1.
Bouillon (broth)
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Bouillon, in French cuisine, is a broth or soup prepared from broth. This name comes from the verb bouillir, meaning to boil and it is usually made by the simmering of mirepoix and aromatic herbs with either beef, veal, or poultry bones and/or with shrimp, or vegetables in boiling water. Traditionally, the word bouillon was used to describe a soup based on beef broth, clear beef bouillon is called consommé. This is not to be confused with bouillon soup, a Haitian soup, or stock, which is made in a similar manner, Bouillon cube Court-bouillon List of hot beverages Bouillon tips
2.
Umami
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Umami, or savory taste, is one of the five basic tastes. It has been described as brothy or meaty, people taste umami through taste receptors specific to glutamate. Glutamate is widely present in foods, such as meat broths and fermented products. Since umami has its own rather than arising out of a combination of the traditionally recognized taste receptors. A loanword from the Japanese, umami can be translated as pleasant savory taste and this neologism was coined in 1908 by Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda from a nominalization of umai delicious. The compound 旨味 is used for a general sense of a food as delicious. Scientists have debated whether umami was a basic taste since Kikunae Ikeda first proposed its existence in 1908, in 1985, the term umami was recognized as the scientific term to describe the taste of glutamates and nucleotides at the first Umami International Symposium in Hawaii. Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate and 5’-ribonucleotides such as guanosine monophosphate and it can be described as a pleasant brothy or meaty taste with a long lasting, mouthwatering and coating sensation over the tongue. The sensation of umami is due to the detection of the anion of glutamate in specialized receptor cells present on the human. Some 52 peptides may be responsible for detecting umami taste and its effect is to balance taste and round out the overall flavor of a dish. Umami enhances the palatability of a variety of foods. Glutamate in acid form imparts little taste, whereas the salts of glutamic acid, known as glutamates. GMP and IMP amplify the taste intensity of glutamate, adding salt to the free acids also enhances the umami taste. Monosodium L-aspartate has an umami taste about four times less intense than MSG whereas ibotenic acid, glutamate has a long history in cooking. In the late-1800s, chef Auguste Escoffier, who opened restaurants in Paris and London, created meals that combined umami with salty, sour, sweet and he did not know the chemical source of this unique quality, however. Umami was first scientifically identified in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda, a professor of the Tokyo Imperial University and he found that glutamate was responsible for the palatability of the broth from kombu seaweed. He noticed that the taste of kombu dashi was distinct from sweet, sour, bitter, professor Shintaro Kodama, a disciple of Ikeda, discovered in 1913 that dried bonito flakes contained another umami substance. In 1957, Akira Kuninaka realized that the ribonucleotide GMP present in shiitake mushrooms also conferred the umami taste, one of Kuninakas most important discoveries was the synergistic effect between ribonucleotides and glutamate
3.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
4.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
5.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
6.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
7.
Vegetable
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
8.
Simmering
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Simmering is a food preparation technique in which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept just below the boiling point of water, but higher than poaching temperature. To keep a pot simmering, one brings it to a boil and then reduces the heat to a point where the formation of bubbles has almost ceased, simmering ensures gentler treatment than boiling to prevent food from toughening and/or breaking up. Simmering is usually a rapid and efficient method of cooking, food that has simmered in milk or cream instead of water is sometimes referred to as creamed. The appropriate simmering temperature is a topic of debate among chefs, in Japanese cuisine, simmering is considered one of the four essential cooking techniques. Food prepared in a crockpot is simmered, examples include stews, chili, soups, etc. Bulgarian traditional food, especially meat dishes are often simmered for extended periods of time. Examples include stews, soups, Vanyas, etc, in traditional Dutch and Flemish cuisine, less tender cuts of beef are simmered for several hours to obtain Carbonade flamande. Traditionally a small flame is used, fed by burning oil, on modern stoves, the source of heat is put very low, or a simmering plate is used to diminish the heat. Usually a cast iron pan is used with a thick bottom, the meat is ready if it can be easily torn apart into threads. Some modern gas ranges are equipped with a burner, with such burners usually located at the rear of the range. Many electric ranges have a simmer setting
9.
Dish (food)
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A dish in gastronomy is a specific food preparation, a distinct article or variety of food, with cooking finished, and ready to eat, or be served. A dish may be served on tableware, or may be out of hand. Instructions for preparing a dish are called recipes, some dishes, for example vanilla ice cream with fudge sauce, rarely have their own recipes, as they are made by simply combining two ready to eat preparations of foods. Many dishes have specific names, while others are simply described, many are named for particular places, sometimes because of a specific association with that place like Boston baked beans or bistecca alla fiorentina. Sometimes not, poached eggs Florentine ends up meaning essentially with spinach, because of the many stories that have been told about the names of different dishes, it is often hard to know exactly where the names came from. Entrée Food presentation Garnish Famous Food Dishes and How they Got Their Names
10.
Soup
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Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot, that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups, clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé, other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains, many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes. Soups are similar to stews, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two, however, soups generally have more liquid than stews. Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC, boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers. Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this, to boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was used to cook acorns and other plants. The word soup comes from French soupe, which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa from a Germanic source, from which comes the word sop. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups and this prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments. A1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife, contained a chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking, but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, in particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an establishment in Boston called The Restorator. The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing, Soups, portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, doctor John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company, invented condensed soup in 1897. Today, Campbells Tomato, Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America, americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Canned soup can be condensed, in case it is prepared by adding water, or it can be ready-to-eat. Canned soup can be prepared by heating in a pan, on the stovetop or in the microwave, such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can, the soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a can full of water or milk
11.
Gravy
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Gravy is a sauce often made from the juices of meats that run naturally during cooking and thickened with wheat flour or cornstarch for added texture. In the United States, the term can refer to a variety of sauces. The gravy may be colored and flavored with gravy salt or gravy browning or ready-made cubes. Gravy is commonly served with roasts, meatloaf, rice, chocolate gravy is a variety of gravy made with fat, flour, cocoa powder and sometimes a small amount of sugar. Egg gravy is a sauce that is served over biscuits. Meat drippings and flour are used to make a thick roux, the roux is salted and peppered to taste. Water and milk are added, and the liquid is brought back up to a boil, a well-beaten egg is then slowly added while the gravy is stirred or whisked swiftly, cooking the egg immediately and separating it into small fragments in the gravy. Giblet gravy has the giblets of turkey or chicken added when it is to be served with those types of poultry, mushroom gravy is a variety of gravy made with mushrooms. Onion gravy is made large quantities of slowly sweated, chopped onions mixed with stock or wine. Commonly served with bangers and mash, eggs, chops, or other grilled or fried meat which by way of the method would not produce their own gravy. Red-eye gravy is a made from the drippings of ham fried in a skillet/frying pan. The pan is deglazed with coffee, and uses no thickening agent and this gravy is a staple of Southern United States cuisine and is usually served over ham, grits or biscuits. Vegetable gravy or vegetarian gravy is made with boiled or roasted vegetables. A quick and flavorful vegetable gravy can be made from any combination of vegetable broth or vegetable stock, flour, one recipe uses vegetarian bouillon cubes with cornstarch as a thickener, which is whisked into boiling water. Sometimes vegetable juices are added to enrich the flavor, which may give the gravy a dark green color, brown vegetarian gravy can also be made with savory yeast extract like Marmite or Vegemite. There are also commercially produced instant gravy granules which are suitable for vegetarians and vegans. Cream gravy is the gravy typically used in biscuits and gravy and it is essentially a Béchamel sauce, with the roux being made of meat drippings and flour. Milk is added and thickened by the roux, once prepared, black pepper, besides cream and sawmill gravy, common names include country gravy, white gravy, milk gravy, and sausage gravy
12.
Sauce
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In cooking, a sauce is liquid, cream, or semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not normally consumed by themselves, they add flavor, moisture, Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsa, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest recorded European sauce is garum, the sauce used by the Ancient Greeks, while doubanjiang. Sauces need a liquid component, but some sauces may contain more components than liquid. Sauces are an element in cuisines all over the world. Sauces may be used for sweet or savory dishes and they may be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, cooked and served warm like bechamel or cooked and served cold like apple sauce. Sauces may be prepared by the cook, especially in restaurants. Sauces for salad are called salad dressing, Sauce made by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces. A cook who specializes in making sauces is called a saucier, sauces used in traditional Japanese cuisine are usually based on shōyu, miso or dashi. Ponzu, citrus-flavored soy sauce, and yakitori no tare, sweetened soy sauce, are examples of shoyu-based sauces. Miso-based sauces include gomamiso, miso with ground sesame, and amamiso, in modern Japanese cuisine, the word sauce often refers to Worcestershire sauce, introduced in the 19th century and modified to suit Japanese tastes. Tonkatsu, okonomiyaki, and yakisoba sauces are based on this sauce, Japanese horseradish or wasabi sauce is used on sushi and sashimi or mixed with soy sauce to make wasabi-joyu. Some sauces in Chinese cuisine are soy sauce, doubanjiang, hoisin sauce, sweet sauce, chili sauces, oyster sauce. Korean cuisine uses sauces such as doenjang, gochujang, samjang, aekjeot, southeast Asian cuisines, such as Thai and Vietnamese cuisine, often use fish sauce, made from fermented fish. Indian cuisines use sauces such as tomato-based curry sauces, tamarind sauce, coconut milk-/paste-based sauces, there are substantial regional variations in Indian cuisine, but many sauces use a seasoned mix of onion, ginger and garlic paste as the base of various gravies and sauces. Various cooking oils, ghee and/or cream are also ingredients in Indian sauces. Filipino cuisine typically uses toyomansi as well as different varieties of suka, patis, bagoong and banana ketchup, indonesian cuisine uses typical sauces such as kecap manis, bumbu kacang and tauco, while popular hot and spicy sauces are sambal, dabu-dabu and rica-rica. In traditional British cuisine, gravy is a used on roast dinner
13.
Bouillon cube
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A bouillon cube /ˈbuːjɒn/ or stock cube or broth cube is dehydrated bouillon or stock formed into a small cube about 15 mm wide. It is typically made from dehydrated vegetables, meat stock, a portion of fat, msg, salt and seasonings. Vegetarian and vegan types are also made, bouillon is also available in both granular or powdered form. Dehydrated meat stock, in the form of tablets, was known in the 17th century to Anne Blencowe who died in 1712 and elsewhere as early as 1735. Various French cooks in the early 19th century—Lefesse, Massué, and Martine—tried to patent bouillon cubes and tablets, nicolas Appert also proposed such dehydrated bouillon in 1831. In the mid-19th century, Justus von Liebig developed meat extract, industrially produced bouillon cubes were commercialized by Maggi in 1908, by Oxo in 1910 and by Knorr in 1912. By 1913, there were at least 10 brands available, with contents of 59–72%. The general ingredients for a cube are, salt, hydrogenated fat, monosodium glutamate. Contrary to popular belief, stock cubes are not made by “drying out stock”, the ingredients are usually mixed in a container, left to mature and then shaped into the cube form. Alternatively, they can be mixed directly into an extruder, list of dried foods Portable soup
14.
Maggi
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Maggi is an international brand of seasonings, instant soups, and noodles that originated in Switzerland. The brand was acquired by Nestlé in 1947, the company originated in Switzerland in 1885, when Julius Maggi took over his fathers mill. He quickly became a pioneer of food production, aiming to improve the nutritional intake of worker families. Maggi was the first to bring protein-rich legume meals to the market, in 1897, Julius Maggi founded the company Maggi GmbH in Singen, Germany. The bouillon cube or Maggi cube is a substitute product that was introduced in 1908. In West Africa and parts of the Middle East, Maggi cubes are a part of the local cuisine. In Haiti and throughout Latin America, Maggi products, especially bouillon cubes, are sold with some repackaging to reflect local terminology. In the German, Dutch, and Danish languages, lovage has come to be known as Maggi herb, because it similar to Maggi sauce. In Spain and Mexico, it is sold under the name Jugo Maggi, Maggi instant noodles are popular in India and Malaysia. Following the ban, the share was reduced to 53% in India. In Malaysia, fried noodles made from Maggi noodles are called Maggi goreng, in June 2015, tests in India found high amounts of lead in Maggi noodles. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India ordered a recall for all 9 variants of Maggi Instant Noodles. In India, Maggi noodles carry a green dot, meaning they are formulated to serve vegetarians. This special formulation is not available in countries, unless imported from India. Maggi Cuppa Mania is an instant noodle product by Nestle launched in mid 2008 in two variants, ‘Masala Yo. ’ and ‘Chilli Chow Yo. ’, the soup mixes are packaged with a disposable fork and a seasoning packer. Moods Hospitality, which owns the Yo, like other dehydrated soup mixes, Maggi Onion Soup mix is often combined with reduced cream to create a French onion dip. This finding led to multiple market withdrawals and investigations in India, June 3,2015 – The New Delhi Government banned the sale of Maggi in New Delhi stores for 15 days due to these findings. He complained that he fell sick after eating Maggi which he had purchased from a shop at Lenin Chowk on 30 May, on June 4,2015 the government of Tamil Nadu banned Maggi foods due to an unacceptable amount of lead and other components
15.
Oxo (food)
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Oxo is a brand of food products, including stock cubes, herbs and spices, dried gravy, and yeast extract. The original product was the stock cube, but Oxo now also markets chicken and other flavour cubes, e. g. Chinese Recipe. The cubes are broken up and used as flavouring in meals or gravy or dissolved into boiling water, in the United Kingdom, the Oxo brand belongs to Premier Foods. In South Africa, the Oxo brand is owned and manufactured by Mars, Incorporated and in Canada is owned and manufactured by Knorr. Oxo ham stock cubes contain, Salt, Potato Starch, Dried Glucose Syrup, Flavourings, Wheat Flour, Ham Bouillon Powder, Pork Fat, Sugar, Ham Powder, Onion Powder, Dried Parsley, Smoke Flavouring. The Oxo Chicken stock cube contains 2% chicken extract with the bulk of the coming from MSG. Concentrated meat extract was invented by Justus von Liebig around 1840, the original product was a viscous liquid containing only meat extract and 4% salt. In 1899, the introduced the trademark Oxo for a cheaper version, the origin of the name is unknown. Since the cost of liquid Oxo remained beyond the reach of many families, after much research, the first Oxo cubes were produced in 1910 and further increased Oxos popularity. During World War I100 million OXO cubes were provided to the armed services, lemco was acquired by the Vestey Group in 1924 and the factory was renamed El Anglo. Vestey merged with Brooke Bond in 1968, which was in turn acquired by Unilever in 1984, the Oxo brand was sold by Unilever to the Campbell Soup Company in 2001. Campbells UK operation was sold to Premier Foods in 2006 and this included sites at both Worksop and Kings Lynn. The Worksop plant produces Oxo cubes, in South Africa, Oxo is now a brand of Mars, Incorporated. The only product marketed under the Oxo brand in South Africa was a yeast extract based spread, the product also contained a lesser portion of beef extract, giving it a slightly beefier taste than other yeast extracts. At the beginning of 2015, Mars Consumer Products Africa Ltd discontinued OXO spread in South Africa, in 1908, OXO was one of the sponsors of the London Olympic Games and supplied marathon runners with Oxo drinks to fortify them. In 1966, Oxo had a show on the offshore radio station Wonderful Radio London. The show was presented by Tony Windsor and his assistant was a woman called Katie, in this show they had a daily recipe. One of Oxos advertising campaigns was launched in the UK in 1983, the father was played by Michael Redfern, the mother was played by Lynda Bellingham, while the children were played by Blair MacKichan, Colin McCoy and Alison Reynolds
16.
Pulse (legume)
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A legume is a plant or its fruit or seed in the family Fabaceae. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their grain seed called pulse, for forage and silage. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupin bean, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. A legume fruit is a dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel. A common name for type of fruit is a pod, although the term pod is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules, for that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation. The term pulse, as used by the United Nations Food and this excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are grown for oil extraction. However, in usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are not called legumes by farmers. Farmed legumes can belong to many classes, including forage, grain, blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure. Most commercially farmed species fill two or more roles simultaneously, depending upon their degree of maturity when harvested, grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses, grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium, Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a diet to affect metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses in a diet may lower blood pressure and reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Some, like alfalfa, clover, vetch, stylo, or Arachis, are sown in pasture, other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide, industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively
17.
Stock (food)
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Stock is a flavored liquid preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups and sauces, making stocks involves simmering animal bones or meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, adding mirepoix or other aromatics for more flavor. Traditionally, stock is made by simmering various ingredients in water, a newer approach is to use a pressure cooker. The ingredients may include some or all of the following, Meat Leftover cooked meat, quantities recommended are in the ratio of 1 part fresh meat to 2 parts water. Bones Veal, beef, and chicken bones are most commonly used, the flavour of the stock comes from the cartilage and connective tissue in the bones. Connective tissue has collagen in it, which converted into gelatin that thickens the liquid. Stock made from bones needs to be simmered for longer than stock made from meat, pressure cooking methods shorten the time necessary to extract the flavour from the bones. Mirepoix Mirepoix is a combination of onions, carrots, celery, often, the less desirable parts of the vegetables that may not otherwise be eaten are used. The use of parts is highly dependent upon the chef. Herbs and spices The herbs and spices used depend on availability, in classical cuisine, the use of a bouquet garni consisting of parsley, bay leaves, a sprig of thyme, and possibly other herbs, is common. This is often placed in a sachet to make it easier to remove once the stock is cooked, today, ready-made stock and stock cubes consisting of dried, compressed stock ingredients are readily available. These are commonly known as bouillon cubes, as cooking base in the US, or as Oxo cubes in Britain, the difference between broth and stock is one of both cultural and colloquial terminology but certain definitions prevail. Stock is the liquid produced by simmering raw ingredients, solids are removed and this yields classic stock as made from beef, veal, chicken, fish and vegetables. Broth differs in that it is a soup where the solid pieces of flavoring meat or fish, along with some vegetables. It is often made more substantial by adding starches such as rice, traditionally, broth contained some form of meat or fish, however, nowadays it is acceptable to refer to a strictly vegetable soup as a broth. Chicken stock is cooked for several hours. Fish stock is made with fish bones and finely chopped mirepoix, fish stock should be cooked for 20–25 minutes—cooking any longer spoils the flavour. Concentrated fish stock is called fish fumet, in Japanese cooking, a fish and kelp stock called dashi is made by briefly cooking skipjack tuna flakes called katsuobushi in nearly boiling water
18.
James Beard
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James Andrew Beard was an American cookbook author, teacher, syndicated columnist and television personality. Beard was a champion of American cuisine who taught and mentored generations of professional chefs and his legacy lives on in twenty books, other writings and his foundations annual James Beard awards in a number of culinary genres. James Andrew Beard was born in Portland, Oregon, in 1903 to Elizabeth and his mother operated the Gladstone Hotel, and his father worked at the citys customs house. The family vacationed on the Pacific coast in Gearhart, Oregon, Beards earliest memory of food was at the 1905 Lewis and Clark Exposition, when he was two years old. In his memoir he recalled, I was taken to the two or three times. The thing that remained in my mind above all others—I think it marked my life—was watching Triscuits, at two years old that memory was made. It intrigued the hell out of me, according to Beard he was raised by Thema and Let, who instilled in him a passion for Chinese culture. Beard lived in France during the 1920s, where he experienced French cuisine at its bistros, after this exposure and the widespread influence of French food culture, he became a Francophile. Beard briefly attended Reed College in Portland, Oregon, although he was expelled for homosexuality in 1922, the college granted Beard an honorary degree in 1976. In 1923 he joined a troupe and studied voice and theater abroad until 1927. After training as a singer and actor, Beard moved to New York City in 1937, unlucky in the theater, he and friend Bill Rhodes capitalized on the cocktail party craze by opening Hors dOeuvre, Inc. a catering company. This led to lecturing, teaching, writing and the publication of Beards first cookbook in 1940, Hors DOeuvre and Canapés, according to Julia Child, this book put him on the culinary map. World War II rationing ended Beards catering business, in 1946 he appeared on an early NBC television cooking show, I Love to Eat, beginning his ascent as an American food authority. According to Child, Through the years he became not only the leading culinary figure in the country. In 1952, when Helen Evans Brown published her Helen Browns West Coast Cook Book, the two, along with her husband Phillip, developed a friendship which was both professional and personal. Beard and Brown became like siblings, admonishing and encouraging each other, according to the James Beard Foundation website, In 1955, he established The James Beard Cooking School. He continued to teach cooking to men and women for the thirty years, both at his own schools, and around the country at womens clubs, other cooking schools. He was a traveler, bringing his message of good food, honestly prepared with fresh, wholesome, American ingredients
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Gelatin
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Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
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Egg white
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Albumen is the name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. In chickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the section of the hens oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around fertilized or unfertilized egg yolks, the primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo. Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved about 10% proteins, unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids, egg white contains almost no fat, and carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg whites contain just over 50% of the protein in the egg, Egg white has many uses in food and also many other uses. Egg white makes up around two-thirds of an egg by weight. Water constitutes about 90% of this, with protein, trace minerals, fatty material, vitamins, and glucose contributing the remainder. A raw U. S. large egg contains around 33 grams of egg white with 3.6 grams of protein,0.24 grams of carbohydrate and 55 milligrams of sodium and it contains no cholesterol and the energy content is about 17 Calories. Egg white is a solution and contains around 148 proteins. The table below lists the major proteins in egg whites by percentage, ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in albumen. Classed as phosphoglycoprotein, during storage, it converts into s-ovalbumin, Denaturation temperature is around 84°C, but it can be easily denatured by physical stresses. Conalbumin/ovotransferrin is a glycoprotein which has the capacity to bind the bi-, at its isoelectric pH, it can bind two cations and assume a red or yellow color. These metal complexes are more stable than the native state. Ovomucoid is the major allergen from egg white and is a heat-resistant glycoprotein found to be a trypsin inhibitor, ovomucin is a glycoprotein which may contribute to the gel-like structure of thick albumen. The amount of ovomucin in the thick albumen is four times greater than in the thin albumen, the physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of stress are caused by beating them with a whisk. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, when beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted, soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse, Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk
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Coagulation
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Coagulation is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, the mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion, and aggregation of platelets along with deposition and maturation of fibrin. Disorders of coagulation are disease states which can result in bleeding or obstructive clotting, Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology, in all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular and a protein component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood, Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury, this is called primary hemostasis and this localization of platelets to the extracellular matrix promotes collagen interaction with platelet glycoprotein VI. Binding of collagen to glycoprotein VI triggers a cascade that results in activation of platelet integrins. Activated integrins mediate tight binding of platelets to the extracellular matrix and this process adheres platelets to the site of injury. Activated platelets will release the contents of stored granules into the blood plasma, the granules include ADP, serotonin, platelet-activating factor, vWF, platelet factor 4, and thromboxane A2, which, in turn, activate additional platelets. The granules contents activate a Gq-linked protein receptor cascade, resulting in increased concentration in the platelets cytosol. The calcium activates protein kinase C, which, in turn, pLA2 then modifies the integrin membrane glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, increasing its affinity to bind fibrinogen. The activated platelets change shape from spherical to stellate, and the fibrinogen cross-links with glycoprotein IIb/IIIa aid in aggregation of adjacent platelets, the coagulation cascade of secondary hemostasis has two initial pathways which lead to fibrin formation. These are the activation pathway, and the tissue factor pathway which both lead to the same fundamental reactions that produce fibrin. Coagulation factors are generally indicated by Roman numerals, with a lowercase a appended to indicate an active form, the coagulation factors are generally serine proteases, which act by cleaving downstream proteins. For example, FVIII and FV are glycoproteins, and Factor XIII is a transglutaminase, the coagulation factors circulate as inactive zymogens. The coagulation cascade is therefore divided into three pathways. The tissue factor and contact activation pathways both activate the final common pathway of factor X, thrombin and fibrin, fVIIa circulates in a higher amount than any other activated coagulation factor. FVII is itself activated by thrombin, FXIa, FXII and FXa, the activation of FX by TF-FVIIa is almost immediately inhibited by tissue factor pathway inhibitor. FXa and its co-factor FVa form the complex, which activates prothrombin to thrombin
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Sediment
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For sediment in beverages, see dregs. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in water and on reaching the sea be deposited by sedimentation. Sediments are most often transported by water, but also wind, beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of transport and deposition. Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments, sediment can be classified based on its grain size and/or its composition. Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the Phi scale, composition of sediment can be measured in terms of, parent rock lithology mineral composition chemical make-up. This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition, sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow and these relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment fall velocity to upwards velocity. If the upwards velocity is less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move, it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding. If the upwards velocity is higher than the velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load. As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in rocks and can be used to estimate the direction. Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope, the erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions. If the initial impact of rain droplets dislodges soil, the phenomenon is called rainsplash erosion, if overland flow is directly responsible for sediment entrainment but does not form gullies, it is called sheet erosion. If the flow and the substrate permit channelization, gullies may form, glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines. The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation and this expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This can be localized, and simply due to obstacles, examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates
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Turbidity
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Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality, fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid, Turbidity is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic production haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2. 5° from the light direction. Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton, human activities that disturb land, such as construction, mining and agriculture, can lead to high sediment levels entering water bodies during rain storms due to storm water runoff. Certain industries such as quarrying, mining and coal recovery can generate high levels of turbidity from colloidal rock particles. In drinking water, the higher the turbidity level, the higher the risk that people may develop gastrointestinal diseases and this is especially problematic for immunocompromised people, because contaminants like viruses or bacteria can become attached to the suspended solids. The suspended solids interfere with water disinfection with chlorine because the act as shields for the virus. Similarly, suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolet sterilization of water, high turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon has been observed throughout the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States. For many mangrove areas, high turbidity is needed to support certain species, for most mangroves along the eastern coast of Australia, in particular Moreton Bay, turbidity levels as high as 600 Nephelometric Turbidity Units are needed for proper ecosystem health. The most widely used measurement unit for turbidity is the Formazin Turbidity Unit, ISO refers to its units as FNU. ISO7027 provides the method in water quality for the determination of turbidity and it is used to determine the concentration of suspended particles in a sample of water by measuring the incident light scattered at right angles from the sample. The scattered light is captured by a photodiode, which produces a signal that is converted to a turbidity. Open source hardware has been developed following the ISO7027 method to measure turbidity reliably using an Arduino microcontroller, there are several practical ways of checking water quality, the most direct being some measure of attenuation of light as it passes through a sample column of water. The alternatively used Jackson Candle method is essentially the inverse measure of the length of a column of water needed to completely obscure a candle flame viewed through it, the more water needed, the clearer the water. Of course water alone produces some attenuation, and any substances dissolved in the water that produce color can attenuate some wavelengths, modern instruments do not use candles, but this approach of attenuation of a light beam through a column of water should be calibrated and reported in JTUs. The propensity of particles to scatter a light focused on them is now considered a more meaningful measure of turbidity in water
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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East Asia
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East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural terms. Geographically and geopolitically, it includes China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, the East Asian people comprise more than 1.5 billion people. About 38% of the population of Asia and 22%, or over one fifth, the overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre, about three times the world average of 45/km2. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, major religions include Buddhism, Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion in China and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, Korean shamanism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongolians and other populations of northern East Asia. The Chinese calendar is the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived, Chinese Dynasties dominated the region in matters of culture, trade, and exploration as well as militarily for a very long time. There are records of tributes sent overseas from the kingdoms of Korea. There were also considerable levels of cultural and religious exchange between the Chinese and other regional Dynasties and Kingdoms, as connections began to strengthen with the Western world, Chinas power began to diminish. Around the same time, Japan solidified itself as a nation state, throughout World War II, Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam all fell under Japanese control. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia, there are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not. Vietnam Siberia in Russia Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, however, in this context, the term Far East is often more appropriate which covers ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term Asia Pacific Region is often used in describing East Asia and this usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both East Asia and Northeast Asia. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea, the military and economic superpower of China became the largest economy in the world in 2014, surpassing the United States of America. Currently in East Asia, trading systems are open, and zero or low duties on imports of consumer and capital goods etc. have considerably helped stimulate cost-efficiency. Free and flexible labor and other markets are important factors making for high levels of business-economic performance. East Asian populations have demonstrated highly positive work ethics, there are relatively large and fast-growing markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds. The culture of East Asia has been influenced by the civilisation of China, East Asia, as well as Vietnam, share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, and historically a common writing system
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
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Kelp
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Kelps are large seaweeds belonging to the brown algae in the order Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera, Kelp grows in underwater forests in shallow oceans, and is thought to have appeared in the Miocene,23 to 5 million years ago. The organisms require nutrient-rich water with temperatures between 6 and 14 °C and they are known for their high growth rate—the genera Macrocystis and Nereocystis can grow as fast as half a metre a day, ultimately reaching 30 to 80 metres. Through the 19th century, the word kelp was closely associated with seaweeds that could be burned to obtain soda ash, the seaweeds used included species from both the orders Laminariales and Fucales. The word kelp was also used directly to refer to these processed ashes, in most kelp, the thallus consists of flat or leaf-like structures known as blades. Blades originate from elongated stem-like structures, the stipes, the holdfast, a root-like structure, anchors the kelp to the substrate of the ocean. Gas-filled bladders form at the base of blades of American species, such as Nereocystis lueteana, growth occurs at the base of the meristem, where the blades and stipe meet. Growth may be limited by grazing, sea urchins, for example, can reduce entire areas to urchin barrens. The kelp life cycle involves a diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stage, the haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction then results in the beginning of the sporophyte stage. The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a layer, rather than cuticle. Kelp may develop dense forests with high production, biodiversity and ecological function, along the Norwegian coast these forests cover 5800 km2, and they support large numbers of animals. Numerous sessile animals are found on kelp stipes and mobile invertebrate fauna are found in high densities on epiphytic algae on the kelp stipes, more than 100,000 mobile invertebrates per square meter are found on kelp stipes and holdfasts in well-developed kelp forests. Giant kelp can be harvested fairly easily because of its surface canopy, bongo kelp ash is rich in iodine and alkali. In great amount, kelp ash can be used in soap, until the Leblanc process was commercialized in the early 19th century, burning of kelp in Scotland was one of the principal industrial sources of soda ash. Alginate, a carbohydrate, is used to thicken products such as ice cream, jelly, salad dressing. Alginate powder is used frequently in general dentistry and orthodontics for making impressions of the upper and lower arches. Kombu is used to flavor broths and stews, as a garnish for rice and other dishes, as a vegetable
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Kombu
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Saccharina japonica is a marine species of Phaeophyceae, a type of kelp or seaweed, that is extensively cultivated in China, Japan and Korea. A commercially important species, Saccharina japonica is known as kombu, large harvests are produced by rope cultivation, a simple method of growing seaweeds by attaching them to floating ropes in the ocean. The species is native to Japan, but has been cultivated in China, Japan, Russia, France and it is one of the two most consumed species of kelp in China and Japan. The harvest is used for the production of alginates, with China producing up to ten thousand tonnes of the product each year. Consuming excessive amounts of Saccharina japonica has been shown to suppress thyroid function, the species was transferred to Saccharina in 2006. Three synonyms for this name are Laminaria japonica J. E. Areschoug 1851, its variety Laminaria japonica var. ochotensis Okamura 1936. Kombu Edible seaweed Seafood allergy Vitamin B12
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Dashi
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Dashi is a class of soup and cooking stock used in Japanese cuisine. Dashi forms the base for soup, clear broth, noodle broth. It is also mixed into flour base of some grilled foods like okonomiyaki and takoyaki, the most common form of dashi is a simple broth or fish stock made by heating water containing kombu and kezurikatsuo to near-boiling, then straining the resultant liquid. The element of umami, considered one of the five tastes in Japan, is introduced into dashi from the use of katsuobushi. Katsuobushi is especially high in inosinate, which is identified as one source of umami. Homemade dashi, made from dried kombu and katsuobushi, is popular today. Granulated or liquid instant dashi replaced the homemade product in the half of the 20th century. Compared to the delicate nuanced taste of homemade dashi, instant dashi tends to have a stronger, less subtle flavor, due to the use of chemical flavor enhancers—glutamates and ribonucleotides. Other kinds of stock are made by soaking kelp, niboshi, or shiitake in water for many hours or by heating them in near-boiling water. Kombu dashi stock is made by soaking kelp in water, niboshi dashi stock is made by pinching off the heads and entrails of small dried sardines, to prevent bitterness, and soaking the rest in water. Shiitake dashi stock is made by soaking dried shiitake mushrooms in water, in 1908, the unusual and strong flavor of kelp dashi was identified by Kikunae Ikeda as umami, the fifth flavor, attributed to human taste receptors responding to glutamic acid
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Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
31.
Maldives
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The Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives, is a South Asian island country, located in the Indian Ocean, situated in the Arabian Sea. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka, the chain of twenty-six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south. Malé is the capital and most populated city, traditionally called the Kings Island for its central location. With an average elevation of 1.5 metres above sea level, it is the worlds lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world. Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019, the Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE. The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing commercial and cultural ties with Asia. From the mid 16th-century, the region came under the influence of European colonial powers. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a republic was established in 1968 with an elected Peoples Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability, efforts at democratic reform, the Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated high on the Human Development Index, with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations. The name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words maala and dweepu or the Tamil maalai and theevu, the Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word theevu means island, and Dhives means islanders, the ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning garland. Jan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa, in Tamil, Garland of Islands can be translated as Malai Theevu. In Malayalam, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maladweepu, in Kannada, Garland of Islands can be translated as Maaledweepa. This is the name inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian/Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat, the Dutch referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden, while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the Maldive Islands and later to Maldives. One such community are the Giraavaru people and they are mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé
32.
Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
33.
Garudiya
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Garudiya or Garudhiya is a clear fish broth. It is one of the basic and traditional items of Maldivian cuisine. The broth is based on tuna species found in the ocean waters such as skipjack, yellowfin tuna, little tunny. Despite the introduction of new items in the Maldivian cuisine, garudiya is still a Maldivian favourite as it has been for generations, in order to cook garudiya tuna fish are cut up following a traditional pattern. After having had the gills and some of the innards thrown away, the pieces, the heads. The fish is boiled in water with salt, until it is well cooked. The foam or scum is removed while boiling and is later discarded. Garudiya is usually eaten with steamed rice, but it can also be eaten with roshi, when eaten with boiled taro, or with boiled breadfruit, grated coconut is added. Sometimes Maldivians use chilies, curry leaves and onions to flavor the garudiya according to their taste, however, mostly this broth is cooked simply using fish, salt, kekki garudiya is a variant of garudiya with spices. Garudiya could be obtained using other fishes like wahoo, mahi-mahi or bluefin jack, among others. When the tuna-based garudiya is cooked all the water evaporates
34.
Canja de galinha
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Canja de galinha, or simply canja, is a popular chicken soup of Portuguese, Cape Verdean, and Brazilian cuisine. The Portuguese term galinha literally means hen, but became the name for the species. Portuguese chicken congee has the much more cooked than in most Western chicken soup recipes. The basic ingredients include chicken, and rice or massa pevide, common flavoring ingredients are olive oil, mint, salt and pepper. It is usually accompanied by slices of Portuguese broa bread on the side for dipping and this is only a variation of this recipe. Olive oil might be added to the soup of those who are already almost healed, corn-derived foodstuff, though, is regarded as too heavy to be eaten by sick people, much like legumes. Canja de galinha is usually consumed by Brazilians, Portuguese and Cape Verdeans when they have a cold, in Portugal, Cape Verde and Brazil, canja de galinha is widely believed to help a person overcome colds, digestive problems, and other mild forms of sickness. Interestingly enough, in Cape Verde, canja is sometimes served after the funeral, at the home of the deceased and it is also served in that country during special occasions, such as New Years Eve, birthdays, and other special family events. Since canja de galinha is very simple and light, it is consumed before a main course meal as well as a late supper. Caldo de pollo, canjas much heavier Hispanic American relative List of soups
35.
Ramen
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It consists of Chinese-style wheat noodles served in a meat- or fish-based broth, often flavored with soy sauce or miso, and uses toppings such as sliced pork, dried seaweed, menma, and green onions. Nearly every region in Japan has its own variation of ramen, the origin of ramen is unclear. Some sources say it is of Chinese origin, other sources say it was invented in Japan in the early 20th century. The name ramen is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese lamian, until the 1950s, ramen was called shina soba but today chūka soba or just Ramen are more common, as the word 支那 has acquired a pejorative connotation. By 1900, restaurants serving Chinese cuisine from Canton and Shanghai offered a simple dish of noodles, a few toppings. Many Chinese living in Japan also pulled portable food stalls, selling ramen, by the mid-1900s, these stalls used a type of a musical horn called a charumera to advertise their presence, a practice some vendors still retain via a loudspeaker and a looped recording. By the early Shōwa period, ramen had become a dish when eating out. According to ramen expert Hiroshi Osaki, the first specialized ramen shop opened in Yokohama in 1910, after World War II, cheap flour imported from the United States swept the Japanese market. At the same time, millions of Japanese troops had returned from China, many of these returnees had become familiar with Chinese cuisine and subsequently set up Chinese restaurants across Japan. Eating ramen, while popular, was still an occasion that required going out. In 1958, instant noodles were invented by Momofuku Ando, the Taiwanese-Japanese founder and chairman of Nissin Foods, named the greatest Japanese invention of the 20th century in a Japanese poll, instant ramen allowed anyone to make an approximation to this dish simply by adding boiling water. Beginning in the 1980s, ramen became a Japanese cultural icon and was studied around the world from many perspectives, at the same time, local varieties of ramen were hitting the national market and could even be ordered by their regional names. A ramen museum opened in Yokohama in 1994, a wide variety of ramen exists in Japan, with geographical and vendor-specific differences even in varieties that share the same name. Ramen can be categorized by its two main ingredients, noodles and broth. Making noodles with kansui lends them a yellowish hue as well as a firm texture, eggs may also be substituted for kansui. Ramen comes in various shapes and lengths and it may be thick, thin, or even ribbon-like, as well as straight or wrinkled. Ramen soup is made from stock based on chicken or pork, combined with a variety of ingredients such as kombu, katsuobushi, niboshi, beef bones, shiitake. The resulting combination is generally divided into five categories, shōyu ramen usually has curly noodles rather than straight ones, but this is not always the case
36.
Scotch broth
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Scotch broth is a filling soup, originating in Scotland but now obtainable worldwide. The principal ingredients are barley, stewing or braising cuts of lamb, mutton or beef, root vegetables. Cabbage and leeks are often added shortly before serving to preserve their texture, colour, the proportions and ingredients vary according to the recipe or availability. Scotch broth has been sold ready-prepared in cans for many years, cawl Irish stew Lancashire hotpot List of lamb dishes List of soups Scouse
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
Serious Eats
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Serious Eats is a website and blog focused on food enthusiasts, created by food critic and author Ed Levine. A book was published by Levine in 2011, the site consists of general food features as well as recipes and home cooking advice. In 2008, Serious Eats was ranked #17 on Time magazines list of the 50 Best Websites, Serious Eats was the recipient of two James Beard Foundation awards in 2010 for Best Food Blog, and Best Video Webcast. List of websites about food and drink
39.
Michael Ruhlman
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Michael Carl Ruhlman is an American author, home cook and entrepreneur. He has written 21 books of mostly non-fiction, the best known of which have been in collaboration with American chefs. Michael Carl Ruhlman was born in Cleveland, Ohio, and was educated at University School, a boys day school in Clevelands suburbs. Ruhlman worked a series of odd jobs and traveled before returning to his hometown in 1991, to work for a local magazine. While working at the magazine, Ruhlman wrote an article about his old school and its new headmaster. The success of this book produced two follow-ups, The Soul of a Chef and The Reach of a Chef, in 2009 Ruhlman also collaborated with fellow Clevelander and Iron Chef Michael Symon on Symons first cookbook Live to Cook. In 2007, he produced The Elements of Cooking based on the structure of the grammar book The Elements of Style. The book includes essays about the importance of fundamentals in cooking such as heat, salt and stock, much of the insight in the book is based on his previous food-related experiences at the Culinary Institute of America and from working with celebrity chefs. In 2011, he published Ruhlmans Twenty,20 Techniques,100 Recipes, a Cooks Manifesto, in tmid-2012, Ruhlman published Salumi, a follow-up to Charcuterie about Italian dry-cured Italian meats, which he wrote with Brian Polcyn. The Bouchon Bakery cookbook, another collaboration with Thomas Keller and the TKRG team, was released in the fall of 2012, schmaltz was released as an app in December 2012 and was published as a hardcover book in August 2013. In spring,2014, he published Egg, A Culinary Exploration of the World’s Most Versatile Ingredient. In late 2014, he published Ruhlmans How To Roast, Foolproof Techniques and Recipes for the Home Cook, the second, How To Braise, was published in the spring of 2015. In the fall of 2015, he published his first fiction, In Short Measures, Three Novellas, stories about love in middle age, Ruhlman has acted as a judge on the PBS reality show Cooking Under Fire and on The Next Iron Chef. He has also made appearances in shows hosted by Anthony Bourdain. In Bourdains A Cooks Tour he joined Bourdain and Eric Ripert for a meal at Thomas Kellers The French Laundry restaurant, in 2014 Ruhlman appeared in the Las Vegas episode of Anthony Bourdain Parts Unknown. Ruhlman co-founded a small company in 2011 that manufactures and finds unique and he teamed up with a childhood friend, Mac Dalton to form Dalton-Ruhlman LLC. The company designs and self-manufactures unique tools that have emerged from brainstorming in the kitchen, the focus is on high quality products that enhance the craft of cooking in the home. While the lure of retail distribution in box stores around America is ever present the company has chosen to build its customer base directly from its own online store Dalton-Ruhlman Store
40.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
41.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
42.
NPR
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NPR produces and distributes news and cultural programming. Individual public radio stations are not required to broadcast all NPR programs that are produced and its content is also available on-demand via the web, mobile, and podcasts. The organizations legal name is National Public Radio and its brand is NPR. Is NPR has been used by its hosts for many years. However, National Public Radio remains the name of the group. National Public Radio replaced the National Educational Radio Network on February 26,1970 and this act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, and established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which created the Public Broadcasting Service in addition to NPR. A CPB organizing committee under John Witherspoon first created a Board of Directors chaired by Bernard Mayes, the board then hired Donald Quayle to be the first president of NPR with 30 employees and 90 charter member stations, and studios in Washington, D. C. NPR aired its first broadcast in April 1971, covering United States Senate hearings on the Vietnam War, a month later, the afternoon drive-time newscast All Things Considered began, on May 3,1971, first hosted by Robert Conley. NPR was primarily a production and distribution organization until 1977, when it merged with the Association of Public Radio Stations, NPR suffered an almost fatal setback in 1983 when efforts to expand services created a deficit of nearly US$7 million. After a congressional investigation and the resignation of NPRs president, Frank Mankiewicz, NPR also agreed to turn its satellite service into a cooperative venture, making it possible for non-NPR shows to get national distribution. It took NPR approximately three years to pay off the debt, delano Lewis, the president of C&P Telephone, left that position to become NPRs CEO and president in January 1994. In November 1998, NPRs board of directors hired Kevin Klose, NPR spent nearly $13 million to acquire and equip a West Coast 25, 000-square-foot production facility, NPR West, which opened in Culver City, Los Angeles County, California, in November 2002. C. In November 2003, NPR received US$235 million from the estate of the late Joan B, Kroc, the widow of Ray Kroc, founder of McDonalds Corporation. This was the largest monetary gift ever to a cultural institution, in 2004 NPRs budget increased by over 50% to US$153 million due to the Kroc gift. US$34 million of the money was deposited in its endowment, the endowment fund before the gift totaled $35 million. NPR will use the interest from the bequest to expand its news staff, the 2005 budget was about US$120 million. In August 2005, NPR entered podcasting with a directory of over 170 programs created by NPR, by November of that year, users downloaded NPR and other public radio podcasts 5 million times
43.
Reader's Digest
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Readers Digest is an American general-interest family magazine, published ten times a year. Formerly based in Chappaqua, New York, it is now headquartered in New York City, the magazine was founded in 1922, by DeWitt Wallace and Lila Bell Wallace. For many years, Readers Digest was the consumer magazine in the United States, it lost the distinction in 2009 to Better Homes. According to Mediamark Research, Readers Digest reaches more readers with household incomes of $100, 000+ than Fortune, The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, global editions of Readers Digest reach an additional 40 million people in more than 70 countries, via 49 editions in 21 languages. It is believed that the printing system MEPS was used to achieve this multi language translation, the periodical has a global circulation of 10.5 million, making it the largest paid circulation magazine in the world. It is also published in Braille, digital, audio, the magazine is compact, with its pages roughly half the size of most American magazines. Hence, in the summer of 2005, the U. S. edition adopted the slogan, in January 2008, it was changed to, Life well shared. The magazine was started in 1922 by DeWitt Wallace while he was recovering from wounds received in World War I. Wallace had the idea to gather a sampling of favorite articles on subjects from various monthly magazines, sometimes condensing and rewriting them. Since its inception, Readers Digest has maintained a conservative and anti-Communist perspective on political and social issues, the Wallaces initially hoped the journal could provide $5,000 of net income. Mr. Wallace’s continuing correct assessment of what the potential mass-market audience wanted to read led to rapid growth, by 1929, the magazine had 290,000 subscribers and had a gross income of $900,000 a year. The first international edition was published in the United Kingdom in 1938 and was sold at 2 shillings and these were all listed in the Table of Contents on the front cover. Each article was prefaced by a small, simple line drawing, in recent years, however, the format has greatly evolved into flashy, colorful eye-catching graphics throughout, and many short bits of data interspersed with full articles. The Table of Contents is now contained inside, from 2003 to 2007, the back cover featured Our America, paintings of Rockwell-style whimsical situations by artist C. F. Payne. The first Word Power column of the magazine was published in the January 1945 edition, in December 1952 the magazine published Cancer by the Carton, a series of articles that linked smoking with lung cancer. This first brought the dangers of smoking to public attention which, from 2002 through 2006, Readers Digest conducted a vocabulary competition in schools throughout the United States called Readers Digest National Word Power Challenge. In 2006, the magazine published three more editions in Slovenia, Croatia and Romania. In October 2007, the Digest expanded in Serbia, the magazines licensee in Italy stopped publishing in December 2007
44.
Harvard Medical School
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Harvard Medical School is the graduate medical school of Harvard University. It is located in the Longwood Medical Area of the Mission Hill neighborhood of Boston, the school has a large and distinguished faculty to support its missions of education, research, and clinical care. These faculty hold appointments in the science departments on the HMS Quadrangle. There are approximately 2,900 full- and part-time voting faculty members consisting of assistant, associate, and full professors, and over 5,000 full or part-time, non-voting instructors. The school is the third-oldest medical school in the United States and was founded by John Warren on September 19,1782, with Benjamin Waterhouse, the first lectures were given in the basement of Harvard Hall and then in Holden Chapel. The first class, composed of two students, graduated in 1788 and it moved from Cambridge to 49 Marlborough Street in Boston in 1810. From 1816 to 1846, the school, known as Massachusetts Medical College of Harvard University, was located on Mason Street, in 1847 the school relocated to North Grove Street, and then to Copley Square in 1883. The school moved to its current location on Longwood Avenue in 1906, the architect for the campus was the Boston firm of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge. The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology offers an alternative MD program with a emphasis on biomedical research. The HST MD program is significantly smaller than the Pathways program, every winter, second year students at HMS write, direct, and perform a full-length musical parody of Harvard, their professors, and themselves. Upon matriculation, medical students at Harvard Medical School are divided into five named after famous alumni. Each society has an advisory dean along with several associate deans who serve as advisors to students. Students work in small group tutorials and lab sessions within their societies, every year, the five societies compete in Society Olympics for the famed Pink Flamingo trophy in a series of events that test the unorthodox talents of the students in each society. Francis Weld Peabody William Bosworth Castle Walter Bradford Cannon Oliver Wendell Holmes Irving M. London Harvard Medical School has a medical-consulting arm, other long-standing relationships include PHMIs work with Asan Medical Center in Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo Medical and Dental University in Japan. In 2007 PHMI began a 10‑year collaboration with Lebanese American University, in October 2009 LAU opened a new medical school with assistance from PHMI
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