1.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
–
Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
2.
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
–
The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission is the New York City agency charged with administering the citys Landmarks Preservation Law. It is the largest municipal preservation agency in the nation, according to the Landmarks Preservation Law, a building must be at least thirty years old before the Commission can declare it a landmark. City law also allows for the Commissions decision to be overturned if an appeal is filed within 90 days, the goal of New York Citys landmarks law is to preserve the aesthetically and historically important buildings, structures, and other objects that make up the New York City vista. These regulations are designed to allow property owners to continue to use and maintain their properties. The commission preserves not only significant buildings, but the overall historical sense of place of neighborhoods that are designated as historic districts. The Commission helps preserve the Citys landmark properties by regulating changes to their significant features, the role of the Commission has evolved over time, especially with the changing real estate market in New York City. The Landmarks Preservation Commissions first public hearing occurred in September,1965 over the future of the Astor Library on Lafayette Street in Manhattan, the building was designated a New York City Landmark. Subsequently, the building was reused as The Public Theater. Twenty-five years later, the Commission was cited by David Dinkins as having preserved New York Citys municipal identity and this success is believed to be due, in part, to the general acceptance of the commission by the citys developers. The Commission was headquartered in the Mutual Reserve Building from 1967 to 1980, and later the Old New York Evening Post Building from 1980 to 1987. As of April 16,2014, there are more than 31,000 landmark properties in New York City, the total number of protected sites includes 1,332 individual landmarks,115 interior landmarks and 10 scenic landmarks. Some of these are also National Historic Landmarks sites, and many are National Registered Historic Places, one of the most prominent decisions in which the Commission was involved was the preservation of the Grand Central Terminal with the assistance of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. This success is cited as significant due to the Commissions origins following the destruction of Pennsylvania Station. In 1989, the Commission designated the Ladies Mile Historic District, the next year marked the first time in the Commissions history that a proposed landmark, the Guggenheim Museum, received a unanimous vote by the Commission members. One of the most controversial properties was 2 Columbus Circle, which remained at the center of a discussion over its future for a number of years. Cultural landmarks, such as Greenwich Villages Stonewall Inn, are recognized as not for their architecture. A commission-designated historic district for the South Street Seaport has been active since 1977 and was extended on July 11,1989 and this group included the Historic Districts Council, the Save Our Seaport community group, the New Amsterdam Market, and the Metropolitan Waterfront Alliance. They had encouraged others to write letters to the Landmarks Preservation Commission to support formal designation or district protection, however, in 2013, the Landmarks Preservation Commission declined to hold a hearing to consider this landmark designation or to expand the district
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
–
The demolition of
Pennsylvania Station was a key moment in the
preservationist movement, which led to the creation of the Commission
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
–
The
Astor Library was the subject of the Commission's first public hearing in 1965
3.
Eastern Parkway
–
Eastern Parkway is a major boulevard that runs through a portion of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The road begins at Grand Army Plaza and extends east, running parallel to Atlantic Avenue, along the crest of the moraine that separates northern from southern Long Island, to Ralph Avenue. There, it turns to the northeast, still following the moraine, Eastern Parkway is credited as the worlds first parkway. According to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreations description of Eastern Parkway, The worlds first parkway was conceived by Frederick Law Olmsted, the term parkway was coined by these designers as a landscaped road built expressly for pleasure-riding and driving or scenic access to Prospect Park. To these ends, commerce was restricted, the parkway was constructed from Grand Army Plaza to Ralph Avenue between 1870 and 1874. Olmsted and Vaux intended Eastern Parkway to be the Brooklyn nucleus of an interconnected park, the plan was never completed but their idea of bringing the countryside into the city influenced the construction of major parks and parkways in cities throughout the United States. The success of the special statutory commercial restrictions on this and other urban parkways inspired later, more general zoning schemes in New York, the parkway was planned as an important urban design element to create an amenity for a good neighborhood. Like some later roads on Long Island, Eastern Parkway was designed to use land that was idle because it was high, rocky, the presence of the road, however, made the area residentially desirable for people whose income derived from elsewhere. Many trees along the parkway bear plaques commemorating soldiers fallen in World War I and it passes Brooklyn Museum in this area. The section between Washington and Ralph Avenues has also a side street, separated by another median. The parkway passes Bedford, Rogers, and Nostrand Avenues in this fashion before passing Chabad world headquarters and it continues east, crossing Utica and Ralph Avenues. East of Ralph Avenue, the parkway is reduced to six lanes, here, Eastern Parkway officially becomes the Eastern Parkway Extension and curves northeast to intersect with Howard Avenue, Atlantic Avenue, Fulton Street, and Broadway. At Bushwick Avenue, the Extension becomes Vanderveer Street, a dead-end street, Eastern Park, the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers before Ebbets Field, was located along Pitkin Avenue when that was part of Eastern Parkway. The parkway is the route of the West Indian Day Parade, a festive annual celebration taking place around Labor Day
Eastern Parkway
–
Eastern Parkway
Eastern Parkway
–
At Kingston Avenue, Crown Heights
Eastern Parkway
–
At the head of Rockaway Avenue
Eastern Parkway
–
Apartment building on Eastern Parkway across from the
Brooklyn Museum
4.
Brooklyn
–
Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
Brooklyn
–
Clockwise from top left:
Brooklyn Bridge, Brooklyn brownstones,
Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch,
Brooklyn Borough Hall,
Coney Island
Brooklyn
–
Currier and Ives print of Brooklyn, 1886.
Brooklyn
–
Brooklyn Museum - Hooker's Map of the Village of Brooklyn
Brooklyn
–
A typical dining table in the Dutch village of Brooklyn, c. 1664, from
The Brooklyn Museum.
5.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
New York (state)
–
British general
John Burgoyne surrenders at
Saratoga in 1777.
New York (state)
–
Flag
New York (state)
–
1800 map of New York from
Low's Encyclopaedia
New York (state)
–
The
Erie Canal at
Lockport, New York in 1839
6.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
7.
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
The
Palais Garnier (1861-75), an example of
Second Empire Beaux Arts style, typically employing
Neo-Baroque decorative elements
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Farmer Palace in
Kazan,
Russia
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
The
San Francisco War Memorial Opera House of 1932, among the last major American buildings constructed in the Beaux-Arts style
Beaux-Arts architecture
–
Beaux-Arts building decoration presenting images of the Roman
goddesses Pomona and
Diana. Note the naturalism of the postures and the
channeled rustication of the stonework.
8.
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
–
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty have been created worldwide. On the occasion of the Exposition Universelle of 1900, Bartholdi crafted a smaller version of the Statue of Liberty, in 1905, the statue was placed outside the museum in the Jardin du Luxembourg, where it stood for over a century, until 2014. It currently stands at the entrance to the Musée dOrsay, a newly constructed bronze replica stands in its place in the Jardin du Luxembourg. This statue was given in 1889 to France by U. S. citizens living in Paris to celebrate the French Revolution 3 years after the statue in New-York was inaugurated. In 1937, the statue was turned from looking east to looking west straight to the direction of the New-Yorks statue and this statue is near the Grenelle Bridge on the Île aux Cygnes, a man-made island in the Seine. It is 11.50 metres high and weighs 14 tons, inaugurated on July 4,1889, it looks southwest, downriver along the Seine. Its tablet bears two dates, IV JUILLET1776 like the New York statue, and XIV JUILLET1789 associated with an equal sign and this statue is shown in the film National Treasure, Book of Secrets as a historic location. The original plaster, the first maquette finished in 1878 by Auguste Bartholdi and this original plaster was bequeathed by the artists widow in 1907, together with part of the artists estate. On the square outside the Musée des Arts et Métiers’s entrance is a made from this plaster, number 1 from an original edition of 12, made by the museum. A life-size copy of the torch, Flame of Liberty, can be seen above the entrance to the Pont de lAlma tunnel near the Champs-Élysées in Paris and it was given to the city as a return gift in honor of the centennial celebration of the statues dedication. Since it is above the Pont de lAlma car tunnel in which Princess Diana died, there is a replica in the northwest of France, in the small town of Barentin near Rouen. It was made for a French movie, Le Cerveau, directed by Gérard Oury and featuring actors Jean-Paul Belmondo, another replica is the Bordeaux Statue of Liberty. This 2.5 m statue is in the city of Bordeaux, the first Bordeaux statue was seized and melted down by the Nazis in World War II. The statue was replaced in 2000 and a plaque was added to commemorate the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks, on the night of March 25,2003, unknown vandals poured red paint and gasoline on the replica and set it on fire. The vandals also cracked the pedestal of the plaque, the mayor of Bordeaux, former prime minister Alain Juppé, condemned the attack. A12 m replica of the Statue of Liberty in Colmar and it stands at the north entrance of the city. The Bartholdi Museum in Colmar contains numerous models of various sizes made by Bartholdi during the process of designing the statue, frédéric Bartholdi donated a copy of the Statue of Liberty to the town square of Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer. Other liberty enlightening the world statues are displayed in Poitiers and Lunel, the Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon owns a terracotta version
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
–
The Exposition Universelle model in its previous location in the
Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
–
Statue of Liberty on the
Île aux Cygnes, River Seine in Paris. Given to the city in 1889, it faces southwest, downriver along the Seine.
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
–
Replica of the Statue of Liberty in
Colmar.
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
–
Replica of the Statue of Liberty in
Leicester, England.
9.
Art museum
–
An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
Art museum
–
The Louvre in
Paris,
France, is one of the world's largest museums and
the most visited art museum in the world.
Art museum
–
The Gallery of
Cornelis van der Geest,
Willem van Haecht, 1628. A private picture gallery as an early precursor of the modern museum.
Art museum
–
University of Tartu Art Museum is the oldest museum in
Estonia.
Art museum
–
The art collection at the
Palace of Versailles in
France was periodically open for 'respectable' public viewing.
10.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
–
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
11.
Borough (New York City)
–
New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
Borough (New York City)
–
The five boroughs of New York City: 1: Manhattan, 2: Brooklyn, 3: Queens, 4: The Bronx, 5: Staten Island
12.
Prospect Heights, Brooklyn
–
Prospect Heights is a neighborhood in the northwest of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The traditional boundaries are Flatbush Avenue to the west, Atlantic Avenue to the north, Eastern Parkway – beginning at Grand Army Plaza – to the south, in the northern section of Prospect Heights are the Vanderbilt Rail Yards, built over as part of the Pacific Park project. Compared to other Brooklyn neighborhoods, Prospect Heights is relatively small and is notable for its diversity as well as its tree-lined streets. The neighborhood is served by the New York Police Departments 77th Precinct, along the southern boundary, Eastern Parkway, from Grand Army Plaza to Washington Avenue is reminiscent of Fifth Avenues Museum Mile in Manhattan. To Prospect Heights north lies Fort Greene, to its south Prospect Park, to its west Park Slope, a number of new condominium complexes are under construction in many parts of the neighborhood. Recently, a number of these have begun to be demolished, ratners company Forest City Ratner has planned a controversial development on top of the neighborhood, the plans for which would include a basketball arena and luxury housing. An upscale, glass high-rise residential building designed by the architect Richard Meier, as demand for housing within Prospect Heights increased, some residents of Crown Heights came to consider Franklin Avenue the western border with Prospect Heights rather than Washington Avenue. Additionally, Prospect Heights once shared the name Gowanus Heights with Prospect Park, Greenwood, a number of community groups opposed the project, claiming abuse of the principles of eminent domain, among other concerns. Supporters of the believed in its potential for reinvigorating an unattractive space. Every year the West Indian Day Parade, the largest annual parade in New York City, follows Eastern Parkway, beginning in Crown Heights and ending at Grand Army Plaza in Prospect Heights. During the last thirty years, the neighborhood has seen an influx of new residents, increasingly young and white, the area has many Italianate and Neo-Grec rowhouses, and much of the neighborhood has been designated a New York City historic district. The Prospect Heights Historic District covers an area bounded by Flatbush Avenue, Sterling Place, Washington Avenue. Marks Avenue, though a section of the district extends as far north as Pacific Street. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983, the district was designated by the city Landmarks Preservation Commission on June 23,2009, and approved by the New York City Council on September 17,2009. It is the fifth largest historic district in New York City, in the movie Frances Ha, the title character lives in Prospect Heights, sharing an apartment at an address given as 682 Vanderbilt Avenue, Brooklyn, NY. The address is fictitious, being higher than the highest Vanderbilt Avenue address. Were it to exist it would be within Prospect Heights boundaries, notes Media related to Prospect Heights, Brooklyn at Wikimedia Commons
Prospect Heights, Brooklyn
–
Late 19th century
brownstones in Prospect Heights
Prospect Heights, Brooklyn
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Row houses on Carlton Avenue in Prospect Heights
Prospect Heights, Brooklyn
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Rowhouses along Park Place in Prospect Heights
Prospect Heights, Brooklyn
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Sidewalk clock on Flatbush Avenue
13.
Crown Heights, Brooklyn
–
Crown Heights is a neighborhood in the central portion of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The main thoroughfare through this neighborhood is Eastern Parkway, a tree-lined boulevard designed by Frederick Law Olmsted extending 2 miles east–west, originally, the area was known as Crow Hill. It was a succession of hills running east and west from Utica Avenue to Washington Avenue, the name was changed when Crown Street was cut through in 1916. Crown Heights is bounded by Washington Avenue to the west, Atlantic Avenue to the north, Ralph Avenue to the east and it is about 1 mile wide and 2 miles long. Neighborhoods bordering Crown Heights include Prospect Heights to the west, Flatbush and Prospect Lefferts Gardens to the south, Brownsville to the east, the neighborhood extends through much of Brooklyn Community Board 8 and 9. It is under the jurisdiction of two precincts of the New York City Police Department, the 77th Precinct is part of Brooklyn North, which covers Crown Heights, Prospect Heights and Weeksville. The 71st Precinct is part of Brooklyn South and covers the end of Crown Heights. Although no known physical remains in the Crown Heights vicinity. There he was visited by a party of Lenape. The next contact was in 1609 when the explorer Henry Hudson arrived in what is now New York Harbor aboard a Dutch East India Company ship, the Halve Maen commissioned by the Dutch Republic. European habitation in the New York City area began in earnest with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement, later called Nieuw Amsterdam, on the southern tip of Manhattan in 1614. By 1630, Dutch and English colonists started moving into the end of Long Island. ”Crown Heights had begun as a posh residential neighborhood. The area benefited by having its rapid transit in a configuration, the IRT Eastern Parkway Line, in contrast to many other Brooklyn neighborhoods. Conversion to a town also included tearing down the 19th century Kings County Penitentiary at Carroll Street. Beginning in the early 1900s, many residences, including characteristic brownstone buildings, were erected along Eastern Parkway. Away from the parkway were a mixture of lower middle-class residences and this development peaked in the 1920s. From the early 1920s through the 1960s, Crown Heights was a white neighborhood. Population changes began in the 1920s with newcomers from Jamaica and the West Indies, as well as African Americans from the South
Crown Heights, Brooklyn
–
Typical Crown Heights
row houses
Crown Heights, Brooklyn
–
Crown Heights in
Community Board 8,
Brooklyn, New York City
Crown Heights, Brooklyn
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Imperial Apartments on Bedford Avenue, built in 1892
Crown Heights, Brooklyn
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The former Jewish Hospital of Brooklyn, now an apartment house
14.
Flatbush, Brooklyn
–
Flatbush is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Founded in 1651 by Dutch colonists, the neighborhood, which consists of several subsections, had a population of 110,875 as of the 2010 United States Census, by the 2010s, the area was quickly gentrifying. Flatbush was a prior to being incorporated into the City of Brooklyn. Generally, the township was larger than what is considered Flatbush today by the residents of Brooklyn, the modern neighborhood includes or borders several institutions of note, including Prospect Park and Brooklyn College. The name Flatbush is a calque of the Dutch language Vlacke bos, Flatbush was originally chartered as the Dutch Nieuw Nederland colony town of Midwout in 1651. Both names were used in the Dutch era, and Midwood was a name for Flatbush into the early 20th century. In a reversal, Midwood, now the area south of Brooklyn College, is often alternatively called Flatbush. Midwoods residents predominately feature a mix of the latter and Irish Americans, Flatbush and the five other towns of what was to become Kings County, were surrendered to the English in 1664. The town was the county seat for Kings County and was a center of life for what is now called Brooklyn, Flatbush played a key role in the American Revolution. Flatbush was where significant skirmishes and battles of the Battle of Long Island took place, Kings County at the time had the highest concentration of slaves north of the Mason–Dixon line – almost one-third of the total population for the county were slaves. Loyalist residents of Flatbush included David Mathews, Mayor of New York City, Flatbush residents maintained their loyalist sympathies, the Kings Arms, for example, appeared in the towns inn for a half-century after the conclusion of the conflict. Many of the remaining early Dutch structures are in the Flatlands, Flatbush maintained a kind of distance from the rest of Brooklyn and New York, but the emergence of the subway in the 1920s connected it to surrounding areas in an unprecedented way. In the first half of the 20th century, Flatbush had a population of Irish-Americans, Italian-Americans. Much as it is today, it was a working-class neighborhood, a significant portion of Flatbush residents closely followed the Brooklyn Dodgers, which at the time were not only the team of Brooklyn but also of Flatbush in particular. Dodgers centerfielder Duke Snider was known as “the Duke of Flatbush”, by 1958, however, the Dodgers left Brooklyn, and Ebbets Field eventually was torn down. Due to shifting boundaries, Ebbets Field today technically would be in Crown Heights. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Flatbush experienced a shift in demographics as it went from being a mostly Irish, Italian, while most sections of Flatbush were working class before the demographic shift, there were a few affluent areas. Prospect Park South had a number of more affluent homeowners
Flatbush, Brooklyn
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Reformed Protestant Dutch Church of Flatbush, founded in 1654
Flatbush, Brooklyn
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Victorian Flatbush, at Ditmas Avenue east of Coney Island Avenue
Flatbush, Brooklyn
–
An aerial view of
Ebbets Field
Flatbush, Brooklyn
–
Flatbush Avenue station
15.
Park Slope
–
Park Slope is a neighborhood in northwest Brooklyn, New York City. Park Slope is roughly bounded by Prospect Park and Prospect Park West to the east, Fourth Avenue to the west, Flatbush Avenue to the north, the neighborhood takes its name from its location on the western slope of neighboring Prospect Park. Fifth Avenue and Seventh Avenue are its primary streets, while its east-west side streets are lined with brownstones. The neighborhood had a population of about 62,200 as of the 2000 census, resulting in a density of approximately 68, 000/square mile, or approximately 26. Park Slope is considered one of New York Citys most desirable neighborhoods, Park Slope is part of Brooklyn Community Board 6. The area that comprises the neighborhood of Park Slope was first inhabited by the Native Americans of the Lenape people. The Dutch colonized the area by the 17th century and farmed the region for more than 200 years, during the American Revolutionary War, on August 27,1776, the Park Slope area served as the backdrop for the beginning of the Battle of Long Island. In this battle, over 10,000 British soldiers and Hessian mercenaries routed outnumbered American forces, the historic site of Battle Pass is now preserved in Prospect Park, and on Fifth Avenue there is a reconstruction of the stone farmhouse where a countercharge covered the American retreat. In the 1850s, a lawyer and railroad developer named Edwin Clarke Litchfield purchased large tracts of what was then farmland. Through the American Civil War era, he sold off much of his land to residential developers, during the 1860s, the City of Brooklyn purchased his estate and adjoining property to complete the West Drive and the southern portion of the Long Meadow in Prospect Park. However, Park Slope’s bucolic period ended soon after, many of the large Victorian mansions on Prospect Park West, known as the Gold Coast, were built in the 1880s and 1890s to take advantage of the beautiful park views. Today, many of these buildings are preserved within the 24-block Park Slope Historic District, by 1883, with the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge, Park Slope continued to boom and subsequent brick and brownstone structures pushed the neighborhoods borders farther. The 1890 census showed Park Slope to be the richest community in the United States, in 1892, President Grover Cleveland presided over the unveiling of the Soldiers and Sailors Arch at Grand Army Plaza, a notable Park Slope landmark. The Park Slope Armory was completed in 1893, nearby, Old Stone House is a 1930 reconstruction of the Vechte-Cortelyou House which was destroyed in 1897. It is located on Third Street between Fourth and Fifth Avenues, beside the former Gowanus Creek, realtors and community members saw a clear connection between Park Slopes bucolic setting and the comfort of living there. Baseball had also played a prominent role in the history of the Park Slope area, from 1879 to 1889, the Brooklyn Atlantics played at Washington Park on 5th Avenue between 3rd and 4th Streets. When the park was destroyed by a fire, the moved to their part-time home in Ridgewood, Queens. In 1898, the New Washington Park was built between Third and Fourth Avenues and between First and Third Streets near the Gowanus Canal, the team, by this point known as the Dodgers, played to an ever-growing fan base at this location
Park Slope
–
Park Slope
Park Slope
–
Seventh Avenue in Park Slope
Park Slope
–
The architectural details of one of Park Slope's buildings
Park Slope
–
House in Park Slope, 1974. Photo by
Danny Lyon.
16.
McKim, Mead and White
–
McKim, Mead & White was a prominent American architectural firm that thrived at the turn of the twentieth century. The firms founding partners were Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and they hired many other architects, partners, associates, designers and draftsmen, who came to prominence during or after their time at the firm. The firms New York City buildings include Manhattans former Pennsylvania Station, the Brooklyn Museum, elsewhere in New York State and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library and Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D. C. the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, other examples are in Canada, Cuba and Italy. McKim and Mead joined forces in 1872 and they were joined in 1879 by White, who, like McKim, had worked for architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Its vision was to clean up the confusion of American cities and imbue them with a sense of order. The firm retained its name long after the deaths of founding partners White, McKim, among the firms final works under the name McKim, Mead & White was the National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Designed primarily by partner James Kellum Smith, it opened in 1964, Smith died in 1961, and the firm was soon renamed Steinmann, Cain and White. In 1971, it became Walker O. Cain and Associates, lewis Colt Albro – who formed a partnership with Harrie T. Lindeberg from 1906 to 1914. Henry Bacon – worked at the firm from about 1886 through 1897, boring – worked at the firm in 1890 before forming a separate partnership with Edward Lippincott Tilton. Page Brown - worked with the beginning in the 1880s, went to California. Walker O. Cain – worked at the firm, he took it over in 1961, john Merven Carrère – worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885, then joined Thomas Hastings to form the firm Carrère and Hastings. Arthur Loomis Harmon – later of Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Thomas Hastings – of Carrère and Hastings, worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885. William Mitchell Kendall, worked with the firm from 1882 until his death, Harrie T. Lindeberg – started at the firm in 1895 as an assistant to Stanford White and remained with the firm until Whites death in 1906. Austin W. James Kellum Smith – a member of the firm from 1924 to 1961, full partner in 1929, and he primarily designed academic buildings, but his last major work was the National Museum of American History. Egerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout – both Tracy and Swartwout worked together for the firm on multiple projects prior to starting their own practice, robert von Ezdorf – took over much of the firms business after Whites death. William M. Wells – worked as firms first Chief Draftsman from 1879–90, often considered to be the fourth partner
McKim, Mead and White
–
Pennsylvania Station in New York City in 1911
McKim, Mead and White
–
Villard Houses
McKim, Mead and White
–
Harvard Club of New York
McKim, Mead and White
–
Goelet Building
17.
Egyptian antiquities
–
A practitioner of the discipline is an Egyptologist. In Europe, particularly on the Continent, Egyptology is primarily regarded as being a philological discipline, the first explorers were the ancient Egyptians themselves. Thutmose IV restored the Sphinx and had the dream that inspired his restoration carved on the famous Dream Stele, less than two centuries later, Prince Khaemweset, fourth son of Ramesses II, is famed for identifying and restoring historic buildings, tombs and temples including the pyramid. The Ptolemies were much interested in the work of the ancient Egyptians, the Romans too carried out restoration work in this most ancient of lands. A number of their accounts have survived and offer insights as to conditions in their time periods. Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi, a teacher at Cairos Al-Azhar University in the 13th century, similarly, the 15th-century Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi wrote detailed accounts of Egyptian antiquities. In the early 17th century, John Greaves measured the pyramids, having inspected the broken Obelisk of Domitian in Rome, then destined for the Earl of Arundels collection in London. In the late 18th century, with Napoleons scholars recording of Egyptian flora, fauna and history, the British captured Egypt from the French and gained the Rosetta Stone. Modern Egyptology is generally perceived as beginning about 1822, egyptologys modern history begins with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon Bonaparte. The subsequent publication of Description de lÉgypte between 1809 and 1829 made numerous ancient Egyptian source materials available to Europeans for the first time, jean-François Champollion, Thomas Young and Ippolito Rosellini were some of the first Egyptologists of wide acclaim. The German Karl Richard Lepsius was a participant in the investigations of Egypt, mapping, excavating. Champollion announced his general decipherment of the system of Egyptian hieroglyphics for the first time, the Stones decipherment was a very important development of Egyptology. Egyptology became more professional via work of William Matthew Flinders Petrie, Petrie introduced techniques of field preservation, recording, and excavating. Howard Carters expedition brought much acclaim to the field of Egyptology, a tradition of collecting objets-orientales Egyptologists Electronic Forum, version 64. List shows Egyptology societies and Institutes Egyptology at DMOZ Egyptology Books, the University of Memphis Institute of Egyptian Art and Archaeology. Hawass, Zahi, Brock, Lyla Pinch, eds, Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists. Rare Books and Special Collections Digital Library Underwood & Underwood Egypt Stereoviews Collection, czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague
Egyptian antiquities
–
The
Great Sphinx of Giza against
Khafre's Pyramid at the
Giza pyramid complex
Egyptian antiquities
–
Hieroglyphs and depictions transcribed by
Ippolito Rosellini in 1832
Egyptian antiquities
–
A section of the
Papyrus of Ani showing
cursive hieroglyphs
18.
Art of Europe
–
The art of Europe encompasses the history of visual art in Europe. European prehistoric art started as mobile rock, and cave painting art, written histories of European art often begin with the art of the Ancient Middle East, and the Ancient Aegean civilisations, dating from the 3rd millennium BC. Parallel with these significant cultures, art of one form or another existed all over Europe, wherever there were people, leaving signs such as carvings, decorated artifacts and huge standing stones. Before the 1800s, the Christian church was an influence upon European art. The history of the Church was very much reflected in the history of art, in the same period of time there was renewed interest in heroes and heroines, tales of mythological gods and goddesses, great wars, and bizarre creatures which were not connected to religion. Secularism has influenced European art since the Classical period, while most art of the last 200 years has produced without reference to religion. On the other hand, European art has often influenced by politics of one kind or another, of the state, of the patron. European art is arranged into a number of periods, which, historically. Broadly the periods are, Classical, Byzantine, Medieval, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical, European prehistoric art is an important part of the European cultural heritage. Prehistoric art history is divided into four main periods, Stone age, Neolithic, Bronze age. Most of the artifacts of this period are small sculptures. The oldest European cave art dates back 40,800, rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those have survived because of erosion. One well-known example is the paintings of Astuvansalmi in the Saimaa area of Finland. When Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola first encountered the Magdalenian paintings of the Altamira cave, Cantabria, Spain in 1879, recent reappraisals and numerous additional discoveries have since demonstrated their authenticity, while at the same time stimulating interest in the artistry of Upper Palaeolithic peoples. Cave paintings, undertaken with only the most rudimentary tools, can also furnish valuable insight into the culture, the figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. Other less numerous groups of art, many engraved rather than painted. The Iberian examples are believed to date from a period perhaps covering the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic. There are human heads and some fully represented animals, but full-length human figures at any size are so rare that their absence may represent a religious taboo, the Minoan culture is regarded as the oldest civilization in Europe
Art of Europe
–
Pierre Mignard,
Clio,
muse of
heroic poetry and
history, 17th century
Art of Europe
–
History of art
Art of Europe
–
Venus of Willendorf.
Art of Europe
–
Minoan Ceramic Art
19.
African art
–
African art is a term typically used for the art of Sub-Saharan Africa. Often, casual, amateur observers tend to generalize traditional African art, the definition may also include the art of the African diasporas, such as the art of African Americans. Despite this diversity, there are some unifying artistic themes when considering the totality of the culture from the continent of Africa. The term African art does not usually include the art of the North African areas along the Mediterranean coast, for more than a millennium, the art of such areas had formed part of Islamic art, although with many particular characteristics. The art of Ethiopia, with a long Christian tradition, is different from that of most of Africa. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies, today many are made for tourists as airport art. African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction, since the late 19th century there has been an increasing amount of African art in Western collections, the finest pieces of which are now prominently displayed. Many West African figures are used in rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles, eastern Africans, in many areas shorter of large timber to carve, are known for Tinga Tinga paintings and Makonde sculptures. There is also tradition of producing textile art, Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africas oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have heads with a mixture of human. An example would be Dan artistry as well as its presence in the Western African diaspora, emphasis on the human figure, The human figure has always been the primary subject matter for most African art, and this emphasis even influenced certain European traditions. Another common theme is the inter-morphosis of human and animal, visual abstraction, African artworks tend to favor visual abstraction over naturalistic representation. This is because many African artworks generalize stylistic norms, emphasis on sculpture, African artists tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional works. Even many African paintings or cloth works were meant to be experienced three-dimensionally, distinct from the static form of traditional Western sculpture African art displays animation, a readiness to move. For example, traditional African masks and costumes very often are used in communal, ceremonial contexts, in African thought, the three cannot be differentiated. Nonlinear scaling, Often a small part of an African design will look similar to a larger part, louis Senghor, Senegals first president, referred to this as dynamic symmetry
African art
–
Mask from
Gabon
African art
–
Mambila figure, Nigeria
African art
–
Yoruba bronze head sculpture,
Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century A.D.
African art
–
Makonde carving c.1974
20.
Oceanic art
–
Oceanic art or Oceanian art comprises the creative works made by the native peoples of the Pacific Islands and Australia, including areas as far apart as Hawaii and Easter Island. Specifically it comprises the works of the two groups of people who settled the area, though during two different periods and they would in time however, come to interact and together reach even more remote islands. The area is broken down into four separate regions, Polynesia, Micronesia, Australasia. The former two share a common culture of the Lapita, while the latter two comprise settlers of the first wave of people into the area. All of the regions in later times would be affected by western influence. In more recent times, the people of Oceania have found an appreciation of their regions artistic heritage. The artistic creations of people varies greatly throughout the cultures. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural, Art such as masks were used in religious ceremonies or social rituals. Petroglyphs, Tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Island and Lebanon Dahia. The ancestors of the people of these came from Southeast Asia by two different groups at separate times. The first, an Australoid people and the ancestors of modern-day Melanesians and Australian Aboriginals, came to New Guinea, the Melanesians expanded as far as the northern Solomon Islands by 38,000 BC. The second wave, from Southeast Asia, would not come for another 30,000 years and they would come to interact and together reach even the most remote Pacific islands. These early peoples lacked a system, and made works on perishable materials. By 1500 BC the Lapita culture, descendants of the wave, would begin to expand. At around the time, art began to appear in New Guinea. The period from 1000 BC on, the Lapita people would consolidate and begin to create the contemporary Polynesian cultures of Samoa, Tonga and they would from there venture further out into the Pacific and settle the Marquesas and northern Cook Islands between 200 BC and 1 AD. Starting around 1100 AD, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai. At about 1200 AD, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands
Oceanic art
–
Moai at
Rano Raraku,
Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
Oceanic art
–
Split gong figures from
Vanuatu
Oceanic art
–
Modern
Maori tiki pendant
Oceanic art
–
Birdmen (
Tangata manu) paintings in a cave at the foot of
Rano Kau,
Rapa Nui (Easter island).
21.
Japanese art
–
It has a long history, ranging from the beginnings of human habitation in Japan, sometime in the 10th millennium BC, to the present. Japan has been subject to invasions of new and strange ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, the earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with. After the Ōnin War, Japan entered a period of political, social, in the state that emerged under the leadership of the Tokugawa shogunate, organized religion played a much less important role in peoples lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular. Painting is the artistic expression in Japan, practiced by amateurs. Until modern times, the Japanese wrote with a rather than a pen. With the rise of popular culture in the Edo period, a style of woodblock prints became a major form, Japanese ceramics are among the finest in the world and include the earliest known artifacts of their culture. In architecture, Japanese preferences for natural materials and an interaction of interior and exterior space are clearly expressed and they built simple houses of wood and thatch set into shallow earthen pits to provide warmth from the soil. They crafted lavishly decorated pottery vessels, clay figurines called dogū. The next wave of immigrants was the Yayoi people, named for the district in Tokyo where remnants of their settlements first were found. These people, arriving in Japan about 350 BC, brought their knowledge of rice cultivation, the manufacture of copper weapons and bronze bells. The third stage in Japanese prehistory, the Kofun period, represents a modification of Yayoi culture, the period is named for the large number of kofun megalithic tombs created during this period. In this period, diverse groups of people formed political alliances, typical artifacts are bronze mirrors, symbols of political alliances, and clay sculptures called haniwa which were erected outside tombs. The transmission of Buddhism provided the impetus for contacts between China, Korea and Japan. Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, however, the focus in contacts between Japan and the Asian continent was the development of Buddhism. The most common designations are the Suiko period, 552–645, the Hakuhō period, 645–710, the earliest Japanese sculptures of the Buddha are dated to the 6th and 7th century. After the Chinese Northern Wei buddhist art had infiltrated a Korean peninsula, many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism. The Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were instrumental as active agents in the introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552 and they illustrate the terminal point of the Silk Road transmission of art during the first few centuries of our era
Japanese art
–
Cypress Tree Byōbu, folding screen by
Kano Eitoku, 1590
Japanese art
–
Sudden Shower at the Atake Bridge,
Hiroshige, 1856
Japanese art
–
Crab,
Kawahara Keiga, 1823-1829
Japanese art
–
Statuette with Snow Glasses, Jōmon Era
22.
Visual art of the United States
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Visual art of the United States or American art is visual art made in the United States or by American artists. Early colonial art on the East Coast initially relied on artists from Europe, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, artists primarily painted portraits, and some landscapes in a style based mainly on English painting. American artists who remained at home became increasingly skilled, although there was awareness of them in Europe. The American Revolution produced a demand for art, especially history painting. A parallel development taking shape in rural America was the American craft movement, which began as a reaction to the industrial revolution. After 1850 Academic art in the European style flourished, and as richer Americans became very wealthy, the flow of European art, new and old, to the US began, museums began to be opened to display much of this. Developments in modern art in Europe came to America from exhibitions in New York City such as the Armory Show in 1913, after World War II, New York replaced Paris as the center of the art world. Since then many American movements have shaped Modern and Postmodern art, Art in the United States today covers a huge range of styles. One of the first painters to visit British America was John White, eventually the English settlements grew large enough to support professional artists, mostly portrait-painters, often largely self-taught. Among the earliest was John Smybert, a trained artist from London who emigrated in 1728 intending to be a professor of fine art and his friend Peter Pelham was a painter and printmaker. Both needed other sources of income and had shops, most of early American art consists of history painting and especially portraits. As in Colonial America, many of the painters who specialized in portraits were essentially self-taught, notable among them are Joseph Badger, John Brewster, Jr. and William Jennys. The young nations artists generally emulated the style of British art, which they knew through prints, Robert Feke, an untrained painter of the colonial period, achieved a sophisticated style based on Smiberts example. Charles Willson Peale, who gained much of his earliest art training by studying Smiberts copies of European paintings, Peales younger brother James Peale and four of Peales sons—Raphaelle Peale, Rembrandt Peale, Rubens Peale and Titian Peale—were also artists. John Singleton Copley painted emblematic portraits for the prosperous merchant class. Benjamin West painted portraits as well as paintings of the French. John Trumbull painted large battle scenes of the Revolutionary War, when landscape was painted it was most often done to show how much property a subject owned, or as a picturesque background for a portrait. Americas first well-known school of painting—the Hudson River School—appeared in 1820, Thomas Cole pioneered the movement which included Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Edwin Church, Thomas Doughty and several others
Visual art of the United States
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John White,
Roanoke Indians, 1585, watercolor,
British Museum
Visual art of the United States
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Gilbert Stuart,
George Washington, also known as The Athenaeum and The Unfinished Portrait, 1796,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, is his most celebrated and famous work.
Visual art of the United States
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John Singleton Copley,
Watson and the Shark, (original version), 1778
Visual art of the United States
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John Singleton Copley, Paul Revere, c. 1768–70,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
23.
American colonial period
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
American colonial period
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Join, or Die by
Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
American colonial period
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Map of the thirteen original colonies as published for the US Centennial in 1876
24.
Mark Rothko
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Mark Rothko, born Markus Yakovlevich Rothkowitz, was an American painter of Russian Jewish descent. Although Rothko himself refused to adhere to any art movement, he is identified as an abstract expressionist. With Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, he is one of the most famous postwar American artists, Mark Rothko was born in Dvinsk, Vitebsk Governorate, in the Russian Empire. His father, Jacob Rothkowitz, was a pharmacist and an intellectual who initially provided his children with a secular and political, rather than religious, according to Rothko, his pro-Marxist father was violently anti-religious. In an environment where Jews were often blamed for many of the evils that befell Russia, despite Jacob Rothkowitzs modest income, the family was highly educated, and Rothko was able to speak Russian, Yiddish, and Hebrew. Fearing that his sons were about to be drafted into the Imperial Russian Army. Markus remained in Russia, with his mother and elder sister Sonia and they arrived as immigrants, at Ellis Island, in late 1913. From that point, they crossed the country, to join Jacob, jacobs death, a few months later, from colon cancer, left the family without economic support. Sonia operated a cash register, while Markus worked in one of his uncles warehouses and his fathers death also led Rothko to sever his ties with religion. After he had mourned his fathers death for almost a year at a local synagogue, Markus had started school in the United States in 1913, quickly accelerating from third to fifth grade. In June 1921, he completed the level, with honors, at Lincoln High School in Portland. He learned his fourth language, English, and became a member of the Jewish community center. Like his father, Rothko was passionate about issues such as workers’ rights, at the time, Portland was the epicentre of revolutionary activity in the U. S. and the region where revolutionary syndicalist union Industrial Workers of the World, was strongest. He heard Emma Goldman speak on one of her West Coast activist lecture tours, with the onset of the Russian Revolution, Rothko organised debates about it. Despite the repressive political atmosphere, he wished to become a union organiser. Rothko received a scholarship to Yale, at the end of his freshman year in 1922, the scholarship was not renewed, and he worked as a waiter and delivery boy to support his studies. He found the Yale community to be elitist and racist, Rothko and a friend, Aaron Director, started a satirical magazine, The Yale Saturday Evening Pest, which lampooned the schools stuffy, bourgeois tone. In any event, Rothkos nature was more that of a man than a diligent pupil, One of his fellow students remembers that he hardly seemed to study
Mark Rothko
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Rothko visiting the
Scott family in 1959
Mark Rothko
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Mark Rothko, Yorktown Heights, ca. 1949.
Brooklyn Museum, by
Consuelo Kanaga
Mark Rothko
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No. 3/No. 13 (Magenta, Black, Green on Orange), 1949, 85 3/8" × 65" (216.5 × 164.8 cm), oil on canvas,
Museum of Modern Art
Mark Rothko
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No. 61 (Rust and Blue), 1953, 115 cm × 92 cm (45 in × 36 in).
Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles
25.
Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was proficient as a watercolorist. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his vision of modern American life. Hopper was born in Upper Nyack, New York, a center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-to-do family and his parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Elizabeth Griffiths Smith and Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant. Although not so successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with help from his wifes inheritance. Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools and they were raised in a strict Baptist home. His father had a nature, and the household was dominated by women, Hoppers mother, grandmother, sister. His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 and it serves as a nonprofit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances, and special events. Hopper was a student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his fathers intellectual tendencies and love of French and he also demonstrated his mothers artistic heritage. Hoppers parents encouraged his art and kept him supplied with materials, instructional magazines. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, in 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It shows his early interest in nautical subjects, in his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his sense of humor found outlet in his art. Later in life, he mostly depicted women as the figures in his paintings, in high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hoppers parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a means of income. In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and he later said, I admire him greatly. I read him over and over again
Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper, Self-Portrait, 1906
Edward Hopper
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Childhood home of Edward Hopper in Upper Nyack, New York
Edward Hopper
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Summer Interior (1909)
Edward Hopper
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Night on the El Train (1918) by Edward Hopper
26.
Norman Rockwell
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Norman Perceval Rockwell was a 20th-century American author, painter and illustrator. His works enjoy a broad appeal in the United States for their reflection of American culture. Rockwell is most famous for the illustrations of everyday life he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine over nearly five decades. Among the best-known of Rockwells works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter, The Problem We All Live With, Saying Grace, and the Four Freedoms series. He also is noted for his 64-year relationship with the Boy Scouts of America, during which he produced covers for their publication Boys Life, calendars, and other illustrations. These works include images that reflect the Scout Oath and Scout Law such as The Scoutmaster, A Scout is Reverent and A Guiding Hand. Norman Rockwell was born on February 3,1894, in New York City, to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary Nancy Rockwell and he had one brother, Jarvis Waring Rockwell, Jr. older by a year and a half. Jarvis Waring, Sr. was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, Rockwell transferred from high school to the Chase Art School at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League, as a student, Rockwell was given small jobs of minor importance. His first major breakthrough came at age eighteen with his first book illustration for Carl H. Claudys Tell Me Why, after that, Rockwell was hired as a staff artist for Boys Life magazine. In this role, he received 50 dollars compensation each month for one completed cover and it is said to have been his first paying job as an artist. At 19, he became the art editor for Boys Life and he held the job for three years, during which he painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ships Wheel, which appeared on the Boys Life September edition. Rockwells family moved to New Rochelle, New York, when Norman was 21 years old and they shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythes help, Rockwell submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916 and he followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman, Gramps at the Plate, Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins, People in a Theatre Balcony, and Man Playing Santa. Rockwell was published eight times on the Post cover within the first year, ultimately, Rockwell published 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26,1936, it depicts a barber, the image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art. During World War I, he tried to enlist into the U. S. Navy but was refused entry because, at 140 pounds, to compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. He was given the role of a military artist, however, in 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in his losing fifteen pounds
Norman Rockwell
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Norman Rockwell, c. 1921
Norman Rockwell
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Scout at Ship's Wheel, 1913
Norman Rockwell
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Rockwell's first Scouting calendar, 1925
Norman Rockwell
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Freedom of Speech, 1943
27.
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America, largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and he also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations. Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders and his mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homers first teacher. She and her son had a relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature, her dry sense of humor, Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a student, but his art talent was evident in his early years. Homers father was a volatile, restless businessman who was looking to make a killing. When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other schemes that didnt materialize. After Homers high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement, Homers apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but treadmill experience. He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other work for two years. By 1857, his career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of Harpers Weekly. From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone, Homer later stated, I have had no master, Homers career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. His quick success was due to this strong understanding of graphic design. Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont and his uncles Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Womans Club, is open for public tours, in 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, in only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer, at the
National Gallery of Art,
New York City, 1880, photo by
Napoleon Sarony (1821–1896)
Winslow Homer
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The Bathers, wood engraving, Harper's Weekly, 1873
Winslow Homer
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Prisoners from the front,
1866, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oil on canvas. 24 x 38in
Winslow Homer
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Long Branch, New Jersey, 1869
28.
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
Edgar Degas
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Self-portrait (Degas au porte-fusain), 1855
Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas c. 1850s
Edgar Degas
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A Cotton Office in New Orleans, 1873
Edgar Degas
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The Dance Class (La Classe de Danse), 1873–1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas
29.
Max Weber (artist)
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Max Weber was a Jewish-American painter and one of the first American Cubist painters who, in later life, turned to more figurative Jewish themes in his art. He is best known today for Chinese Restaurant, in the collection of the Whitney Museum of American Art, the finest canvas of his Cubist phase, in the words of art historian Avis Berman. Born in the Polish city of Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire, Weber emigrated to the United States and he studied art at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn under Arthur Wesley Dow. Dow was an early influence on Weber as he was an enlightened and vital teacher in a time of conservative art instruction. Dow had met Paul Gauguin in Pont-Aven, was a student of Japanese art. His friends among fellow Americans included some equally adventurous young painters, such as Abraham Walkowitz, H. Lyman Sayen, avant-garde France in the years immediately before World War I was fertile and welcoming territory for Weber, then in his early twenties. He arrived in Paris in time to see a major Cézanne exhibition, meet the poet Guillaume Apollinaire, frequent Gertrude Steins salon, Rousseau gave him some of his works, others, Weber purchased. He was responsible for Rousseaus first exhibition in the United States, in 1909 he returned to New York and helped to introduce Cubism to America. He is now considered one of the most significant early American Cubists, the reviews were of an almost hysterical violence. He was attacked for his brutal, vulgar, and unnecessary art license, as art historian Sam Hunter wrote, Webers wistful, tentative Cubism provided the philistine press with their first solid target prior to the Armory Show. For a few years, Weber enjoyed a productive if rocky relationship with Stieglitz, so poor was Weber in these years that he camped out for some weeks in Stieglitzs gallery. Weber was also acquainted with Wilhelmina Weber Furlong and Thomas Furlong, whom he met at the Art Students League. Weber died in Great Neck, New York in 1961 and he was the subject of a major retrospective at the Jewish Museum in 1982. Weber evidently was a prickly personality even with his allies and he and Stieglitz had a falling-out, and Weber was not represented in the famous Armory Show because his friend, Arthur B. Davies, one of the organizers, had only allotted him space for two paintings. In a fit of pique at Davies, he withdrew entirely from the exhibition, other artists in the Stieglitz circle kept their distance, especially after Weber told people that there were only three indisputably great modern painters, Cézanne, Rousseau, and himself. Almost without exception, they found him obnoxious, opinionated, rude, in time, Webers work found more adherents, including Alfred H. Barr, Jr. the first director of the Museum of Modern Art. In 1930, the Museum of Modern Art held a retrospective of his work and he was praised as a pioneer of modern art in America in a 1945 Life magazine article
Max Weber (artist)
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Max Weber in 1914
Max Weber (artist)
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Summer, 1909, oil on canvas, 40 1/4 x 23 7/8 in. (102.2 x 60.6 cm),
Smithsonian American Art Museum
Max Weber (artist)
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The Cellist, 1917, which was featured in Weber's 1930 retrospective exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art
Max Weber (artist)
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Portrait of Abraham Walkowitz, c. 1907
30.
Brooklyn Museum Art School
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The Brooklyn Museum Art School was a non-degree-granting professional school that opened at the Brooklyn Museum in Brooklyn, New York in the summer of 1941. Prior to the creation of the BMAS, classes for artists had been offered by the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. BIAS offered hands-on art classes dating back to 1841, the Brooklyn Museum Art School provided instruction for amateur artists as well until January 1985 when it was transferred to the Pratt Institute’s Continuing Education Division. During World War II the Brooklyn Museum Art School offered limited classes in painting, photography, in 1945 the artist Augustus Peck became director of the school and expanded its offerings. As a result of the GI Bill the BMAS had very stable income, artists included Augustus Peck, William Baziotes, Max Beckmann, Ben Shahn and Reuben Tam. At its peak, the Brooklyn Museum Art School had almost 400 applicants and this number suffered as more institutions began to offer accredited programs in the fine arts during the late 1950s. A Bachelor of Fine Arts program in conjunction with Long Island University was planned to begin in 1959, Max Beckmann John Ferren Robert Smithson Donald Judd
Brooklyn Museum Art School
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Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn Museum Art School
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Francis Cunningham teaching at the Brooklyn Museum Art School, ca. 1979
31.
Franklin Hooper
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Franklin William Hooper, LL. D. was an American biologist, geologist, educator and institute director. He was born in Walpole, New Hampshire, the son of William Hooper and Elvira Pulsifer Hopper and he participated in the first biological summer school at the short-lived Anderson School of Natural History, founded by Agassiz in 1873 on Penikese Island, Cape Cod. After graduating with a B. A. in 1875 he worked for the Smithsonian Institution to study algae and coralline formations in the Florida Keys. After three years as head of the school in Keene, New Hampshire, from 1877-1880, he was appointed professor of chemistry and geology at Adelphi College, Brooklyn. He was the first president of the Brooklyn Ethical Association 1881–1883, Hooper greatly expanded the institutes work of presenting a wide range of public lectures and concerts, quadrupling its membership. One of the regular visiting orchestras to play at the institute was the Boston Symphony, under his leadership the institutes art and architecture departments were set up, leading to the competition to design the Brooklyn Institutes new museum, opened in 1897. Until his death in 1914 he continued as director of the institute and de facto director of the museum, more departments were opened during his time as director, including the Brooklyn Childrens Museum and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. He was a member of the New York City Board of Education and he was president of the board of trustees of his alma mater, Antioch College, from 1901–05. In 1904 Hooper was one of the founders of the American Bison Society with Ernest Harold Baynes, at his suggestion Baynes wrote to President Theodore Roosevelt, who became the societys first Honorary President. Hooper also suggested the inclusion of the Premier of Canada, Earl Grey, Hooper himself became the societys president in 1911. Fullerton he was the impetus behind the establishment in 1912 of the New York State School of Agriculture on Long Island. For a quarter of a century his energetic activities have given to the development of this institution which has become the pride of the city. His bust by Edmond Thomas Quinn is at the Brooklyn Museum and he married Martha Holden of Augusta, Georgia, in 1877. She was the daughter of Peter B. Holden and Meritable Emery Holden, ardent abolitionists before and during the Civil War, Martha Hooper was vice-president of the Brooklyn Institutes Domestic Science department in 1909. They had three children, Rebecca L. Hooper, born in Walpole, March 23,1877, married William H. Eastman in July 1912, William S. Hooper, born in Keene, New Hampshire, June 1880, citations Sources Annual report of the American Bison Society,1905 -1907. Cavaioli, Frank J. Chartering the New York State School of Agriculture on Long Island, the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences - Its Musical Work. The history of a market-garden and dairy plot developed within eight months upon Long Islands idle territory, Long Island, New York, Long Island Rail Road Company
Franklin Hooper
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Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, set up after a suggestion by Hooper
Franklin Hooper
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Hooper was the first director of the
Brooklyn Museum 1899-1914
Franklin Hooper
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Rockingham Meeting House, Vermont, church of his forefathers
32.
Brooklyn Academy of Music
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The Brooklyn Academy of Music is a performing arts venue in Brooklyn, New York City, known as a center for progressive and avant garde performance. It presented its first performance in 1861 and began operations in its present location in 1908, today, BAM has a reputation as a leader in presenting cutting edge performance and has grown into an urban arts center which focuses on both international arts presentation and local community needs. Its purpose is to provide an environment in which its audiences – annually, more than 775,000 people – can experience a broad array of aesthetic and cultural programs. From 1999 to 2014, BAM was headed by Karen Brooks Hopkins, President, katy Clark is now president, succeeding Hopkins who retired in spring 2015. Founded in 1861, the first BAM facility at 176–194 Montague Street in Brooklyn Heights was conceived as the home of the Philharmonic Society of Brooklyn. The building, designed by architect Leopold Eidlitz, housed a theater seating 2,200, a smaller concert hall, dressing and chorus rooms. BAM presented amateur and professional music and theater productions, including such as Ellen Terry, Edwin Booth, Tomas Salvini. After the building burned to the ground on November 30,1903, the Met would continue to present seasons in Brooklyn, featuring star singers such as Caruso, right through until 1921. The new building is adjacent to downtown Brooklyn, near the Atlantic Terminal of the Long Island Rail Road, in 1967 Harvey Lichtenstein was appointed executive director and during the 32 years that Lichtenstein was BAMs leader, BAM experienced a renaissance. BAM is now recognized internationally as a cultural center well known for The Next Wave Festival. Lichtenstein gave a home to the Chelsea Theater Center, in residence from 1967–1977, BAMs Peter Jay Sharp Building houses the Howard Gilman Opera House and the BAM Rose Cinemas. It was designed by the firm Herts & Tallant in 1908 and it is a U shaped building with an open court in the center of the lot between two theater wings above the first story. It measures 190 feet along Lafayette Avenue,200 feet deep, the building has a high base of gray granite with cream colored brick trimmed in terra cotta with some marble detail above. It is located within the Fort Greene Historic District, BAMs facilities include, In the Peter Jay Sharp Building, at 30 Lafayette Avenue, Howard Gilman Opera House, with 2,109 seats. Rose Cinemas opened in 1997, allowing Brooklynites the chance to see more art films without having to go to Manhattan, lepercq Space, originally BAMs ballroom, now a flexible event space and home to receptions, rentals, and BAMcafé. BAMcafé is open for dinner on nights there is a performance in the Opera House. BAMcafé Live is a series of live music performances on select Friday and Saturday nights. A renovation by architect Hugh Hardy left the interior unpainted and with often exposed stonework, in April 2014, CNN named the BAM Harvey as one of the 15 of the Worlds Most Spectacular Theaters
Brooklyn Academy of Music
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BAM Peter Jay Sharp Building (2013)
Brooklyn Academy of Music
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BAMcafé
Brooklyn Academy of Music
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The entrance to the BAM Harvey, formerly the Majestic Theatre, built in 1903 and renovated in 1987
Brooklyn Academy of Music
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The BAM Fisher Building opened in 2012
33.
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
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Brooklyn Botanic Garden is a botanical garden in the borough of Brooklyn in New York City. Starr Bonsai Museum, three climate-themed plant pavilions, a white cast-iron and glass aquatic plant house, and an art gallery, the Garden holds over 14,000 taxa of plants and each year has over 900,000 visitors. Early plans for Prospect Park called for the park to straddle Flatbush Avenue, the City of Brooklyn purchased the land for this purpose in 1864. When Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux brought their plans to the city for approval in the 1860s. The northeast portion went unused, serving as an ash dump, legislation in 1897 as the city moved toward consolidation reserved 39 acres for a botanic garden, and the garden itself was founded in 1910. The garden was known as the Institute Park. It was run under the auspices of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, which included the Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn Childrens Museum and it opened as the Brooklyn Botanic Garden on May 13,1911, with the Native Flora Garden being the first established section. Harold Caparn was appointed as the architect in 1912. Caparn designed most of the rest of the grounds over the three decades, including the Osborne Garden, Cranford Rose Garden, Magnolia Plaza, and Plant Collection. Construction of the Laboratory Building and Conservatory began in 1912, and it was designated a New York City Landmark in 2007. The Garden has more than 200 cherry trees of forty-two Asian species and cultivated varieties, the first cherries were planted at the garden after World War I, a gift from the Japanese government. The Esplanade features two rows of trees with trails and sitting areas on the side. Visitors may also sit on the field of grass between the rows of cherry trees, Cherry trees are found on the Cherry Esplanade and Cherry Walk, in the Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden, and in many other locations in the Garden. Depending on weather conditions, the Asian flowering cherries bloom from late March or early April to mid-May, the many different species bloom at slightly different times, and the sequence is tracked online at Cherry Watch, on the BBG website. BBGs Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden was the first Japanese garden to be created in an American public garden. It was constructed in 1914 and 1915 at a cost of $13,000, a gift of early BBG benefactor and trustee Alfred T. White, widely considered by numerous landscape architects, to be the masterpiece of its creator, Japanese landscape designer Takeo Shiota. Shiota was born in a small Japanese village about 40 miles from Tokyo and he emigrated to the United States in 1907. The garden is a blend of the ancient hill-and-pond style and the more modern stroll-garden style and its 3 acres contain hills, a waterfall, a pond, and an island, all artificially constructed
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
–
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
–
Current logo
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
–
Cherry Esplanade
Brooklyn Botanic Garden
–
Japanese Hill-and-Pond Garden
34.
Classical architecture
–
Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
Classical architecture
–
Caryatids on the
Erechtheion, (
Athens), an example of a
Greek architectural element taken up by later classical architecture.
Classical architecture
–
Sebastiano Serlio 's canon of the
Classical orders, a prime example of classical
architectural theory.
Classical architecture
–
The forms of ancient
Roman temples like the pictured
Maison Carrée in
Nîmes (France) has served as an inspiration for plenty of much later classical architecture, e.g.
Virginia State Capitol.
Classical architecture
–
Lorsch Abbey gatehouse (Germany), c. 800, an example of the architectural style of the short-lived
Carolingian Renaissance, a first classical movement in architecture.
35.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architecture
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architecture
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architecture
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architecture
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
36.
McKim, Mead, and White
–
McKim, Mead & White was a prominent American architectural firm that thrived at the turn of the twentieth century. The firms founding partners were Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and they hired many other architects, partners, associates, designers and draftsmen, who came to prominence during or after their time at the firm. The firms New York City buildings include Manhattans former Pennsylvania Station, the Brooklyn Museum, elsewhere in New York State and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library and Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D. C. the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, other examples are in Canada, Cuba and Italy. McKim and Mead joined forces in 1872 and they were joined in 1879 by White, who, like McKim, had worked for architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Its vision was to clean up the confusion of American cities and imbue them with a sense of order. The firm retained its name long after the deaths of founding partners White, McKim, among the firms final works under the name McKim, Mead & White was the National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Designed primarily by partner James Kellum Smith, it opened in 1964, Smith died in 1961, and the firm was soon renamed Steinmann, Cain and White. In 1971, it became Walker O. Cain and Associates, lewis Colt Albro – who formed a partnership with Harrie T. Lindeberg from 1906 to 1914. Henry Bacon – worked at the firm from about 1886 through 1897, boring – worked at the firm in 1890 before forming a separate partnership with Edward Lippincott Tilton. Page Brown - worked with the beginning in the 1880s, went to California. Walker O. Cain – worked at the firm, he took it over in 1961, john Merven Carrère – worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885, then joined Thomas Hastings to form the firm Carrère and Hastings. Arthur Loomis Harmon – later of Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Thomas Hastings – of Carrère and Hastings, worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885. William Mitchell Kendall, worked with the firm from 1882 until his death, Harrie T. Lindeberg – started at the firm in 1895 as an assistant to Stanford White and remained with the firm until Whites death in 1906. Austin W. James Kellum Smith – a member of the firm from 1924 to 1961, full partner in 1929, and he primarily designed academic buildings, but his last major work was the National Museum of American History. Egerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout – both Tracy and Swartwout worked together for the firm on multiple projects prior to starting their own practice, robert von Ezdorf – took over much of the firms business after Whites death. William M. Wells – worked as firms first Chief Draftsman from 1879–90, often considered to be the fourth partner
McKim, Mead, and White
–
Pennsylvania Station in New York City in 1911
McKim, Mead, and White
–
Villard Houses
McKim, Mead, and White
–
Harvard Club of New York
McKim, Mead, and White
–
Goelet Building
37.
Daniel Chester French
–
French was born in Exeter, New Hampshire, to Henry Flagg French, a lawyer, judge, Assistant US Treasury Secretary and author of a book that described the French drain, and his wife Anne Richardson. In 1867, French moved with his family to Concord, Massachusetts, where he was a neighbor and friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson, and his decision to pursue sculpting was influenced by Louisa May Alcotts sister May Alcott. Frenchs early education included training in anatomy with William Rimmer and in drawing with William Morris Hunt, French spent a year studying at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and also several years in Florence, Italy studying in the studio of Thomas Ball. French first earned acclaim for the Minute Man, commissioned by the town of Concord, Massachusetts and he soon established his own studio, first in Washington DC, moving later to Boston and then to New York City. Frenchs reputation grew with his Statue of the Republic for the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893, in addition to the Lincoln Memorial, French collaborated with architect Henry Bacon on numerous memorials around the country and on the Dupont Circle fountain in Washington DC. In 1893, French was a member of the National Sculpture Society. French also became a member of the National Academy of Design, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the Architectural League, and he was a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, and a co-founder of the American Academy in Rome. He was a member of the U. S. Commission of Fine Arts, serving from 1910 to 1915, including as chairman from 1912 to 1915, in 1917, French and a colleague, H. Augustus Lukeman, designed the Pulitzer Prize gold medal presented to laureates. French was one of many sculptors who frequently employed Audrey Munson as a model, together with Walter Leighton Clark and others, he was also one of the founders of the Berkshire Playhouse, which later became the Berkshire Theatre Festival. French also taught, among his pupils was the sculptor Edith Howland, French died in Stockbridge, Massachusetts in 1931 at age 81 and was buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts. Chesterwood, Frenchs summer home and studio – designed by his architect friend, in 1940, French was selected as one of five artists to be honored in the 35-stamp Famous Americans series. Chester French was an American indie band named for the artist. C and his 24-foot gilt-bronze reduced version made in 1918 survives in Chicago. S. The Spirit of Life, memorial to Spencer Trask, in Saratoga Springs, New York at Congress Park,1915 Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial, samuel Francis du Pont Memorial Fountain, Dupont Circle, Washington, D. C. Alfred Tredway White Memorial, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Henry Bacon architect Russell Alger Memorial Fountain, Grand Circus Park, Detroit, gen. William Franklin Draper, Draper Memorial Park, Milford, Massachusetts. Peace and Vigilance US Customhouse & Post Office, St. Louis, Missouri, deWitt Clinton, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Three statues prepared in 1902 for the New York Chamber of Commerce, the building was declared a landmark in 1977. Greek Epic, Lyric Poetry, and Religion, sculptures for the 1908 Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences building on Eastern Parkway in Brooklyn, New York
Daniel Chester French
–
Daniel Chester French
Daniel Chester French
–
Chesterwood in
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, French's summer home and studio, now a museum
Daniel Chester French
–
Abraham Lincoln (1920) in the
Lincoln Memorial,
Washington, D.C.
Daniel Chester French
–
Minute Man (1874) in
Concord, Massachusetts
38.
Lincoln Memorial
–
The Lincoln Memorial is an American national monument built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the end of the National Mall in Washington. Dedicated in 1922, it is one of several built to honor an American president. It has always been a major tourist attraction and since the 1930s has been a symbolic center focused on race relations and it has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since October 15,1966. It is open to the public 24 hours a day, in 2007, it was ranked seventh on the List of Americas Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects. Since 2010, approximately 6 million people visit the memorial annually, the first public memorial to Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D. C. was a statue by Lot Flannery erected in front of the District of Columbia City Hall in 1868, three years after Lincolns assassination. Demands for a national memorial had been voiced since the time of Lincolns death. In 1867, Congress passed the first of many bills incorporating a commission to erect a monument for the sixteenth president, an American sculptor, Clark Mills, was chosen to design the monument. Subscriptions for the project were insufficient, the first five bills, proposed in the years 1901,1902, and 1908, met with defeat because of opposition from Speaker Joe Cannon. The sixth bill, introduced on December 13,1910, passed, the Lincoln Memorial Commission had its first meeting the following year and U. S. President William H. Taft was chosen as the commissions president. Progress continued at a pace and by 1913 Congress had approved of the Commissions choice of design. There were questions regarding the commissions plan, many thought that architect Henry Bacons Greek temple design was far too ostentatious for a man of Lincolns humble character. Instead they proposed a simple log cabin shrine, the site too did not go unopposed. The recently reclaimed land in West Potomac Park was seen by many to be too swampy or too inaccessible. Other sites, such as Union Station, were put forth, furthermore, the Potomac Park site had already been designated in the McMillan Plan of 1901 to be the location of a future monument comparable to that of the Washington Monument. With Congressional approval and a $300,000 allocation, the project got underway, on February 12,1914, a dedication ceremony was conducted and the following month the actual construction began. Work progressed steadily according to schedule, some changes were made to the plan. The statue of Lincoln, originally designed to be 10 feet tall, was enlarged to 19 feet to prevent it from being overwhelmed by the huge chamber
Lincoln Memorial
–
Lincoln Memorial
Lincoln Memorial
–
Site of the Lincoln Memorial and the Reflecting Pool as it appeared prior to beginning their construction
Lincoln Memorial
–
President Warren G. Harding speaks at the dedication of the Memorial in 1922
Lincoln Memorial
–
Detail of the Memorial's
friezes
39.
Piccirilli Brothers
–
In 1888, Giuseppe Piccirilli, a well-known stone carver and a veteran of Garibaldis Unification war, brought his family to New York City from Massa di Carrara, in Tuscany, Italy. The entire family, father and six sons—Ferruccio, Attilio, Furio, Masaniello, the family lived in a brownstone on 142nd Street in the Mott Haven section of the Bronx and set up a workshop next to their home that would eventually occupy an entire city block. At that time most prominent sculptors would create their work in clay. From that clay model a caster would generate a plaster model, the model would then be sent to the Piccirilli Brothers who would carve it from stone, typically marble, although limestone and granite were also used. The brothers became the carvers of choice for a number of American sculptors of the time including Daniel Chester French. Besides their work as carvers the Piccirilli Brothers also created architectural detailing and embellishments for a number of public. USS Maine National Monument, H. Van Buren Magonigle, architect, Atillio Piccirilli, sculptor 1913, Columbus Circle, firemens Memorial, H. Spandrel figures, Frederick MacMonnies, sculptor. George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, Accompanied by Fame and Valor, Hermon Atkins MacNeil, George Washington as President, Accompanied by Wisdom and Justice, Alexander Stirling Calder. New York Stock Exchange, George B, pedimental sculpture, Integrity Protecting the Works of Man, John Quincy Adams Ward and Paul Bartlett, sculptors U. S. Custom House, Cass Gilbert, architect, New York City, originally created for New York City Hall Park, moved in 1941 to Queens Borough Hall, moved to Green-Wood Cemetery in 2012. Pennsylvania State Capitol sculpture groups, George Grey Barnard, sculptor, Joseph Miller Huston, architect, Harrisburg, Brooklyn Museum, McKim, Mead, and White, architects, Brooklyn, New York City. New York Public Library, Carrère and Hastings, architects, New York City, death and the Sculptor, Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Carved from Frenchs 1893 plaster model, abraham Lincoln, Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D. C. DuPont Circle Fountain, Daniel Chester French, sculptor, Henry Bacon, architect, Washington, D. C
Piccirilli Brothers
–
The Maine Memorial, Central Park NYC, Atillio Piccirilli, sculptor
Piccirilli Brothers
–
One of the two lions at the entrance to the
New York Public Library.
Piccirilli Brothers
–
West Gate in
Balboa Park. These figures representing the
Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans are the work of
Furio Piccirilli.
40.
New York City Subway
–
Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the worlds oldest public transit systems, one of the worlds most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day, every day of the year, the New York City Subway is the largest rapid transit system in the world by number of stations, with 472 stations in operation. Stations are located throughout the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson and the AirTrain JFK, in Manhattan and Queens respectively, accept the subways MetroCard but are not operated by the MTA and do not allow free transfers. Another mass transit service that is not operated by the MTA, the system is also one of the worlds longest. Overall, the system contains 236 miles of routes, translating into 665 miles of track. In 2015, the subway delivered over 1.76 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.7 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.9 million rides each weekend. Of the systems 25 services,22 of them pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the G train, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Rockaway Park Shuttle. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on embankments, or in open cuts, in total, 40% of track is not underground despite the subway moniker. Many lines and stations have both express and local services and these lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the two are used for local trains, while the inner one or two are used for express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations, alfred Ely Beach built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons, although extensions had been planned to take the tunnel southward to The Battery, the Great Blizzard of 1888 helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system. A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, the first underground line of the subway opened on October 27,1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. The fare was $0.05 and on the first day the trains carried over 150,000 passengers, the oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line in Brooklyn and is now part of the BMT Jamaica Line. The oldest right-of-way, which is part of the BMT West End Line near Coney Island Creek, was in use in 1864 as a railroad called the Brooklyn, Bath. By the time the first subway opened, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies. This required it to be run at cost, necessitating fares up to double the five-cent fare popular at the time, in 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after, integration was slow, but several connections were built between the IND and BMT, these now operate as one division called the B Division
New York City Subway
New York City Subway
–
Top: A
6 train made up of
R142A cars enters the
Parkchester station. Bottom: An
E train made up of
R160A cars waits for passengers at the
42nd Street – Port Authority Bus Terminal station.
New York City Subway
–
The
City Hall station of the
IRT Lexington Avenue Line opened on October 27, 1904.
New York City Subway
–
Graffiti became a notable symbol of declining service during the 1970s.
41.
Manhattan
–
Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
Manhattan
–
View from
Midtown Manhattan, facing south toward
Lower Manhattan
Manhattan
–
Peter Minuit, early 1600s.
Manhattan
–
The
Castello Plan showing the Dutch colonial city of
New Amsterdam in 1660 – then confined to the southern tip of Manhattan Island.
Manhattan
–
J.Q.A. Ward 's statue of
George Washington in front of
Federal Hall (on
Wall Street) where he was inaugurated as the first
U.S. President in 1789.
42.
Manhattan Bridge
–
The Manhattan Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan at Canal Street with Downtown Brooklyn at the Flatbush Avenue Extension. The main span is 1,470 ft long, with the suspension cables being 3,224 ft long, the bridges total length is 6,855 ft. This is one of four bridges spanning the East River. The bridge opened to traffic on December 31,1909 and it was designed by Leon Moisseiff, and is noted for its innovative design. The Manhattan Bridge was also the first suspension bridge to utilize a Warren truss in its design, the Manhattan Bridge was the last of the three suspension bridges built across the lower East River, following the Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges. It has four lanes on the upper level, split between two roadways. The lower level has three lanes, four tracks, a walkway and a bikeway. The upper level, originally used for streetcars, has two lanes in each direction, and the level is one-way and has three lanes in peak direction. The bridge once carried New York State Route 27 and later was planned to carry Interstate 478, the original pedestrian walkway on the south side of the bridge was reopened after forty years in June 2001. The northern bridge bike path is noted for poor signage that leads to cyclist. To celebrate the centennial anniversary, a series of events and exhibits were organized by the New York City Bridge Centennial Commission in October 2009. These included a parade across the Manhattan Bridge on the morning of October 4. In 2009, the bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Construction began that year, and plans were finalized in 1912, the arch and colonnade were completed in 1915. The decoration includes pylons which were sculpted by Carl Augustus Heber, the arch and colonnade were designated a New York City landmark on November 25,1975. After many years of neglect and several attempts by traffic engineers to remove the structure, four subway tracks are located on the lower deck of the bridge. The two tracks on the side are used by the Q train at all times and the N train at all times except late nights. The tracks on the side are used by the D train at all times
Manhattan Bridge
–
View from
Brooklyn
Manhattan Bridge
–
The
triumphal arch and
colonnade at the Manhattan entrance
Manhattan Bridge
–
The Manhattan Bridge under construction in March 1909
Manhattan Bridge
–
The Brooklyn Plaza of the bridge c.1917. Nassau Street is across the foreground.
43.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The facade of the Met dominates the city's "
Museum Mile ".
Metropolitan Museum of Art
–
The Great Hall
44.
American Museum of Natural History
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The American Museum of Natural History, located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest museums in the world. The museum has a scientific staff of 225, sponsors over 120 special field expeditions each year. Before construction of the present complex, the museum was housed in the Arsenal building in Central Park. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, the founding of the museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the museums first building, the original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park. The original building was eclipsed by the south range of the museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. It extends 700 feet along West 77th Street, with corner towers 150 feet tall and its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York. The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt and it leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The museum is accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the Grand Gallery. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the museum, since 1930, little has been added to the exterior of the original building. The architect Kevin Roche and his firm Roche-Dinkeloo have been responsible for the planning of the museum since the 1990s. Various renovations both interior and exterior have been carried out including improvements to Dinosaur Hall and mural restoration in Roosevelt Memorial Hall, in 1992 the firm designed the new eight story AMNH Library. The museums south façade, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue was cleaned, repaired and re-emerged in 2009, steven Reichl, a spokesman for the museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The museums consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, the museums first two presidents were John David Wolfe and Robert L. Stuart, both among the museums founders. The museum was not put on a sound footing until the appointment of the president, Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was president for over 25 years, overseeing its expansion, the fourth president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, was appointed in 1906 on the death of Jesup. Osborn consolidated the museums expansion, developing it into one of the worlds foremost natural history museums, F. Trubee Davison was president from 1933 to 1951, with A. Perry Osborn as Acting President from 1941 to 1946
American Museum of Natural History
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Looking at the east entrance from
Central Park West
American Museum of Natural History
American Museum of Natural History
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Locations of exploring and field parties in 1913, American Museum of Natural History map
American Museum of Natural History
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The old 77th street "
castle " entrance of the museum
45.
Charles Saatchi
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Charles Saatchi is a British businessman and the co-founder with his brother Maurice of advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi. The brothers led the business – the worlds largest advertising agency in the 1980s – until they were forced out in 1995, in the same year, the brothers formed a new agency called M&C Saatchi. Saatchi is also known for his art collection and for owning Saatchi Gallery, Charles Saatchi is the second of four sons born to Nathan Saatchi and Daisy Ezer, a wealthy Iraqi Jewish family in Baghdad, Iraq. The name Saatchi ساعتچی, which means watchmaker, originates from Persian, ساعتچي This name has a long history in Iran and its bearers are mostly Jewish. Famous for owning antique shops, watch shops, gold and jewellery, Saatchis brothers are David, Maurice and Philip. In 1947 his father, a merchant, anticipated the flight that tens of thousands of Iraqi Jews would soon make to avoid persecution and relocated his family to Finchley. Nathan Saatchi purchased two mills in north London and after a time rebuilt a thriving business. Eventually the family would settle into a house in Hampstead Lane. Saatchi attended Christs College, a school in north London. During this time, he developed an obsession with US pop culture, including the music of Elvis Presley, Little Richard and he has described as life-changing the experience of viewing a Jackson Pollock painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. He then progressed to study at the London College of Communication, in 1965, Saatchi undertook his first advertising role as a copywriter in the London office of Benton & Bowles, where he met Doris Lockhart. Saatchi paired up with art director Ross Cramer and they worked as a team at Collett Dickenson Pearce, in addition to offering consulting with ad agencies they also took on some clients directly. In 1969, at age 26, Saatchi purchased his first work of art by Sol LeWitt, Saatchi initially patronised the Lisson Gallery in Marylebone, London, which specialised in American minimalist works. He later purchased a show by Robert Mangold. In the early 1980s, Saatchi purchased a 30,000 sq ft cement-floored and steel-girded warehouse at 98A Boundary Road in the residential London suburb of St. Johns Wood. The building was transformed by architect Max Gordon into the Saatchi Gallery, at one point the Saatchi collection contained 11 works by Donald Judd,21 by Sol LeWitt,23 by Anselm Kiefer,17 Andy Warhols and 27 by Julian Schnabel. His taste has mutated from American abstraction and minimalism to the Young British Artists, at the YBAs 1990 Gambler exhibition, Saatchi bought Damian Hirsts first major animal installation, A Thousand Years. In 1991, he acquired major artworks by Hirst and Marc Quinn, in 2009, he published the book My Name Is Charles Saatchi And I Am An Artoholic
Charles Saatchi
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The Saatchi Gallery's new premises in Chelsea, which opened in October 2008.
Charles Saatchi
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Charles Saatchi by
Paul Harvey
46.
Sensation (exhibition)
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A proposed showing at the National Gallery of Australia was cancelled when the gallerys director decided the exhibition was too close to the market. The show generated controversy in London and New York due to the inclusion of images of Myra Hindley and it was criticised by New York mayor Rudolph Giuliani and others for attempting to boost the value of the work by showing it in institutions and public museums. The artworks in Sensation were from the collection of Charles Saatchi, norman Rosenthal, the Royal Academy of Arts exhibitions secretary, helped to stage the 110 works by 42 different artists. Many of the pieces had become famous, or notorious, with the British public, Marc Quinns self-portrait. Others had already achieved prominence in other ways, such as an advertising campaign using an idea from Gillian Wearings photographs. Sensation was the first time that an audience had had the chance to see these works en masse. The Royal Academy posted this disclaimer to visitors on entry, There will be works of art on display in the Sensation exhibition which some people may find distasteful, parents should exercise their judgment in bringing their children to the exhibition. One gallery will not be open to those under the age of 18, around a quarter of the RAs 80 academicians gave a warning that the exhibition was inflammatory. However, the biggest media controversy was over Myra, an image of the murderer Myra Hindley by Marcus Harvey, the Mothers Against Murder and Aggression protest group picketed the show, accompanied by Winnie Johnson, the mother of one of Hindleys victims. They asked for the portrait, which is made up of hundreds of copies of a childs handprint, along with supporters she picketed the shows first day. Despite all the protest the painting remained hanging, windows at Burlington House, the Academys home, were smashed and two demonstrators hurled ink and eggs at the picture as a result, requiring it to be removed and restored. It was put back on display behind Perspex and guarded by security men, books have been written about the murders. Hindley’s image is in the domain, part of our consciousness, an awful part of our recent social history. The show was popular with the general public, attracting over 300,000 visitors during its run. The BBC described it as gory images of dismembered limbs and explicit pornography, Sensation was shown at the Berlin Hamburger Bahnhof museum and proved so popular that it was extended past its original closing date of 28 December 1998. For art critic Nicola Kuhn from Der Tagesspiegel, there was no sensation about Sensation, the New York show was met with instant protest, centring on The Holy Virgin Mary by Chris Ofili, which had not provoked this reaction in London. The figure is surrounded by small collaged images of female genitalia from pornographic magazines. William A. Donohue, President of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights, Giuliani started a lawsuit to evict the museum, and Arnold Lehman, the museum director, filed a federal lawsuit against Giuliani for a breach of the First Amendment
Sensation (exhibition)
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Royal Academy, London
Sensation (exhibition)
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Myra: 1995 depiction of the child killer
Myra Hindley by the YBA
Marcus Harvey
Sensation (exhibition)
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Brooklyn Museum of Art
47.
First Amendment
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It was adopted on December 15,1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification, initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states—a process known as incorporation—through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, in Near v. Minnesota and New York Times v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint—pre-publication censorship—in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, eight of the other thirteen states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered mere admonitions to state legislatures, after a brief debate, Masons proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions, opposition to ratification was partly based on the Constitutions lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states and this language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendments intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25,1789, and adopted on December 15,1791. In Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court used these words to declare that it may be accepted almost as a declaration of the scope. Congress was deprived of all power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. In these two sentences is found the distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State. Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregationalist until the 1830s. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, in the words of Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and State. That wall must be high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach, in Torcaso v. Watkins, the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office
First Amendment
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The Bill of Rights in the
National Archives
First Amendment
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James Madison, drafter of the
Bill of Rights
First Amendment
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U.S. President
Thomas Jefferson wrote in his correspondence of "a wall of separation between church and State".
48.
Carnegie Corporation
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Carnegie Corporation of New York was established by Andrew Carnegie during 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless, ten years after the sale of the Carnegie Steel Company, he still had more than $150 million and, having already used the conventional formats for his previously endowed institutions, he selected corporation for this last and largest. It was chartered by the State of New York as Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Corporations capital fund, originally donated as a value of about $135 million, had a market value of $1.55 billion on March 31,1999. During 1911 and 1912, Carnegie gave the corporation $125 million, as the residual legatee of his will, the corporation received an additional $10 million when the estate was settled. Carnegie reserved a portion of the endowment to be used for purposes in Canada. This part of the endowment was first known as the Special Fund, then the British Dominions and Colonies Fund, charter amendments have allowed the corporation to use 7.4 percent of its income in countries that are or have been members of the British Commonwealth. During the corporations early years, Carnegie himself was president and a trustee, James Bertram, his private secretary, and Robert A. Franks, his financial agent, were also trustees and, respectively, secretary and treasurer of the corporation. These three comprised the first executive committee and made most of the funding decisions, soon after Carnegies death during 1919, the trustees elected a full-time, salaried president as chief executive officer of the corporation and made him an ex officio member of the board. Initially, grants followed the pattern of Carnegies personal philanthropies, until 1917, gifts for the construction of public libraries and for the purchase of church organs were continued. The other Carnegie organizations in the United States also received grants for their programs, as did universities, colleges, schools. In his letter of gift to his trustees, Carnegie wrote, Conditions upon erth inevitably change, hence, no wise man will bind Trustees forever to certain paths. I disclaim any intention of doing so, on the contrary, I giv my Trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgement, thus, over the years, the corporations priorities for grant making have changed, while always remaining educational. After Carnegies death, the corporation began to devote its funding increasingly to scientific research, convinced of the nations need to increase scientific expertise and scientific management, the corporation sought to build facilities for research of the natural and social sciences. At this time, the corporation developed a interest in adult education. During 1919 it initiated the Americanization Study to explore opportunities for adults. The foundations grantmaking during this period had a certain eclecticism and a remarkable perseverance with respect to its chosen causes, widely heralded, Myrdals book American Dilemma had no immediate public policy effect, although it was later much cited in legal challenges to segregation. Keppel believed foundations should make the facts available to the public and his cogent writings about philanthropy left a lasting impression on the foundation field and influenced the organization and leadership of many new foundations
Carnegie Corporation
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Carnegie Corporation of New York
49.
Michael Bloomberg
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Michael Rubens Mike Bloomberg is an American businessman, author, politician, and philanthropist. His net worth is estimated at US$47.5 billion, as of March 2017, ranking him as the 8th richest person in the United States, Bloomberg is the founder, CEO, and owner of Bloomberg L. P. He began his career at the securities brokerage Salomon Brothers, before forming his own company in 1981 and spending the twenty years as its chairman. Bloomberg also served as chairman of the board of trustees at his alma mater, Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg served as the 108th Mayor of New York City, holding office for three consecutive terms, beginning with his first election in 2001. A Democrat before seeking office, Bloomberg switched his party registration in 2001 to run for Mayor as a Republican. He defeated opponent Mark Green in an election held just weeks after the September 11 terrorist attacks. He won a term in 2005, and left the Republican Party two years later. Bloomberg campaigned to change the term limits law, and was elected to his third term in 2009 as an Independent candidate on the Republican ballot line. Bloomberg was frequently mentioned as a candidate for the U. S. Presidential elections in 2008, and 2012, as well as for Governor of New York in 2010 and he declined to seek either office, opting to continue serving as the Mayor of New York City. On January 1,2014, Bill de Blasio succeeded Bloomberg as the Mayor of New York City, after a brief stint as a full-time philanthropist, Bloomberg re-assumed the position of CEO at Bloomberg L. P. by the end of 2014. Michael Bloomberg was born at St. Elizabeths Hospital, in the Brighton neighborhood of Boston, on February 14,1942, Bloombergs father, William Henry Bloomberg, was a bookkeeper for a dairy company and the son of Alexander Elick Bloomberg, an immigrant from Russia. His mother, Charlotte Bloomberg, was a native of Jersey City and his maternal grandfather, Max Rubens, was an immigrant from present-day Belarus, then also part of Russia. Bloomberg attended Johns Hopkins University, where he joined the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi, in 1962, as a sophomore, he constructed the schools mascot, the blue jay. He graduated in 1964 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering, in 1966 he graduated from Harvard Business School as a Master of Business Administration. In 1973, Bloomberg became a partner at Salomon Brothers, a bulge-bracket Wall Street investment bank. In 1981, Salomon Brothers was bought by Phibro Corporation, and he was given no severance package, but owned $10 million worth of equity as a partner at the firm. Using this money, Bloomberg went on to set up a company named Innovative Market Systems, in 1982, Merrill Lynch became the new companys first customer, installing 22 of the companys Market Master terminals and investing $30 million in the company
Michael Bloomberg
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Michael Bloomberg
Michael Bloomberg
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Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV), Ray Mabus with Bloomberg
Michael Bloomberg
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Bloomberg delivering a speech
50.
Sarah Jessica Parker
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Sarah Jessica Parker is an American actress, producer, and designer. She is known for her role as Carrie Bradshaw on the HBO television series Sex. She won two Emmy Awards for the show, one for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2001 and another for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 2004. For this role, she won four Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress in a Comedy Series. She reprised the role in the films, Sex and the City and Sex, Parker made her Broadway debut at the age of 11 in the 1976 revival of The Innocents, before going on to star in the title role of the Broadway musical, Annie, in 1979. She appeared in the 1984 films Footloose and Firstborn, and returned to Broadway in the 1989 play, The Heidi Chronicles. Other film roles include, L. A. Story, Honeymoon in Vegas, Hocus Pocus, Ed Wood, The First Wives Club, The Family Stone, and Failure to Launch. In 2012, Parker returned to television for the first time since Sex and she is currently starring in the HBO series, Divorce. Sarah Jessica Parker was born in Nelsonville, Ohio, the daughter of Barbara Parker, a school operator and teacher, and Stephen Parker. She was one of a total of eight children from her parents marriage, after her parents divorce, her mother married Paul Forste, a truck driver and account executive who was a part of Parkers life from an early age. Parkers father, a native of Brooklyn, is Jewish, his familys surname was Bar-Kahn. Parkers mother is of German, and some English, descent, through her mother, Parker is descended from Esther Elwell, Parker has identified culturally with her fathers religion, Judaism, although she has had no religious training. She has said that even while her family lived in Cincinnati, as a young girl, Parker trained in singing and ballet, and was soon cast in the Broadway revival of William Archibalds The Innocents. Her family moved to Cincinnati and then to Dobbs Ferry, New York, near New York City, There, her mother and stepfather helped Parker develop her career as a child actress. In 1977, the moved to the newly opened planned community on Roosevelt Island. The family later moved to Englewood, New Jersey, where Parker attended Dwight Morrow High School, Parker and four siblings appeared in a production of The Sound of Music at the outdoor Municipal Theatre in St. Louis, Missouri. Parker held the role for a year, in 1982, Parker was cast as the co-lead of the CBS sitcom Square Pegs. The show lasted just one season, but Parkers performance, as a shy teen who showed hidden depths, was well received
Sarah Jessica Parker
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Parker at the 2012
Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway
Sarah Jessica Parker
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Parker during a
USO show aboard
USS Iwo Jima, 1979
Sarah Jessica Parker
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Parker at the rehearsal for the 1999 Emmy Awards
Sarah Jessica Parker
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Matthew Broderick and Parker in 2009
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