the Romans built fortifications and military camps that evolved into various communities which have been inhabited continuously to the present day. While part of the Roman Empire, Alsace was part of Germania Superior, with the decline of the Roman Empire, Alsace became the territory of the Germanic Alemanni. The Alemanni were agricultural people, and their Germanic language formed the basis of modern-day dialects spoken along the Upper Rhine, Clovis and the Franks defeated the Alemanni during the 5th century AD, culminating with the Battle of Tolbiac, and Alsace became part of the Kingdom of Austrasia. Under Clovis Merovingian successors the inhabitants were Christianized, Alsace formed part of the Middle Francia, which was ruled by the eldest grandson Lothar I. Lothar died early in 855 and his realm was divided into three parts, the part known as Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was given to Lothars son. The rest was shared between Lothars brothers Charles the Bald and Louis the German, the Kingdom of Lotharingia was short-lived, however, becoming the stem duchy of Lorraine in Eastern Francia after the Treaty of Ribemont in 880. Alsace was united with the other Alemanni east of the Rhine into the duchy of Swabia. Alsace experienced great prosperity during the 12th and 13th centuries under Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I set up Alsace as a province to be ruled by ministeriales, a non-noble class of civil servants
Alsace
Alsace
Alsace
Alsace
34.
Custard
–
Custard is a variety of culinary preparations based on a cooked mixture of milk or cream and egg yolk. Depending on how much egg or thickener is used, custard may vary in consistency from a thin pouring sauce to a thick pastry cream used to fill éclairs, most common custards are used as desserts or dessert sauces and typically include sugar and vanilla. Custard bases may also be used for quiches and other savory foods, sometimes flour, corn starch, or gelatin is added as in pastry cream or crème pâtissière. Custard preparation is an operation, because a temperature increase of 3–6 °C leads to overcooking and curdling. Generally, a fully cooked custard should not exceed 80 °C, a water bath slows heat transfer and makes it easier to remove the custard from the oven before it curdles. Mixtures of milk and eggs thickened by heat have long been part of European cuisine, examples include Crustardes of flessh and Crustade, in the 14th century English collection The Forme of Cury. These recipes include solid ingredients such as meat, fish, stirred custards cooked in pots are also found under the names Creme Boylede and Creme boiled. In modern times, the custard is sometimes applied to starch-thickened preparations like blancmange. While custard may refer to a variety of thickened dishes. Crème pâtissière is a key ingredient in many French desserts including mille-feuille and it is also used in Italian pastry and sometimes in Boston cream pie. Although egg thickens the custard, the effect is minimal, with the majority of thickening resulting from starch, corn flour or flour thicken at 100 °C and as such many recipes instruct the pastry cream to be boiled. Once cooled, the amount of starch in pastry cream sets the cream, when gelatin is added, it is known as crème anglaise collée. When starch is used alone as a thickener, the result is a blancmange, in the United Kingdom, custard has various traditional recipes some thickened principally with cornflour rather than the egg component, others involving regular flour, see custard powder. After the custard has thickened, it may be mixed with other ingredients, mixed with beaten egg whites and gelatin, it is chiboust cream, mixed with whipped cream. Beating in softened butter produces German buttercream or crème mousseline, a quiche is a savoury custard tart. Some kinds of timbale or vegetable loaf are made of a custard base mixed with chopped savoury ingredients, Custard royale is a thick custard cut into decorative shapes and used to garnish soup, stew or broth. In German it is known as Eierstich and is used as a garnish in German Wedding Soup, chawanmushi is a Japanese savoury custard, steamed and served in a small bowl or on a saucer. Chinese steamed egg is a similar but larger savoury egg dish, Custard may also be used as a top layer in gratins, such as the South African bobotie and many Balkan versions of moussaka
Custard
–
A bowl of crème anglaise custard, dusted with nutmeg
Custard
–
A bowl of custard
Custard
–
A formal custard preparation, garnished with raspberries
Custard
–
Layers of a
trifle showing the custard in between
cake, fruit &
whipped cream
35.
Cottage loaf
–
Cottage loaves are a traditional type of bread originating in England. The origins of the name and shape are unknown but possibly extend back hundreds of years, elizabeth David, who described the cottage loaf in her English Bread and Yeast Cookery, surmised that the shape may have arisen as a way of saving floor space in old-fashioned bread ovens. The name, however, did not first appear in writing until the mid 19th century and it was formerly possible to find an oblong version, known as a cottage brick, and common in the London area. List of British breads English Cottage Loaf, archived from the original on September 28,2007. Bread Making Demonstration—Basic Bread, Cottage Loaf
Cottage loaf
–
A small cottage loaf baked in a traditional bakery in Rochester, Kent
36.
Craquelin
–
Craquelin is a type of Belgian brioche that is filled with citrus marinated sugar cubes. The craquelin dough will have a brioche dough overlayment to prevent sugar protrusion
Craquelin
–
Suikerbrood
37.
Kouglof
–
A Gugelhupf is a light, yeasted marble cake, traditionally baked in a distinctive circular Bundt mold. It is popular in a region of Europe, including southern Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland. In late Medieval Austria, a Gugelhupf was served at major community events such as weddings, and was decorated with flowers, leaves, candles, and seasonal fruits. The name persisted through the Austro-Hungarian Empire, eventually becoming standardized in Viennese cookbooks as a refined, rich cake, flavored with rosewater, many regional variations exist, testifying to the widespread popularity of the Gugelhupf tradition. The Gugelhupf was the chosen to represent Austria in the Café Europe initiative of the Austrian presidency of the European Union, on Europe Day 2006. The old South German name combines the Middle High German words Gugel derived from Latin cucullus, meaning hood or bonnet, and Hupf, which literally means to hop or to jump. The Brothers Grimm wrote that the hupf may be a reference to the jumping of the caused by the yeast. It is spelled kuglóf in Hungarian, kuglof in Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian, Kugelhopf in Alsatian, kouglof in French, in Western Slovenia, it is also known as kuglof, and in Central and Eastern Slovenia, kugluh. In Upper Austria it is known as Wacker or Wacka and it is called bábovka in Czech and Slovak, and babka in Polish. In Slovenia, the word is šarkelj. The American Pennsylvania Dutch preserve the Gugelhupf tradition, referring to it as Dietscher Kuche, Gugelhupf is made with a soft yeast dough, baked in a high, creased, toroidal pan. It is sometimes made with dark chocolate dough to create an interior, or accented with raisins, almonds. Some regional varieties are filled with a layer of sweetened ground poppy seeds, the special circular pan with a central tube was originally made of enameled pottery. Similar pans are used for making Bundt cakes, a baking pan shape in the US derived from the Gugelhupf. Coffee cake Nut roll List of almond dishes Media related to Gugelhupf at Wikimedia Commons Kouglof at Wikibooks Sample recipe Picture of a Marmorgugelhupf
Kouglof
–
Gugelhupf pans
Kouglof
–
Gugelhupf
Kouglof
–
A two-colored Czech version called "Bábovka". The dark brown portions of the crumb contain
cocoa.
Kouglof
–
Butter cakes
38.
List of French dishes
–
There are many dishes considered part of French cuisine. Some dishes are considered universally accepted as part of the national cuisine, there are also breads, charcuterie items as well as desserts that fit into these categories which are listed accordingly as well. There are many dishes that are considered part of the French national cuisine today, many come from haute cuisine in the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishes that have become a norm across the country. Below are lists of a few of the common dishes available in France on a national level. Street markets are held on days in most localities, some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat. These have better shelter than the street markets. Hunters chicken List of French cheeses List of French desserts List of French soups, French cuisine explained,2013 Steele, Ross
List of French dishes
–
A mille-feuille pastry
List of French dishes
–
A typical choucroute garnie
List of French dishes
–
A sweet crêpe
List of French dishes
–
Gruyère Cheese Gougères.
39.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
40.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
41.
Baguette
–
A baguette is a long, thin loaf of French bread that is commonly made from basic lean dough. It is distinguishable by its length and crisp crust, a baguette has a diameter of about 5 or 6 centimetres and a usual length of about 65 centimetres, although a baguette can be up to a metre long. The word baguette was not used to refer to a type of bread until 1920, the word, derived from the Italian bacchetta, simply means wand, baton or stick, as in baguette magique, baguettes chinoises, or baguette de direction. Though the baguette today is considered one of the symbols of French culture viewed from abroad. Long, if wide, loaves had been made since the time of King Louis XIV, long thin ones since the mid-eighteenth century, loaves of bread six feet long that look like crowbars. Housemaids were hurrying homewards with their purchases for various Gallic breakfasts, and the sticks of bread. A less direct link can be made however with deck ovens, deck/steam ovens are a combination of a gas-fired traditional oven and a brick oven, a thick deck of stone or firebrick heated by natural gas instead of wood. Deck ovens use steam injection, through various methods, to create the proper baguette, the oven is typically heated to well over 200 °C. The steam allows the crust to expand before setting, thus creating a lighter, airier loaf and it also melts the dextrose on the breads surface, giving a slightly glazed effect. The rest of the account remains to be verified, but the use of the word for a thin bread does appear to be a twentieth century innovation. The baguette de tradition française is made from flour, water, yeast. It does not contain additives, but it may contain up to 2% broad bean flour, up to 0. 5% soya flour, baguettes are closely connected to France, though they are made around the world. In France, not all long loaves are baguettes, for example, a short, almost rugby ball shaped loaf is a bâtard, or a loaf in English, its origin is variously explained. Another tubular shaped loaf is known as a flûte, also known in the United States as a parisienne, flûtes closely resemble baguettes and weigh more or less than these, depending on the region. A thinner loaf is called a ficelle, a short baguette is sometimes known as a baton, or even referred to using the English translation French stick. None of these are defined, either legally or, for instance, in major dictionaries. French breads are made in forms such as a miche, which is a large pan loaf, and a boule, literally ball in French. Sandwich-sized loaves are sometimes known as demi-baguettes or tiers, in France a baguette must weigh 250 grams, a batard 500 grams and a ficelle 100 grams
Baguette
–
Typical baguettes
Baguette
–
A "baguette de tradition française"
Baguette
–
Baguette on bread board for table service in a
restaurant
42.
Boule (bread)
–
Boule, from the French for ball, is a traditional shape of French bread, resembling a squashed ball. It is a loaf shape that can be made of any type of flour. A boule can be leavened with commercial yeast, chemical leavening, the name of this bread is the reason a bread baker is referred to as a boulanger in French, and a bread bakery a boulangerie. Bread roll How to shape a boule
Boule (bread)
–
Boule
43.
Croissant
–
A croissant is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie-pastry named for its well-known crescent shape. Croissants and other viennoiserie are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough, the dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry, crescent-shaped food breads have been made since the renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian and French bakeries and pâtisseries, in the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, pre-formed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food which can be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissanterie was explicitly a French response to American-style fast food, croissants are a common part of continental breakfast. The Kipferl, ancestor of the croissant, has documented in Austria going back at least as far as the 13th century. The Kipferl can be plain or with nuts or other fillings. This bakery, which served Viennese specialities including the Kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular, the French version of the Kipferl was named for its crescent shape and has become an identifiable shape across the world. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and it was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients. It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century, stories of how the Kipferl — and so, ultimately, the croissant — was created are widespread and persistent culinary legends, going back to the 19th century. However, there are no sources for any of these stories. The baker asked no reward other than the right to bake crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the incident. He was duly rewarded in this way, and the croissant was born and this has led to croissants being banned by some Islamic fundamentalists. Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked and it may be flavoured with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are sold without filling and eaten without added butter. In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, in the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan, in southern Germany, in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a Gipfeli, this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant. Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee as a breakfast or merienda and these are referred to as medialunas because of their famous shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze
Croissant
–
Croissant
Croissant
–
The original Boulangerie Viennoise in 1909 (when it was owned by Philibert Jacquet). The bakery proper is at left and its tea salon at right.
Croissant
–
La Parisienne unbaked croissant.
Croissant
–
Cross-section, showing texture.
44.
Faluche (bread)
–
Faluche is a traditional bread in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of northern France and the Tournai region of southern Belgium. Faluche is a white bread that is soft and fairly dense. It is neither a round nor flat bread but looks somewhat like a small deflated soccer ball and it may be eaten hot at breakfast with butter and jam or with cream cheese and smoked salmon or later as a snack with butter and brown sugar or with brie cheese. Faluche is made with flour, bakers yeast, water. In a bakery, faluche was often baked as the oven was just heating up before the main baking, the entry to Faluche in the French Wikipedia
Faluche (bread)
–
Faluche
45.
Fougasse (bread)
–
In French cuisine, fougasse is a type of bread typically associated with Provence but found in other regions. Some versions are sculpted or slashed into a pattern resembling an ear of wheat, in ancient Rome, panis focacius was a flatbread baked in the ashes of the hearth. The Provence version is likely to have additions in the form of olives, cheese, or anchovies. There is also in Portugal the fogaça, a sweet bread and they are perhaps the sweetest of savory artisanal bread recipes commonly made in Brazil. Fougasse was traditionally used to assess the temperature of a wood fired oven, the time it would take to bake gives an idea of the oven temperature and whether the rest of the bread can be loaded. Fougasse is also a type of pastry from Monaco that is topped with almonds and it is used to make the French version of calzone, which can have cheese and small squarish strips of bacon inside the pocket made by folding over the bread. Other variations include dried fruit, Roquefort and nuts or olives and it is known by extension as a fougasse even though it is more a sandwich than just a type of bread
Fougasse (bread)
–
Fougasse from the city of
Foix
46.
Pain de campagne
–
Pain de campagne, also called French sourdough, is typically a large round loaf made from either natural leavening or bakers yeast. Most traditional versions of this bread are made with a combination of flour with whole wheat flour and/or rye flour, water, leavening. For centuries, French villages had communal ovens where the townsfolk would bring their dough to be baked, such large loaves would feed a family for days or weeks, until the next baking day. Before the advent of roller milling, virtually all wheat was milled by stone grinding, in order to produce a lighter, less chewy bread, the whole wheat flour was sifted or bolted using mesh or cloth. This resulted in a flour that still retained some of the bran. The addition of rye flour in some recipes probably originates from the presence of rye growing among the wheat, all the grain was harvested together, and as much as 10 percent of it would be rye. Rye flour ferments more quickly than wheat flour, and it imparts a flavor to traditional pains de campagne. With the rise of commercial yeast at the turn of the 20th century, pain de campagne fell out of favor in French cities, where it was replaced by the baguette. However, with the rise of artisan breads in the 1970s, pain de campagne has been growing in popularity, today pain de campagne is still made in France, and is enjoying a growing appreciation in the United States and the UK. When made traditionally, the dough is allowed to ferment for several hours, allowing the yeasts to grow, the dough is then rounded and placed in linen-lined baskets called bannetons. After the dough has risen, it is dumped out of the basket and onto peel, and slid into the oven where it bakes at around 240 °C for about one hour
Pain de campagne
–
Pain de campagne
Cookbook: Brioche 
Media: Brioche
.JPG)
Media related to Brioche at Wikimedia Commons
Fr:Livre de cuisine/Brioche at Wikibooks
The dictionary definition of brioche at Wiktionary
