1.
Soil contamination
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Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage. In North America and Western Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known, with many of countries in areas having a legal framework to identify. Developing countries tend to be tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization. Soil pollution can be caused by the following Oil drilling Mining and activities by other heavy industries Accidental spills as may happen during activities, in a wider sense, genetically modified plants can count as a risk factor for soils, because of their potential to affect the soil fauna. Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation may indirectly worsen the effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash, coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a characteristic hazardous waste, defined in the USA as containing more than 5 mg/l of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and these PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1 mg/kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or bubbly, treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a fertilizer. As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides. In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land, the volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due to the nitrogen and phosphate content. In 1990/1991, 13% wet weight was sprayed onto 0. 13% of the land, however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by 2005. Advocates say there is a need to control this so that microorganisms do not get into water courses. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest, a pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent, antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans
2.
Urban planning
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Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
3.
Real property
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The term is historic, arising from the now-discontinued form of action, which distinguished between real property disputes and personal property disputes. Personal property was, and continues to be, all property that is not real property, in countries with personal ownership of real property, civil law protects the status of real property in real-estate markets, where estate agents work in the market of buying and selling real estate. Scottish civil law calls real property heritable property, and in French-based law, the word real derives from Latin res, which was used in Middle English to mean relating to things, especially real property. In common law, real property was property that could be protected by some form of action, in contrast to personal property. As a result of this formalist approach, some things the common law deems to be land would not be classified as such by most modern legal systems, for example an advowson was real property. By contrast the rights of a leaseholder originate in personal actions, the law now broadly distinguishes between real property and personal property. The conceptual difference was between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, bethell contains much historical information on the historical evolution of real property and property rights. To be of any value a claim to any property must be accompanied by a verifiable, in many cases, a description refers to one or more lots on a plat, a map of property boundaries kept in public records. The law recognizes different sorts of interests, called estates, in real property, the type of estate is generally determined by the language of the deed, lease, bill of sale, will, land grant, etc. through which the estate was acquired. Estates are distinguished by the property rights that vest in each. A party enjoying an estate is called a tenant, some important types of estates in land include, Fee simple, An estate of indefinite duration, that can be freely transferred. The most common and perhaps most absolute type of estate, under which the tenant enjoys the greatest discretion over the disposal of the property, conditional Fee simple, An estate lasting forever as long as one or more conditions stipulated by the deeds grantor does not occur. If such a condition does occur, the property reverts to the grantor, or a remainder interest is passed on to a third party, Fee tail, An estate which, upon the death of the tenant, is transferred to his or her heirs. Life estate, An estate lasting for the life of the grantee. If a life estate can be sold, a sale does not change its duration, a life estate pur autre vie is held by one person for the natural life of another person. Such an estate may arise if the life tenant sells her life estate to another. For example, an apartment-dweller with a one-year lease has an estate in her apartment. Lessees typically agree to pay a rent to the lessor
4.
Industry
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Industry is the production of goods or related services within an economy. The major source of revenue of a group or company is the indicator of its relevant industry, when a large group has multiple sources of revenue generation, it is considered to be working in different industries. Manufacturing industry became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, upsetting previous mercantile and this came through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the production of steel and coal. Following the Industrial Revolution, possibly a third of the economic output are derived that is from manufacturing industries. Many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries depend significantly on manufacturing industry, Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence. Industries can be classified in a variety of ways, at the top level, industry is often classified according to the three-sector theory into sectors, primary, secondary, and tertiary. Some authors add quaternary or even quinary sectors, over time, the fraction of a societys industry within each sector changes. Below the economic sectors there are other more detailed industry classifications. These classification systems commonly divide industries according to functions and markets. Market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used in finance, the International Standard Industrial Classification of all economic activities is the most complete and systematic industrial classification made by the United Nations Statistics Division. ISIC is a classification of economic activities arranged so that entities can be classified according to the activity they carry out. The Industrial Revolution led to the development of factories for large-scale production, originally the factories were steam-powered, but later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly line was introduced to parts in a repeatable fashion. This led to significant increases in efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process, later automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the computer and the robot, historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced. A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations towards a post-industrial society and this is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to more favourable locations through a process of off-shoring
5.
Pollution
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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956
6.
Hazardous waste
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Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of waste are regulated under the Resource Conservation. Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR261 where they are divided into two categories, characteristic wastes and listed wastes. The requirements of RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste as well as companies that store or dispose hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as manufacturers, electroplating companies. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, a hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required. Worldwide, the United Nations Environmental Programme estimated that more than 400 million tons of wastes are produced universally each year. About 1 percent of this is shipped across international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development. One of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the waste to industrializing countries for disposal is the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country. Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges and they can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle C, by definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency, rCRAs record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, was enacted in 1980, the primary contribution of CERCLA was to create a Superfund and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes, a U. S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain a permit for doing so under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet requirements for handling, managing
7.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
8.
Cuyahoga County, Ohio
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Cuyahoga County is a county located in the U. S. state of Ohio. As of the 2016 census estimates, the population was 1,249,352 and its county seat is Cleveland. The county is named after the Iroquoian word Cuyahoga, which means crooked river. The name is assigned to the Cuyahoga River, which bisects the county. Cuyahoga County is included in the Cleveland-Elyria, OH Metropolitan Statistical Area, former U. S. President James A. Garfield was born in what was Cuyahoga Countys Orange Township. After the discovery of the New World, the land that became Cuyahoga County was originally part of the French colony of Canada, which was ceded in 1763 to Great Britain and renamed Province of Quebec. In the late 18th century the land part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in the Northwest Territory. Cuyahoga County was created on June 7,1807 and organized on May 1,1810 and it was later reduced by the creation of Huron, Lake, and Lorain Counties. It was named after the Cuyahoga River, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,246 square miles, of which 457 square miles is land and 788 square miles is water. It is the second-largest county in Ohio by total area, a portion of Cuyahoga Valley National Park is located in the southeastern portion of the county. Lake County Geauga County Summit County Medina County Lorain County Portage County As of the 2010 Census, there were 1,280,122 people,571,457 households, the population density was 2,800 people per square mile. There were 621,763 housing units at a density of 1,346 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 63. 6% White,29. 7% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 6% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 8% from other races, and 2. 1% from two or more races. 4. 8% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16. 5% were of German,12. 8% Irish,8. 8% Italian,8. 1% Polish,5. 9% English,3. 7% Slovak and 3. 1% Hungarian, ancestries. There are also numbers of Russians, French, Arabs, Ukrainians. 88. 4% spoke English,3. 7% Spanish, and 4. 9% some other Indo-European language,7. 3% of the population were foreign-born. 32. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.06. In the county, the population was out with 25. 00% under the age of 18,8. 00% from 18 to 24,29. 30% from 25 to 44,22. 20% from 45 to 64
9.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
10.
Greenfield land
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Greenfield land is undeveloped land in a city or rural area either used for agriculture, landscape design, or left to evolve naturally. These areas of land are usually agricultural or amenity properties being considered for urban development, greenfield land can be unfenced open fields, urban lots or restricted closed properties, kept off limits to the general public by a private or government entity. Rather than building upon greenfield land, a developer may choose to redevelop brownfield or greyfield lands, areas that have been developed, a greenfield development is a welcome opportunity for a cable operator to choose new equipment, without having to consider any migration issues related to legacy equipment. Equipment for the distribution hub can be chosen solely on its own merits, taking into consideration permitting, aesthetic objections
11.
Superfund
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Superfund is a United States federal government program designed to fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous substances and pollutants. It was established as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, CERCLA created the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. S. Approximately 70 percent of Superfund cleanup activities historically have been paid for by parties responsible for the cleanup of contamination, the exceptions occur when the responsible party either cannot be found or is unable to pay for the cleanup. Despite the name, the program has suffered from under-funding, as a result, the EPA typically negotiates consent orders with PRPs to study sites and develop cleanup alternatives, subject to EPA oversight and approval of all such activities. The EPA and state agencies use the Hazard Ranking System to calculate a score based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances from a site. A score of 28.5 places the site on the National Priorities List, as of 9 August 2016, there are 1,328 sites listed, an additional 391 have been delisted, and 55 new sites have been proposed. CERCLA was enacted by Congress in 1980 in response to the threat of hazardous waste sites, typified by the Love Canal disaster in New York, and the Valley of the Drums in Kentucky. The initial trust fund to clean up a site where a polluter could not be identified, the EPA published the first Hazard Ranking System in 1981, and the first National Priorities List in 1982. Reagans policies were described as laissez-faire, until the mid-1990s, most of the funding came from a tax on the petroleum and chemical industries, reflecting the polluter pays principle. In 1994, the Clinton administration proposed a new Superfund reform bill, which some environmentalists and industry lobbyists saw as an improvement, the newly elected Republican Congress made numerous unsuccessful efforts to significantly weaken the law. The Clinton Administration then adopted some industry favored reforms as policy, even though by 1995 nearly $4 billion in fees were in the superfund, Congress did not reauthorize to collect these and by 2003 the superfund was empty. By 2013 funding had decreased from $2 billion in 1999 to less than $1.1 billion, from 2000-2015, Congress allocated about $1.26 billion of general revenue to the Superfund program each year. Consequently, less than half the number of sites were cleaned up from 2001 to 2008, the decrease continued during the Obama Administration, and since under the direction of EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy Superfund cleanups decreased even more from 20 in 2009 to a mere 8 in 2014. CERCLA authorizes two kinds of actions, Removal actions. These are typically short-term response actions, where actions may be taken to address releases or threatened releases requiring prompt response, Removal actions are classified as, emergency, time-critical, and non-time critical. These are usually long-term response actions, Remedial actions seek to permanently and significantly reduce the risks associated with releases or threats of releases of hazardous substances, and are generally larger more expensive actions. They can include such as using containment to prevent pollutants from migrating. These actions can be conducted with federal funding only at sites listed on the EPA National Priorities List in the United States, a potentially responsible party is a possible polluter who may eventually be held liable under CERCLA for the contamination or misuse of a particular property or resource
12.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
13.
Factory
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Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and fewer than a dozen workers have been called glorified workshops, most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail, highway, factories may either make discrete products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and paper, or refined oil products. Oil refineries have most of their equipment outdoors, discrete products may be final consumer goods, or parts and sub-assemblies which are made into final products elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials, continuous production industries typically use heat or electricity to transform streams of raw materials into finished products. The term mill originally referred to the milling of grain, which usually used natural resources such as water or wind power until those were displaced by steam power in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling, and paper manufacturing were originally powered by water, according to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt. A source of 1983, states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens, although The Cambridge Online Dictionary definition of factory states, a building or set of buildings where large amounts of goods are made using machines elsewhere. The wheel was invented circa 3000 BC, the spoked wheel c.2000 BC, the Iron Age began approximately 1200-1000 BC. However, other sources define machinery as a means of production, according to one text the water-mill was first made in 555 A. D. by Belisarius, although according to another they were known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius in the first century B. C. By the time of the 4th century A. D. mills with a capacity to grind 3 tonnes of cereal an hour, the Venice Arsenal provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, the Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. One of the earliest factories was John Lombes water-powered silk mill at Derby, by 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, the factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized. Richard Arkwright is the credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, the factory system was a new way of organizing labour made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a workers cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities
14.
Dry cleaning
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Dry cleaning is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using a chemical solvent other than water. It is used to clean fabrics that degrade in water, and delicate fabrics that cannot withstand the rough and tumble of a washing machine and it can eliminate labor-intensive hand washing. Unlike what its name implies, dry cleaning is not actually a dry process, clothes are soaked in a solvent other than water. The solvent used is typically toxic tetrachloroethylene, which the industry calls perc, perc is the most widely used solvent across the world, although new solvents have become more popular in the United States and Europe. Modern dry cleanings use of non-water-based solvents to remove soil and stains from clothes was reported as early as 1855. e, flammability concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop Stoddard solvent as a slightly less flammable alternative to gasoline-based solvents. The use of highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions, after World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and had improved cleaning power, on March 3,1821, Thomas L. Jennings became the first African-American to be granted a United States patent. The patent was for his invention of a process called dry scouring. By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene, or PCE for short and it has excellent cleaning power and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most garments. PCE, however, was incidentally the first chemical to be classified as a carcinogen by the U. S, tetrachloroethylene is currently considered a potential carcinogen by the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. In 1993, the California Air Resources Board adopted regulations to reduce PCE emissions from dry cleaning operations, the same year, the U. S. EPA updated its regulation in 2006 to reflect the availability of improved emission controls. The replacement of PCE with other remains of interest as it will ultimately disappear from the market. Traditionally, the process was carried out at centralized factories. High street cleaners shops received garments from customers, sent them to the factory, and then had returned to the shop. This was due mainly to the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process, at this time, dry cleaning was carried out in two different machines—one for the cleaning process, and the second to dry the garments. Machines of this era were described as vented, their drying exhausts were expelled to the atmosphere and this not only contributed to environmental contamination but also much potentially reusable PCE was lost to the atmosphere. Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the Western world are now fully enclosed, in enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled, so it can be reused to clean further loads or safely disposed of. The majority of modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor and this system ensures that only small amounts of PCE fumes are released at the end of the cycle
15.
Filling station
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A filling station is a facility that sells fuel and engine lubricants for motor vehicles. The most common fuels sold in the 2010s are gasoline and diesel fuel, Fuel dispensers are also known as bowsers, petrol pumps or gas pumps. Also, many filling stations incorporate a convenience store, which like most other buildings generally have electricity sockets, the convenience stores found in filling stations typically sell candy, soda/pop, snacks and, in some cases, a small selection of grocery items. Some also sell propane or butane and have added shops to their primary business, conversely, some chain stores, such as supermarkets, discount superstores, warehouse clubs, or traditional convenience stores, have provided filling stations on the premises. The term gas station is used in the United States, Canada and the English-speaking Caribbean. In some regions of Canada, the term gas bar is used, elsewhere in the English-speaking world, mainly in the Commonwealth, the fuel is known as petrol, and the term petrol station or petrol pump is used. In the United Kingdom and South Africa garage is still commonly used, similarly, in Australia, the term service station describes any petrol station. In Japanese English, it is called a gasoline stand, in Indian English, it is called a petrol pump or a petrol bunk. In some regions of America and Australia, many filling stations have a mechanic on duty, latest figures show there are now 8,455 petrol stations in the UK down from about 18,000 in 1992 and a peak of around 40,000 in the mid-1960s. The USA had 114,474 filling stations in 2012, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, in Canada, the number is on the decline. As of December 2008,12,684 were in operation, significantly down from about 20,000 stations recorded in 1989 In Japan, in Germany, the number dropped down to 14,300 in 2011. In China, according to different reports, the number is about 95,000 to 97,000. India –43,000 Russia - there were about 25,000 gas stations in the Russian Federation In Argentina, as of 2014, the first places that sold gasoline were pharmacies, as a side business. The first filling station was the city pharmacy in Wiesloch, Germany, since 2008 the Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event. The increase in automobile ownership after Henry Ford started to sell automobiles that the class could afford resulted in an increased demand for filling stations. The worlds first purpose built gas station was constructed in St. Louis, the second gas station was constructed in 1907 by Standard Oil of California in Seattle, Washington at what is now Pier 32. Reighards Gas Station in Altoona, Pennsylvania claims that it dates from 1909 and is the oldest existing gas station in the United States, early on, they were known to motorists as filling stations. The first drive-in filling station, Gulf Refining Company, opened to the public in Pittsburgh on December 1,1913 at Baum Blvd & St Clairs Street
16.
Hydrocarbon
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
17.
Pesticide
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Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests or weeds. The most common of these are herbicides which account for approximately 80% of all pesticide use, most pesticides are intended to serve as plant protection products, which in general, protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes, although pesticides have benefits, some also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species. According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants,9 of the 12 most dangerous, the term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage. Pesticides can be classified by target organism, chemical structure, biopesticides include microbial pesticides and biochemical pesticides. Plant-derived pesticides, or botanicals, have been developing quickly and these include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that includes strychnine and scilliroside. Many pesticides can be grouped into chemical families, prominent insecticide families include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Organochlorine hydrocarbons could be separated into dichlorodiphenylethanes, cyclodiene compounds, and they operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have phased out because of their persistence. Organophosphate and carbamates largely replaced organochlorines, both operate through inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to transfer nerve impulses indefinitely and causing a variety of symptoms such as weakness or paralysis. Organophosphates are quite toxic to vertebrates, and have in some cases replaced by less toxic carbamates. Thiocarbamate and dithiocarbamates are subclasses of carbamates, prominent families of herbicides include phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides, triazines, ureas, and Chloroacetanilides. Phenoxy compounds tend to selectively kill broad-leaf weeds rather than grasses, the phenoxy and benzoic acid herbicides function similar to plant growth hormones, and grow cells without normal cell division, crushing the plants nutrient transport system. Many commonly used pesticides are not included in these families, including glyphosate, Pesticides can be classified based upon their biological mechanism function or application method. Most pesticides work by poisoning pests, a systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following absorption by the plant. With insecticides and most fungicides, this movement is usually upward and outward, increased efficiency may be a result
18.
Lead
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Lead is a chemical element with atomic number 82 and symbol Pb. When freshly cut, it is bluish-white, it tarnishes to a dull gray upon exposure to air and it is a soft, malleable, and heavy metal with a density exceeding that of most common materials. Lead has the second-highest atomic number of the stable elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal and its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature and tendency to form covalent bonds. Compounds of lead are found in the +2 oxidation state. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds, like the lighter members of the group, lead exhibits a tendency to bond to itself, it can form chains, rings, and polyhedral structures. Lead is easily extracted from its ores and was known to people in Western Asia. A principal ore of lead, galena, often bears silver, Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels again until the Industrial Revolution. Nowadays, global production of lead is about ten million tonnes annually, Lead has several properties that make it useful, high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness to oxidation. In the late 19th century, lead was recognized as poisonous, Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones, damaging the nervous system and causing brain disorders and, in mammals, blood disorders. A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in a configuration of 4f145d106s26p2. The combined first and second ionization energies—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin, leads upper neighbor in group 14. This is unusual since ionization energies generally fall going down a group as an elements outer electrons become more distant from the nucleus, the similarity is caused by the lanthanide contraction—the decrease in element radii from lanthanum to lutetium, and the relatively small radii of the elements after hafnium. The contraction is due to shielding of the nucleus by the lanthanide 4f electrons. The combined first four ionization energies of lead exceed those of tin, for this reason lead, unlike tin, mostly forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +2, rather than +4. Relativistic effects, which become particularly prominent at the bottom of the periodic table, as a result, the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, a phenomenon called the inert pair effect. A related outcome is that the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead is unusually long, the lighter group 14 elements form stable or metastable allotropes having the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp3 orbitals
19.
Tributyltin
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Tributyltin is an umbrella term for a class of organotin compounds which contain the 3Sn group, with a prominent example being tributyltin oxide. For 40 years TBT was used as a biocide in anti-fouling paint, commonly known as bottom paint, bottom paint improves ship performance and durability as it reduces the rate of biofouling, which is the growth of organisms on the ships hull. Although such paints are effective, the TBT slowly leaches out into the environment where it is highly toxic to a wide range of organisms. TBT pollution is of concern as it has led to collapse of whole populations of organisms. TBT compounds are compounds, with 3 butyl groups covalently bonded to a tin centre. A general formula for these compounds is 3Sn-X, the X group is typically an electronegative leaving group such as chloride or carboxylate. When introduced into a marine or aquatic environment, TBT adheres to bed sediments because of its specific gravity. However, the adsorption of TBT to sediments is reversible and depends on pH, studies have shown that 95% of TBT can be released from the sediments back into the aquatic environment. This release makes it difficult to quantify the amount of TBT in an environment, because TBT is the most effective anti-fouling agent discovered, it was frequently used in anti-fouling paint throughout the globe. The antifouling properties of TBT compounds were discovered in the 1950s in the Netherlands by van der Kerk, the function of the biocide in the anti-fouling paint is to prevent the settling of organisms on the hull and to poison the organisms that do. Although an effective biocide, tributyltin was wrongly deemed safe environmentally, by the mid 1960s it became the most popular anti-fouling paint worldwide. TBT was mixed into paints to extend the life of antifouling coatings, the paints ensured fuel efficiency and delayed costly ship repairs. It is also an ingredient in some disinfectants, for example in combination with quaternary ammonium compounds, the effects of antifouling paint go beyond the organisms that it is intended to kill. By poisoning barnacles, algae, and other organisms at the bottom of the food chain and it has been shown to harmfully affect many layers of the ecosystem, including invertebrates and vertebrates, even humans. Toxic effects in some species occur at 1 nano-gram per liter of water, even with its ban, TBT presents a danger to the environment. One of the most problematic aspects of TBT is its accumulation in sediments and its half life of about 2 years. TBT often bonds to suspended material and sediments to the bottom, TBT has been shown to affect invertebrate development. One of the most studied organisms are marine snails, of which the dog whelk has often used as an Indicator species
20.
Asbestos
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They are commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos. It was used in applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat and these desirable properties made asbestos very widely used. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious and fatal illnesses including cancer, mesothelioma. Concern of asbestos-related illness in modern times began in the 20th century, by the 1980s and 1990s, asbestos trade and use were heavily restricted, phased out, or banned outright in an increasing number of countries. S. History and a much lesser legal issue in most other countries involved, asbestos-related liability also remains an ongoing concern for many manufacturers, insurers and reinsurers. Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable, the word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/. Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as asbestos including those belonging to the serpentine class, all six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens. The visible fibers are themselves composed of millions of microscopic fibrils that can be released by abrasion. Chrysotile is the member of the serpentine class. 12001-29-5, is obtained from rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg34, chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber. Chrysotile has been used more than any type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun, the most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls, chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class, one formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O222. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber and it is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles. 12001-28-4, is the form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa
21.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
22.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
23.
Moncton
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Moncton is a city located in Westmorland County in the southeastern portion of the province of New Brunswick, Canada. Situated in the Petitcodiac River Valley, Moncton lies at the centre of the Maritime Provinces. The city has earned the nickname Hub City due to its inland location in the region and its history as a railway. The city proper has a population of 71,889 and has an area of 142 km2. The CMA includes the city of Dieppe and the town of Riverview, as well as adjacent suburban areas in Westmorland. Although the Moncton area was first settled in 1733, Moncton is considered to have founded in 1766 with the arrival of Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants from Philadelphia. An agricultural settlement, Moncton was not incorporated until 1855, the city was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton, the British officer who had captured nearby Fort Beauséjour a century earlier. Moncton regained its charter in 1875 after the economy rebounded. The city adopted the motto Resurgo after its rebirth as a railway town, the strength of Monctons economy has received national recognition and the local unemployment rate is consistently less than the national average. Acadians settled the head of the Bay of Fundy in the 1670s, the first reference to the Petcoucoyer River was on the De Meulles map of 1686. Settlement of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook river valleys began about 1700, gradually extending inland, in 1755, nearby Fort Beausejour was captured by English forces under the command of Lt. Col. Robert Monckton. The Beaubassin region including the Memramcook and Petitcodiac river valleys subsequently fell under English control, later that year, Governor Charles Lawrence issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. This action came to be known as the Great Upheaval, the Settlers consisted of eight families, Heinrick Stief, Jacob Treitz, Matthias Sommer, Jacob Reicker, Charles Jones, George Wortmann, Michael Lutz, and George Koppel. There is a dedicated in their honor at the mouth of Halls Creek. They renamed the settlement The Bend, the Bend remained an agricultural settlement for nearly 80 more years. Even by 1836, there were only 20 households in the community, at this time, the Westmorland Road became open to year round travel and a regular mail coach service was established between Saint John and Halifax. The Bend became an important transfer and rest station along the route, over the next decade, lumbering and then shipbuilding would become important industries in the area. The turning point for the community was when Joseph Salter took over a shipyard at the Bend in 1847, the expanded shipyard ultimately grew to employ about 400 workers
24.
Waterfront Trail
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Through Toronto, the trail is called the Martin Goodman Trail. The Waterfront Trail is also used by commuters in parts of Southern Ontario, in October 2013, Premier of Ontario Kathleen Wynne announced government support for expansion of the trail system to better connect the 2015 Pan Am Games venues and community. I want to ensure all of the people of this province benefit from our investments in the Pan Am and Parapan Am Games. Extending our trails system and connecting more communities is a way for the excitement of the Games to live on well beyond 2015. Trails will connect to four major Pan Am and Parapan Am Games venues – CIBC Pan Am/Parapan Am Athletes Village, CIBC Pan Am Park, CIBC Hamilton Soccer Stadium, all consultations related to Pan Am/Parapan Am trails will address accessibility requirements under the Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act. In November 2013, two firms were selected to reimagine the space at the former Ontario Place grounds in Toronto to incorporate a broader mandate for greenspace. The rising cost of automobiles and gasoline mean a heavier burden on the system from multiple uses. In 2015, the Waterfront Trail is expected to connect to the huge underground Toronto PATH system, cyclists and skaters are encouraged on the peaceful island where only utility vehicles are permitted. Among the artistic touches of this portion of the include the architecturally renowned Wave Decks. The Beach itself is a destination, hosting games of beach volleyball. North of the waterfront are many stores and restaurants along Queen Street. From the Beaches, the trail, called the Martin Goodman Trail, currently, there isnt any path running east along the waterfront from the Beaches. Sugar Beach is a parking lot located at Lower Jarvis Street and Queens Quay—the park is now a non-swimming beach on the south-eastern edge of South Core. Location, 43°33′02″N 79°35′10″W Port Credit straddles the Credit River with a mix of residential and commercial development along the trail, most of the trail is separated from traffic with the exception of some residential streets at the east end near the Adamson Estate. Location, 44°5′33″N 79°31′7″W Spencer Smith Park at Burlington is an example of the evolution of mixed-use development. In 2013, a new pier was opened by the City of Burlington that anchors the trail along the shores of the lake, individuals and groups can sometimes be seen performing yoga, Tai chi and other arts at the public gazebo here. In addition, Spencer Smith Park hosts the annual Sound Of Music festival, location, 44°20′19″N 76°8′1″W The 1000 Islands Bikepath is a 37 kilometre trail running parallel to the Parkway between Gananoque and Brockville, forming a section of the Waterfront Trail. Unlike Quebecs extensive trail system - Route Verte - portions of the trail are inaccessible for safe travel for cyclists, there is an effort by the Waterfront Regeneration Trail, operators of the trail, to expand the cycling portions of the route
25.
Giant Mine
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The Giant Mine was a gold mine located on the Ingraham Trail,5 km north of Yellowknife, Northwest Territories. Giant Mine is within the Kam Group, which is part of the Yellowknife greenstone belt, the discovery led to a massive post-war staking boom in Yellowknife. Giant Mine entered production in 1948 and ceased operations in 2004 and it produced over 7,000,000 ozt of gold. Owners of the mine have included Falconbridge, Pamour of Australia, Royal Oak Mines, when Royal Oak went bankrupt in 1999 the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development took over responsibility for cleaning up the Giant mine site. The Northwest Territories first mining museum is to be built on the old property, Mining Heritage Society is in charge of the work. Mine employee Roger Warren was later convicted of placing the bomb, the strike/lockout ended in 1993, pursuant to an order by the Canada Labour Relations Board. The remediation plan proposed by the SRK Consulting Inc and their top priority for the Giant Mine site remediation is an effective, long-term management of arsenic trioxide. Arsenic trioxide dust, which contains approximately 60% arsenic, is lethal even in small doses. It is odourless, tasteless and water-soluble, the taxpayer-funded remediation plan to permanently freeze the arsenic trioxide dust was approved by the Canadian federal government in August 2014. The events and aftermath of the Giant Mine labour dispute and explosion were dramatized in the 1996 CBC television movie Giant Mine, list of mines in the Northwest Territories Giant Mine 10 Years Later Giant Mine Remediation Project
26.
CFB Goose Bay
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Canadian Forces Base Goose Bay, commonly referred to as CFB Goose Bay, is a Canadian Forces Base located in the municipality of Happy Valley-Goose Bay in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is operated as an air base by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Its primary RCAF lodger unit is 5 Wing, commonly referred to as 5 Wing Goose Bay, the airfield at CFB Goose Bay is also used by civilian aircraft, with civilian operations at the base referring to the facility as Goose Bay Airport. The airport is classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency, CBSA officers at this airport can handle general aviation aircraft only, with no more than 15 passengers. The mission of 5 Wing is to support the defence of North American airspace, as well as to support the RCAF,5 Wing comprises two sub-units,444 Combat Support Squadron and 5 Wing Air Reserve Flight. These surveys used amphibian aircraft that landed at the Grenfell mission, eric Fry recalled, “The airport is actually located on the plateau at the west end of Terrington Basin but it is only five miles inland from the narrows between Goose Bay and Terrington Basin. Having a Gander air base in Newfoundland I suggested we call the Labrador site Goose Bay airport and the suggestion was accepted. ”Under pressure from Britain and the United States the Canadian Air Ministry worked at a record pace, and by November three 7, 000-foot gravel runways were ready. The first land aircraft movement was recorded on 9 December 1941, by spring of 1942 the base, now carrying the wartime code-name Alkali, was bursting with air traffic destined for the United Kingdom. The 99-year lease arrangement with the United Kingdom was not finalized until October 1944, the Canadian and American bases were built as an RCAF station and later a United States Air Force base known as Goose AB, housing units of the Strategic Air Command and Aerospace Defense Command. It was later home to permanent detachments of the RAF, Luftwaffe, Aeronautica Militare,1954 – Construction of the Strategic Air Command Weapons Storage Area Construction of Strategic Air Commands Weapons Storage Area at Goose Air Base was officially completed in 1954. The area was surrounded by two fences, topped with barbed wire, the last nuclear bomb components that were being stored at the Goose Air Base weapons storage area were removed in June 1971. 1958 – Construction of the Air Defence Command ammunition storage area Construction of the Air Defence Command ammunition storage area at Goose Air Base was completed in 1958. This extension to the Strategic Air Command weapons storage area was directly beside the previously constructed area. The buildings built within the area were, Three storage buildings One guard house One missile assembly building, the storage was being built to accommodate components of the GAR-11/AIM-26 Nuclear Falcon, which is normally stored in pieces, requiring assembly before use. 1976 – Departure of the USAF Strategic Air Command and closure of Goose AB The former U. S. facilities were re-designated CFB Goose Bay. The value of the airfield and facilities built and improved by the USAF since 1953, by 1976 all Strategic Air Command assets had been stood down, and only USAF logistical and transport support remained. CFB Goose Bays location in Labrador, with a population of around 30,000 and area measuring 294,000 km2, many protests evolved into dangerous activities, including trespassing into the low-level flying ranges, and even to shooting hunting rifles at the fighter aircraft. The permanent RNAF detachment left CFB Goose Bay in the 1990s, Goose Bay was a very attractive training facility for these air forces in light of the high population concentration in their countries, as well as numerous laws preventing low-level flying
27.
Port Hope, Ontario
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Port Hope is a municipality in Southern Ontario, Canada, about 109 kilometres east of Toronto and about 159 kilometres west of Kingston. It is located at the mouth of the Ganaraska River on the shore of Lake Ontario. Port Hopes nearest urban neighbour is the Town of Cobourg, while between them and surrounding Cobourg is the Township of Hamilton, since 1868, the town has been home to Trinity College School. Ganaraska was attributed to the area by the First Nations natives of the region and is what they called the river flows through the town. The name originates from Ganaraske, the Cayuga village first located at the current townsite, in 1793, United Empire Loyalists became the first permanent settlers of European heritage in Port Hope, which they called Smiths Creek after a former fur trader. Mills and a town plot were developing by the turn of the century, after the War of 1812, more British settlers were wanted, and a better name was required. In 1834 Port Hope was incorporated as a town, relatively slow growth from 1881 to 1951 resulted in much of the towns original architecture not being demolished in the name of progress. Port Hopes downtown is celebrated now as the best-preserved 19th-century streetscape in Ontario, with over 270 heritage-designated buildings throughout the municipality, Port Hope has a higher per capita rate of preservation than any other town or city in Canada. Downtown businesses are regulated by the municipality to maintain the unique character. On January 1,2001, the town amalgamated with Hope Township to form the Municipality of Port Hope and Hope. Prior to amalgamation, the census population was listed as 11,718 while the townships was 3,877. Downtown Port Hope is well known as a destination for antiques. Port Hope is served by a Via Rail station and it has a medical centre, a walk-in clinic, and a community health centre. com. Port Hopes Economic Development Strategic Plan aims to increase job growth at least as fast as population growth, the town has a variety of industries. Port Hope is known for having the largest volume of historic low-level radioactive wastes in Canada and these wastes were created by Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited and its private sector predecessors, as a result of the refining process used to extract radium from uranium ore. Radium was used in paint, and in the early treatment of cancer. The Eldorado plant also produced uranium, which may have used in the Manhattan Project that created the first nuclear weapon. It continues to produce fuel for nuclear power plants, now under the ownership of Cameco
28.
Radioactive decay
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A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, however, for a collection of atoms, the collections expected decay rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay constants or half-lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating, the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe. A radioactive nucleus with spin can have no defined orientation. If there are multiple particles produced during a single decay, as in decay, their relative angular distribution. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction, the decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide, and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from an excited state. When the number of changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created. The first decay processes to be discovered were alpha decay, beta decay, alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle. This is the most common process of emitting nucleons, but highly excited nuclei can eject single nucleons, or in the case of cluster decay, specific light nuclei of other elements. Beta decay occurs when the nucleus emits an electron or positron, the nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron in a process called electron capture. All of these result in a well-defined nuclear transmutation. By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation, another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more fragments of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides in each category, there are 29 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive. They are those that contain 34 radionuclides that date before the time of formation of the solar system, well-known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as potassium-40. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel and these materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it, all results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper and these radiations were given the name Becquerel Rays
29.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
30.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
31.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
32.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
33.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
34.
University of Delaware
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The University of Delaware is the largest university in Delaware. The main campus is in Newark, with campuses in Dover, Wilmington, Lewes. It is considered an institution with approximately 18,500 undergraduate and 4,500 graduate students. UD is a privately governed university which receives funding for being a land-grant, sea-grant, space-grant and urban-grant state-supported research institution. UD is classified as a university with very high research activity by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. It is one of four schools in North America with a major in art conservation. In 1923, UD was the first American university to offer a study abroad program, the school from which the university grew was founded in 1743, making it one of the oldest in the nation. However, UD was not chartered as an institution of learning until 1833. Its original class of ten students included George Read, Thomas McKean, the University of Delaware traces its founding to 1743, when Presbyterian minister Francis Alison opened up his Free School in his home in New London, Pennsylvania. The school changed its name and location several times, ending up as the Academy of Newark in 1769, since Delaware was part of the Pennsylvania colony until 1776, the academy was denied charter as a college in order to prevent its competing with the University of Pennsylvania. In 1833, the Delaware General Assembly passed An Act to Establish a College at Newark, and it changed its name in 1843 to Delaware College and it merged with the Academy of Newark. The school closed from 1859 until 1870 and it reopened in 1870 due to the support of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts. In 1921, Delaware College was renamed the University of Delaware, plans call for this facility to be repurposed into a world-class research facility. Initial plans include the new home of the College of Health Science, in 2010–2011, the university conducted a feasibility study in support of plans to add a law school focused on corporate and patent law. At its completion, the study suggested that the addition was not within the universitys funding capability given the nations economic climate at the time. Capital expenses were projected at $100 million, and the deficit in the first ten years would be $165 million. The study assumed an initial class of two hundred students entering in the fall of 2015, widener University has Delawares only law school as of 2011. S. News & World Report ranked UDs undergraduate program tied for 79th among national universities, the Bloomberg Businessweek review of the Best Undergraduate B-Schools ranked UDs Lerner College of Business and Economics 96th among the 187 U. S. programs reviewed
35.
Environmental remediation
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Environmental remediation deals with the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment, or surface water. This would mean that once requested by the government or a land remediation authority, immediate action should be taken as this can impact negatively on human health, to help with environmental remediation, one can get environmental remediation services. These services help eliminate radiation sources in order to protect the environment. </ref> In the United States, the most comprehensive set of Preliminary Remediation Goals is from the Environmental Protection Agency Region 9, a set of standards used in Europe exists and is often called the Dutch standards. The European Union is rapidly moving towards Europe-wide standards, although most of the nations in Europe have their own standards at present. Once a site is suspected of being contaminated there is a need to assess the contamination, often the assessment begins with preparation of a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment. The historical use of the site and the used and produced on site will guide the assessment strategy and type of sampling. Often nearby sites owned by the company or which are nearby and have been reclaimed, levelled or filled are also contaminated even where the current land use seems innocuous. For example, a car park may have been levelled by using contaminated waste in the fill, also important is to consider off site contamination of nearby sites often through decades of emissions to soil, groundwater, and air. Ceiling dust, topsoil, surface and groundwater of nearby properties should also be tested, in the US there has been a mechanism for taxing polluting industries to form a Superfund to remediate abandoned sites, or to litigate to force corporations to remediate their contaminated sites. There are several tools for mapping these sites and which allow the user to view additional information, Remediation technologies are many and varied but can generally be categorized into ex-situ and in-situ methods. Ex-situ methods involve excavation of affected soils and subsequent treatment at the surface as well as extraction of contaminated groundwater, in-situ methods seek to treat the contamination without removing the soils or groundwater. Various technologies have developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil/sediments. Traditional remediation approaches consist of soil excavation and disposal to landfill and groundwater pump, thermal desorption is a technology for soil remediation. During the process a desorber volatilizes the contaminants to separate them from especially soil or sludge, after that the contaminants can either be collected or destroyed in an offgas treatment system. Excavation processes can be as simple as hauling the contaminated soil to a regulated landfill, recent advancements in bioaugmentation and biostimulation of the excavated material have also proven to be able to remediate semi-volatile organic compounds onsite. If the contamination affects a river or bay bottom, then dredging of bay mud or other silty clays containing contaminants may be conducted, recently, ExSitu Chemical oxidation has also been utilized in the remediation of contaminated soil. This process involves the excavation of the area into large bermed areas where they are treated using chemical oxidation methods
36.
Bioremediation
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Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. According to the United States EPA, bioremediation is a treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances, technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the material at the site. Some examples of related technologies are phytoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor, composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration. For example, the US Army Corps of Engineers demonstrated that windrowing, recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident microbe populations ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms used to perform the function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators, however, not all contaminants are easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. For example, heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or captured by microorganisms, a recent experiment, however, suggests that fish bones have some success absorbing lead from contaminated soil. Bone char has been shown to bioremediate small amounts of cadmium, copper, a recent experiment suggests that the removals of pollutants from tannery wastewater were studied in batch experiments using marine microalgae. The assimilation of metals such as mercury into the chain may worsen matters. Phytoremediation is useful in these circumstances because natural plants or transgenic plants are able to bioaccumulate these toxins in their above-ground parts, the heavy metals in the harvested biomass may be further concentrated by incineration or even recycled for industrial use. Some damaged artifacts at museums contain microbes which could be specified as bio remediating agents, the use of genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for bioremediation has great potential. The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans has been modified to consume and digest toluene, releasing genetically augmented organisms into the environment may be problematic as tracking them can be difficult, bioluminescence genes from other species may be inserted to make this easier. Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the area, one of the primary roles of fungi in the ecosystem is decomposition, which is performed by the mycelium. The mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose and these are organic compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. The key to mycoremediation is determining the right fungal species to target a specific pollutant, certain strains have been reported to successfully degrade the nerve gases VX and sarin. In one conducted experiment, a plot of soil contaminated with oil was inoculated with mycelia of oyster mushrooms. After four weeks, more than 95% of many of the PAH had been reduced to components in the mycelial-inoculated plots. It appears that the natural microbial community participates with the fungi to break down contaminants, eventually into carbon dioxide, wood-degrading fungi are particularly effective in breaking down aromatic pollutants, as well as chlorinated compounds
37.
Soil vapor extraction
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Soil vapor extraction is a physical treatment process for in situ remediation of volatile contaminants in vadose zone soils. SVE is based on transfer of contaminant from the solid and liquid phases into the gas phase. Extracted contaminant mass in the gas phase is treated in aboveground systems, in essence, SVE is the vadose zone equivalent of the pump-and-treat technology for groundwater remediation. SVE is particularly amenable to contaminants with higher Henry’s Law constants, including various chlorinated solvents, SVE is a well-demonstrated, mature remediation technology and has been identified by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency as presumptive remedy. SVE systems can rely on gas inflow through natural routes or specific wells may be installed for gas inflow, the vacuum extraction of soil gas induces gas flow across a site, increasing the mass transfer driving force from aqueous, non-aqueous, and solid phase into the gas phase. Air flow across a site is thus a key aspect, but soil moisture, in some situations, such as enhancement of monitored natural attenuation, a passive SVE system that relies on barometric pumping may be employed. SVE has several advantages as a vadose zone remediation technology, the system can be implemented with standard wells and off-the-shelf equipment. SVE can also be implemented with a minimum of disturbance, primarily involving well installation. Depending on the nature of the contamination and the subsurface geology, the soil gas that is extracted by the SVE system generally requires treatment prior to discharge back into the environment. The aboveground treatment is primarily for a gas stream, although condensation of liquid must be managed, the most commonly applied aboveground treatment technologies are thermal oxidation and granular activated carbon adsorption. The selection of a particular aboveground treatment technology depends on the contaminant, concentrations in the offgas, throughput, and economic considerations. The effectiveness of SVE, that is, the rate and degree of mass removal, the effectiveness of SVE is a function of the contaminant properties, temperature in the subsurface, vadose zone soil properties, subsurface heterogeneity, and the air flow driving force. As an example, a quantity of a highly volatile contaminant in a homogeneous sand with high permeability. In contrast, a heterogeneous vadose zone with one or more clay layers containing residual naphthalene would require a longer treatment time and/or SVE enhancements, SVE effectiveness issues include tailing and rebound, which result from contaminated zones with lower air flow and/or lower volatility. Recent work at U. S. Department of Energy sites has investigated layering and low permeability zones in the subsurface, Enhancements for improving the effectiveness of SVE can include directional drilling, pneumatic and hydraulic fracturing, and thermal enhancement. Directional drilling and fracturing enhancements are generally intended to improve the gas flow through the subsurface, thermal enhancements such as hot air or steam injection increase the subsurface soil temperature, thereby improving the volatility of the contamination. In addition, injection of hot air can remove soil moisture, on selection as a remedy, implementation of SVE involves the following elements, system design, operation, optimization, performance assessment, and closure. Several guidance documents provide information on these implementation aspects, EPA and U. S. Army Corps of Engineers guidance documents establish an overall framework for design, operation, optimization, and closure of a SVE system
38.
Groundwater
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Groundwater is the water present beneath Earths surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or a deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the naturally, natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps. Groundwater is also withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earths subsurface contains some water, Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiters moon Europa. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of water storage in the United States. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers, Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. An aquifer is a layer of substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone, substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard
