1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
4.
American University
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American University is a private research university in Washington, D. C. United States, affiliated with the United Methodist Church, although the curriculum is secular. The university was chartered by an Act of Congress on February 24,1893, as The American University, AU was named the most politically active school in the nation in The Princeton Reviews annual survey of college students in 2008,2010, and 2012. As of 2016, roughly 7,710 undergraduate students and 5,230 graduate students are currently enrolled, the school has grown increasingly competitive in recent years, with a 25% acceptance rate for the Class of 2020 versus a 46% acceptance rate for the class of 2018. A member of the Division I Patriot League, its sports compete as the American University Eagles. The American University was established in the District of Columbia by an Act of Congress on December 5,1892, after more than three decades devoted principally to securing financial support, the university was officially dedicated on May 15,1914. The first instruction began on October 6 of that year, when 28 students were enrolled, the First Commencement, at which no degrees were awarded, was held on June 2,1915. The Second Annual Commencement was held on June 2,1916 where the first degrees were awarded, shortly after these early commencement ceremonies, classes were interrupted by war. During World War I, the university allowed the U. S. military to use some of its grounds for testing, in 1917, the U. S. military divided American University into two segments, Camp American University and Camp Leach. Camp American University became the birthplace of the United States chemical weapons program, and chemical weapons were tested on the grounds, Camp Leach was home to advanced research, development and testing of modern camouflage techniques. As of 2014, the Army Corps of Engineers is still removing ordnance including mustard gas, during the next ten years, instruction was offered at the graduate level only, in accordance with the original plan of the founders. In the fall of 1925, the College of Liberal Arts was established, since that date, the University has offered both undergraduate and graduate degrees and programs. In 1934, the School of Public Affairs was founded, during World War II, the campus again offered its services to the U. S. government and became home to the U. S. Navy Bomb Disposal School and a WAVE barracks. For AUs role in wartime efforts, the Victory ship SS American Victory was named in honor of the university. The present structure of the university began to emerge in 1949, the Washington College of Law became part of the University in that year, having begun in 1896 as the first coeducational institution for the professional study of law in the District of Columbia. In the early 1960s, the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency operated a tank under the guise of Operation Camelot at American University. The government abandoned the tank after the operation came to public attention. AUs political intertwinement was furthered by President John F. Kennedys Spring 1963 commencement address, from 1965 to 1977, the College of Continuing Education existed as a degree-granting college with responsibility for on- and off-campus adult education programs
5.
University of Rochester
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The University of Rochester is a private, nonsectarian, research university in Rochester, New York. The university grants undergraduate and graduate degrees, including doctoral and professional degrees, the university has six schools and various interdisciplinary programs. The University of Rochester is particularly noted for its Eastman School of Music, the university is also home to the Institute of Optics, founded in 1929, the first educational program in the US devoted exclusively to optics. Rochesters Laboratory for Laser Energetics is home to the second most energetic fusion laser in the world, the University of Rochester, across all of its schools and campuses, enrolls approximately 5,600 undergraduates and 4,600 graduate students. Its 158 buildings house over 200 academic majors, additionally, Rochester is the largest employer in the Greater Rochester area and the sixth largest employer in New York. The University of Rochester was founded in 1850 as a Baptist-sponsored institution, the impetus to form the university came primarily from the town of Hamilton, New York, which has been home to Colgate University since 1819. In 1848, the Baptist Education Society planned to move Colgate University to the city of Rochester, but was halted by legal action in Hamilton. Dissenting Colgate trustees, faculty, and students founded the University of Rochester with a charter granted from the Regents of the University of the State of New York on January 31,1850, classes began that November, with approximately 60 students enrolling, including 28 transfers from Madison. In 1853, the campus moved east to a location on what is now University Avenue. Local businessman and Congressman Azariah Boody donated 8 acres of land for the new campus, UR would remain on this campus until the current River Campus was constructed in 1930, and the university continues to own a small part of the University Avenue campus. The first female students were admitted in 1900, the result of an effort led by Susan B, during the 1890s, a number of women took classes and labs at the university as visitors but were not officially enrolled nor were their records included in the college register. President David Jayne Hill allowed the first woman, Helen E. Wilkinson, to enroll as a normal student, thirty-three women enrolled among the first class in 1900, and Ella S. Wilcoxen was the first to receive a degree, in 1901. When the River Campus was completed in 1930, male students moved there while the students remained on the University Avenue campus until 1955. Major growth occurred under the leadership of Rush Rhees, during his 1900-1935 tenure, during this time, George Eastman became a major donor, giving more than $50 million to the university. The first Ph. D. was awarded in 1925, in 1955, the separate colleges for men and women were merged into The College. In 1958, three new schools were created in engineering, business administration, and education, during World War II, Rochester was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. The plan also revised the undergraduate curriculum significantly, creating the current system with one required course. In the mid-1980s, the University commissioned a study to determine if the name of the institution should be changed, reports of the latter conclusion led to controversy and criticism in the Rochester community
6.
Cryptography
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Cryptography or cryptology is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce. Cryptography prior to the age was effectively synonymous with encryption. The originator of an encrypted message shared the decoding technique needed to recover the information only with intended recipients. The cryptography literature often uses Alice for the sender, Bob for the intended recipient and it is theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. The growth of technology has raised a number of legal issues in the information age. Cryptographys potential for use as a tool for espionage and sedition has led governments to classify it as a weapon and to limit or even prohibit its use. In some jurisdictions where the use of cryptography is legal, laws permit investigators to compel the disclosure of encryption keys for documents relevant to an investigation, Cryptography also plays a major role in digital rights management and copyright infringement of digital media. Until modern times, cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting ordinary information into unintelligible text, decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher is a pair of algorithms that create the encryption, the detailed operation of a cipher is controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a key. The key is a secret, usually a short string of characters, historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as authentication or integrity checks. There are two kinds of cryptosystems, symmetric and asymmetric, in symmetric systems the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt a message. Data manipulation in symmetric systems is faster than asymmetric systems as they generally use shorter key lengths, asymmetric systems use a public key to encrypt a message and a private key to decrypt it. Use of asymmetric systems enhances the security of communication, examples of asymmetric systems include RSA, and ECC. Symmetric models include the commonly used AES which replaced the older DES, in colloquial use, the term code is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext with a code word, English is more flexible than several other languages in which cryptology is always used in the second sense above. RFC2828 advises that steganography is sometimes included in cryptology, the study of characteristics of languages that have some application in cryptography or cryptology is called cryptolinguistics
7.
Security
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Security is the degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm. It applies to any vulnerable and/or valuable asset, such as a person, dwelling, community, item, nation, or organization. As noted by the Institute for Security and Open Methodologies in the OSSTMM3 and these separations are generically called controls, and sometimes include changes to the asset or the threat. Security is said to have two dialogues, negative dialogue is about danger, risk, threat, etc. Positive dialogue is about opportunities, interests, profits, etc, negative dialogue needs military equipment, armies, or police. Positive dialogue needs social capital, education, or social interaction, perception of security may be poorly mapped to measurable objective security. For example, the fear of earthquakes has been reported to be more common than the fear of slipping on the floor although the latter kills many more people than the former. Similarly, the effectiveness of security measures is sometimes different from the actual security provided by those measures. The presence of security protections may even be taken for the safety itself, for example, two computer security programs could be interfering with each other and even canceling each others effect, while the owner believes they are getting double the protection. Security theater is a term for deployment of measures primarily aimed at raising subjective security without a genuine or commensurate concern for the effects of that action on real safety. Since some intruders will decide not to attempt to break into such areas or vehicles, without such advertisement, an intruder might, for example, approach a car, break the window, and then flee in response to an alarm being triggered. Either way, perhaps the car itself and the objects inside arent stolen, there is an immense literature on the analysis and categorization of security. Part of the reason for this is that, in most security systems, the situation is asymmetric since the defender must cover all points of attack while the attacker need only identify a single weak point upon which to concentrate. It includes physical security to prevent theft of equipment and information security to protect the data on that equipment, today there is a greater recognition of the interconnected nature of security requirements, an approach variously known as holistic security, all hazards management, and other terms. Inciting factors in the convergence of security include the development of digital video surveillance technologies. In 2007 the International Organisation for Standardization released ISO28000 - Security Management Systems for the supply chain, ISO28000 is the foremost risk based security system and is suitable for managing both public and private regulatory security, customs and industry based security schemes and requirements
8.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
9.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
10.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
11.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
12.
BT Group
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BT Group plc is a holding company which owns British Telecommunications plc, a British multinational telecommunications services company with head offices in London, United Kingdom. It has operations in around 180 countries, BTs origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network. In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, the Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation. British Telecommunications, trading as British Telecom, was formed in 1980, British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming British Telecommunications plc, with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors. The Government sold its stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993. BT has a listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange. BT controls a number of large subsidiaries, BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016. The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016, BTs origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain. Among them was the first commercial service, the Electric Telegraph Company. As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912. These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom, in January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. John Hudson, with his premises in nearby Shudehill. As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together, the first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester. From 1878, the service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company. In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office, in 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services. Those services all folded within a few years, the exception being Kingston upon Hull. Converting the Post Office into an industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer. In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected, in 1961, more proposals were ignored
13.
Computer security
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A vulnerability is a system susceptibility or flaw. Many vulnerabilities are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures database, an exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. They may exist for a number of reasons, including by original design or from poor configuration, denial of service attacks are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by-passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks, eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI, spoofing, in general, is a fraudulent or malicious practice in which communication is sent from an unknown source disguised as a source known to the receiver. Spoofing is most prevalent in communication mechanisms lack a high level of security. Tampering describes a malicious modification of products, so-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. So for example a computer user may be able to fool the system into giving them access to restricted data. Phishing is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, and it often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. Preying on a victims trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering and this is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically hijacking the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, a similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Social engineering aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. by, for example, impersonating a bank, a common scam involves fake CEO emails sent to accounting and finance departments. In early 2016, the FBI reported that the scam has cost US businesses more than $2bn in about two years, Computer security is critical in almost any industry which uses computers. However, computers can be protected through well built software and hardware, by having strong internal interactions of properties, software complexity can prevent software crash and security failure. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data, computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks
14.
Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society
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The Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society is a research center at Harvard University that focuses on the study of cyberspace. Founded at Harvard Law School, the center traditionally focused on internet-related legal issues, on May 15,2008, the Center was elevated to an interfaculty initiative of Harvard University as a whole. It is named after the Berkman family, who owned the communications company The Associated Group, on July 5,2016, the Center added Klein to its name following a gift of $15 million from Michael R. Klein, chairman of the Sunlight Foundation. The Berkman Klein Center was founded in 1998 by professors Jonathan Zittrain and Charlie Nesson, along with recent Harvard Law School graduates David Marglin, since then, it has grown from a small project within Harvard Law School to a major interdisciplinary center at Harvard University. It seeks to use the lessons drawn from research to inform the design of Internet-related law. The Berkman Klein Center sponsors Internet-related events and conferences, and hosts visiting lecturers. Members of the center teach, write books, scientific articles, weblogs with RSS2.0 feeds, and podcasts. Its newsletter, The Buzz, is on the Web and available by e-mail, and it hosts a community of Harvard faculty, students. The Berkman Klein Center faculty and staff have also conducted major public policy reviews of pressing issues, in 2008, John Palfrey led a review of child safety online called the Internet Safety Technical Task Force. In 2009, Yochai Benkler led a review of United States broadband policy, in 2010, Urs Gasser, along with Palfrey and others, led a review of Internet governance body ICANN, focusing on transparency, accountability, and public participation. The Berkman Klein Centers main research topics are Teens and Media, Monitoring, Privacy, Digital art, Internet Governance, Cloud Computing, the Berkman Klein Center supports events, presentations, and conferences about the Internet and invites scientists to share their ideas. The Digital Media Law Project was a project hosted by the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School and it had previously been known as the Citizen Media Law Project. The purposes of the DMLP were, To provide resources and other assistance, including legal assistance as of 2009, to individuals and groups involved in online, to facilitate the participation of citizens in online media. To protect the freedom of speech on the Internet, in 2014, Berkman Klein Center announced that it would spin off its most effective initiatives and cease operation as a stand-alone project within the Berkman Klein Center. As with all its projects, the Berkman Center retains complete independence in its research and these subjects will be examined through a series of case studies in which new technologies and online resources have influenced democracy and civic engagement. The project will include research and the identification and development of innovative web-based tools that support the goals of the project. The team, led by Project Director Bruce Etling, will draw on communities from around the world, in 2006, the Center established the non-profit organization StopBadware, which aims to stop viruses, spyware, and other threats to the open Internet. In 2010, StopBadware became an independent entity supported by Google, PayPal, Mozilla, the Digital Public Library of America is a project aimed at making a large-scale digital public library accessible to all
15.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
16.
New America (organization)
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New America, formerly the New America Foundation, is a non-partisan think tank in the United States. It focuses on a range of policy issues, including national security studies, technology, asset building, health, gender, energy, education. The organization is based in Washington, D. C. with additional offices in New York City, ted Halstead served as New Americas founding President and CEO from 1999 to 2007. Steve Coll served as New Americas second President, in 2013, Anne-Marie Slaughter became President of New America, replacing Steve Coll. Googles Executive Chairman, Eric Schmidt, is the chairman of the board of directors. The organization has a staff of over a hundred employees and fellows with offices in Washington, D. C. newsweeks Howard Fineman called it a hive of state-of-the-art policy entrepreneurship. The organization houses programs and initiatives that focus on domestic, economic, and also houses a fellowship program. The foundations National Security Studies Program researches and analyzes global issues, with the presence of journalists such as Steve Coll and Peter Bergen, it has carved out a policy niche in the issues of Afghanistan and counter-terrorism. Bergen, who leads the program, is a CNN national security analyst and author of several best-selling books, including The Longest War, The Enduring Conflict between America and Al-Qaeda. James Risen in The New York Times complimented Coll on revealing how Saudi Arabia and its intelligence operations aided the rise of Osama bin Laden and Islamic extremism in Afghanistan. The foundation also has a focus on the Middle East with its Middle East Task Force, directed by Leila Hilal. New Americas Open Technology Institute led by Kevin Bankston has become one of the largest programs within the organization. Central to the partnership is a series of events in Washington, D. C. that take a look at issues that, while little-understood today. The foundations Economic Growth Program, directed by New America co-founders Sherle Schwenninger and Michael Lind, aims to take a look at America. The program did not believe in immediate government deficit reduction, it believed that only make the situation worse. Instead, as stated in the paper, it had other suggestions, including investing in an infrastructure program, lasting from five to seven years, to create jobs. Formerly, the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget was a part of New America until it separated to become the Fix the Debt campaign, the bipartisan Committee ran a number of projects, including U. S. Budget Watch, a funded by Pew Charitable Trusts which reports on important fiscal issues relating to the 2008 election
17.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
18.
TheGuardian.com
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Theguardian. com, formerly known as Guardian Unlimited and guardian. co. uk, is a British news and media website owned by the Guardian Media Group. It contains nearly all of the content of the newspapers The Guardian and The Observer, as well as a body of web-only work produced by its own staff. As of November 2014, it was the second most popular newspaper in the UK with over 17 million readers per month, with over 21 million monthly readers. The site is made up of a news site, plus a network of niche websites covering subjects including media, environment and technology, sport, education. Theguardian. com is notable for its engagement with readers, including long-running talkboards and, more recently, a network of weblogs. Its seven blogs were joined on March 14,2006, by a new comment site, Comment is free, named after the quote by The Guardian editor. Articles accept comments without pre-moderation, although posts on Comment is Free are moderated after the event, all now require registration for comments. The site can be viewed free and without registration, though some such as leaving comments on articles require users to register. In March 2009, guardian. co. uk launched their API, using the OAuth protocol, theguardian. com is part of the Guardian Media Group of newspapers, radio stations, and new media including The Guardian daily newspaper, and The Observer Sunday newspaper. Guardian. co. uk was launched in 1999, born of the Guardian New Media Lab and its popularity soared after the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, largely thanks to the diverse range of viewpoints published in the Guardian newspaper. The website won the Best Newspaper category in the 2005,2006 and 2007 Webby Awards, beating the New York Times, the Washington Post, in 2006 guardian. co. uk reported its first profitable year, with income coming mostly from recruitment and display advertising. On July 30,2013, the website was moved from guardian. co. uk to theguardian. com as part of increasing investments to grow globally. The Guardian′s sports section is a popular and well-respected web site, providing news, results, match reports, the site also provides some live coverage of the FA Cup, Champions League, Europa League and the occasional La Liga, League Cup and playoff games. Guardian America was an American version of the British news website Guardian Unlimited, the strategy, intended to win more US-based readers, was abandoned in October 2009. Guardianamerica. com now redirects to the websites United States topic page, much of the content on Guardian America was taken from Guardian Unlimited and The Guardian, although some content was produced specifically for Guardian America. Comment is free is a comment and political opinion site within theguardian. com and it contains the comment and opinion pieces from The Guardian and The Observer newspapers, plus contributions from more than 600 other writers. The site is edited by Natalie Hanman, its sub-site devoted to religious affairs and it was launched on March 14,2006, with Georgina Henry as launch editor. The original technical design and build was by Ben Hammersley, based on the Movable Type blogging platform, latterly, Cif runs on a bespoke Guardian-made system, using Pluck for the commenting
19.
Flatbush, Brooklyn
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Flatbush is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Founded in 1651 by Dutch colonists, the neighborhood, which consists of several subsections, had a population of 110,875 as of the 2010 United States Census, by the 2010s, the area was quickly gentrifying. Flatbush was a prior to being incorporated into the City of Brooklyn. Generally, the township was larger than what is considered Flatbush today by the residents of Brooklyn, the modern neighborhood includes or borders several institutions of note, including Prospect Park and Brooklyn College. The name Flatbush is a calque of the Dutch language Vlacke bos, Flatbush was originally chartered as the Dutch Nieuw Nederland colony town of Midwout in 1651. Both names were used in the Dutch era, and Midwood was a name for Flatbush into the early 20th century. In a reversal, Midwood, now the area south of Brooklyn College, is often alternatively called Flatbush. Midwoods residents predominately feature a mix of the latter and Irish Americans, Flatbush and the five other towns of what was to become Kings County, were surrendered to the English in 1664. The town was the county seat for Kings County and was a center of life for what is now called Brooklyn, Flatbush played a key role in the American Revolution. Flatbush was where significant skirmishes and battles of the Battle of Long Island took place, Kings County at the time had the highest concentration of slaves north of the Mason–Dixon line – almost one-third of the total population for the county were slaves. Loyalist residents of Flatbush included David Mathews, Mayor of New York City, Flatbush residents maintained their loyalist sympathies, the Kings Arms, for example, appeared in the towns inn for a half-century after the conclusion of the conflict. Many of the remaining early Dutch structures are in the Flatlands, Flatbush maintained a kind of distance from the rest of Brooklyn and New York, but the emergence of the subway in the 1920s connected it to surrounding areas in an unprecedented way. In the first half of the 20th century, Flatbush had a population of Irish-Americans, Italian-Americans. Much as it is today, it was a working-class neighborhood, a significant portion of Flatbush residents closely followed the Brooklyn Dodgers, which at the time were not only the team of Brooklyn but also of Flatbush in particular. Dodgers centerfielder Duke Snider was known as “the Duke of Flatbush”, by 1958, however, the Dodgers left Brooklyn, and Ebbets Field eventually was torn down. Due to shifting boundaries, Ebbets Field today technically would be in Crown Heights. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Flatbush experienced a shift in demographics as it went from being a mostly Irish, Italian, while most sections of Flatbush were working class before the demographic shift, there were a few affluent areas. Prospect Park South had a number of more affluent homeowners
20.
Hunter College High School
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Hunter College High School is a secondary school for intellectually gifted students located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. It is administered by Hunter College of the City University of New York, Hunter is publicly funded, and there is no tuition fee. According to the school, students accepted to Hunter represent the top one-quarter of 1% of students in New York City, Hunter has been ranked as the top public high school in the United States by both The Wall Street Journal and Worth. The New York Times called Hunter the prestigious Upper East Side school known for its Ivy League-bound students, Hunter graduates excel in many fields, most notably academia, law, medicine, writing and performing arts. Hunter graduates are known for breaking down race, class and especially gender barriers in their professions, Hunter was established in 1869 as The Female Normal and High School, a private school to prepare young women to become teachers. The original school was composed of an elementary and a high school, a kindergarten was added in 1887, and in 1888 the school was incorporated into a college. The high school was separated from what would become Hunter College in 1903, in 1914, both schools were named after the Female Normal Schools first president, Thomas Hunter. The school was almost closed by Hunter College President Jacqueline Wexler in the early 1970s, Hunter was an all-girls school for its first 78 years, with the official name Hunter College High School for Intellectually Gifted Young Ladies. The prototypical Hunter girl was the subject of the song Sarah Maria Jones, who, in January 1982, the school was featured in a New York Magazine article entitled The Joyful Elite. Hunter was the subject of the 1992 book Hunter College Campus Schools for the Gifted, The Challenge of Equity, the high school has occupied a number of buildings throughout its history, including one at the East 68th Street campus of the College. For several years in the 1970s, it was housed on the 13th and 14th floors of a building at 466 Lexington Avenue. Since 1977, it has existed in a designed to resemble the armory which previously existed on the site at East 94th Street between Park and Madison Avenues on the Upper East Side. Formerly, this was the site of the Madison Avenue Armory, today, the greater part of the armory building has been demolished. Because of its design, including windows, Hunter is affectionately called The Brick Prison. The building contains both the school and the elementary school, which are collectively known as the Hunter College Campus Schools. Tony Fisher is the principal of the high school, Dean Ketchum is the principal of the elementary school and is the Director of the Campus Schools. Sonya Mosco is the deputy director of the Campus Schools, admission to the high school is only granted in seventh grade, and is a two-step process. Note that this results in a pool of much less than 10% of New York City fifth graders for two reasons
21.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
22.
Blog
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A blog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. Posts are typically displayed in chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of an individual, occasionally of a small group. In the 2010s, multi-author blogs have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors, MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter and other microblogging systems helps integrate MABs, Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive Web 2.0 websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, in that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, however, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal online diaries, and others function more as online brand advertising of an individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to blogs, web pages. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs, however, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. Most blogs are primarily textual, although focus on art, photographs, videos, music. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources and these blogs are referred to as edublogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts, on 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million WordPress blogs in existence worldwide, according to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics, Technorati lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22,2014. The term weblog was coined by Jorn Barger on 17 December 1997, the short form, blog, was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme. com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used blog as both a noun and verb and devised the term blogger in connection with Pyra Labs Blogger product, in the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running conversations with threads
23.
Biometrics
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Biometrics refers to metrics related to human characteristics. Biometrics authentication is used in science as a form of identification. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance, Biometric identifiers are then distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals. Biometric identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics, physiological characteristics are related to the shape of the body. Examples include, but are not limited to fingerprint, palm veins, face recognition, DNA, palm print, hand geometry, iris recognition, retina and odour/scent. Behavioral characteristics are related to the pattern of behavior of a person, including but not limited to typing rhythm, gait, some researchers have coined the term behaviometrics to describe the latter class of biometrics. Many different aspects of physiology, chemistry or behavior can be used for biometric authentication. The selection of a particular biometric for use in an application involves a weighting of several factors. Jain et al. identified seven such factors to be used when assessing the suitability of any trait for use in biometric authentication, universality means that every person using a system should possess the trait. Uniqueness means the trait should be different for individuals in the relevant population such that they can be distinguished from one another. Permanence relates to the manner in which a trait varies over time, more specifically, a trait with good permanence will be reasonably invariant over time with respect to the specific matching algorithm. Measurability relates to the ease of acquisition or measurement of the trait, in addition, acquired data should be in a form that permits subsequent processing and extraction of the relevant feature sets. Performance relates to the accuracy, speed, and robustness of technology used, acceptability relates to how well individuals in the relevant population accept the technology such that they are willing to have their biometric trait captured and assessed. Circumvention relates to the ease with which a trait might be imitated using an artifact or substitute, proper biometric use is very application dependent. Certain biometrics will be better than others based on the levels of convenience. No single biometric will meet all the requirements of every possible application, the block diagram illustrates the two basic modes of a biometric system. Three steps are involved in the verification of a person, in the first step, reference models for all the users are generated and stored in the model database. In the second step, some samples are matched with reference models to generate the genuine and impostor scores, third step is the testing step
24.
Airport security
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Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers, staff and planes which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and other threats. Large numbers of pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in one place, Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft. While some countries may have an agency that protects all of their airports, the primary personnel will vary and can include, A police force hired and dedicated to the airport e. g. Travelers are screened by metal detectors, explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage and these detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography. A recent development is the use of backscatter X-rays to detect hidden weapons. These devices, which use Compton scattering, require that the stand close to a flat panel. Alternately, the passengers step fully shoed onto a device which scans in under 1.2 seconds for objects as small as a razor blade. In some countries, specially trained individuals may engage passengers in a conversation to detect rather than solely relying on equipment to find threats. A single backscatter scan exposes the target to between 0.05 and 0.1 microsievert of radiation, in comparison, the exposure from a standard chest x-ray is almost 100 times higher. Generally people are screened through airport security into areas where the gates to the aircraft are located. These areas are often called secure, sterile and airside, Airport food outlets have started using plastic glasses and utensils as opposed to glasses made out of glass and utensils made out of metal to reduce the usefulness of such items as weapons. In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a pass is to assist children. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport. Other countries, such as Canada or Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, sensitive areas in airports, including airport ramps and operational spaces, are restricted from the general public
25.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
26.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
27.
International Islamic University, Islamabad
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The International Islamic University is a public university and tertiary education research institution in Islamabad, Pakistan. It is a centre of Islam, theology, and the Islamic sciences, the university was founded in 1980 and restructured in 1985. In 2012, the university was one of the largest in Pakistan, in February 2014, the university awarded King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia an honorary doctorate in politics and international relations. The old campus lies about the Faisal Mosque, the mosque was designed by Vedat Dalokay, a Turkish architect. It was donated to the university by King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, the mosque is one of the largest in the world and is able to accommodate tens of thousands of people in its prayer hall, womens gallery and courtyard. The new campus occupies Islamabads Sector H-10, the first phase of construction of the new campus was completed in 2013. Since then an area for women has been established. In 2006, the construction of the Central Library and the Lincoln Corner was completed, the university infrastructure includes seven academic buildings. The universitys student accommodation includes four hostels for women and six for men, the university offers undergraduate, post-graduate, and doctoral studies programmes in science, engineering, technology, humanities, arts, religious studies, social and natural sciences. The university consists of a number of faculties, the Faculty of Engineering and Technology teaches electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and civil engineering. The Iqra College of Technology a constituent unit of IIU offers B. Tech in Mechanical, Electrical, the faculty of languages and literature offers tution in BS, MS and Phd in English, Persian and Urdu. In 1996, the Department of Business Administration offered tuition in a Master of Business Administration program, the Department of Technology Management was founded in 1998. It is the largest faculty of the University with around 3,700 registered students, the Faculty of Shariah and Law was first established in Quaid-i-Azam University in 1979 and then, in 1980, was incorporated into the International Islamic University, Islamabad. Student enrolling in doctorate programs complete one year of course work before commencing a thesis. More than 900 students have graduated from this faculty, the universitys International Institute of Islamic Economics was founded in 1983. It offers tuition in Islamic banking and finance, econometric s, within the faculty, the Division of Research and Training promotes research and offers training for staff of public and private financial and academic institutions. A Faculty of Islamic Studies was founded in 1981 and it offers tuition in the Tafseer and Quranic sciences, Hadith, comparative religion, Dawah and Islamic culture, Aqeedah and philosophy and Seerah and Islamic history. The Dawah Academy was founded in March 1985, the Shariah Institute of Training was founded in 1981 and became an academy in 1985
28.
Islamabad
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Islamabad is the capital city of Pakistan located within the federal Islamabad Capital Territory. The city is the seat of Pakistan and is administered by the Islamabad Metropolitan Corporation. Islamabad is located in the Pothohar Plateau in the part of the country. The region has historically been a part of the crossroads of Punjab, Islamabad was built during the 1960s to replace Karachi as Pakistans capital. The city is known for the presence of several parks and forests, including the Margalla Hills National Park, the city is home several landmarks, including the Faisal Mosque, the largest mosque in South Asia and the fourth largest in the world. Other landmarks include the Pakistans National Monument and Democracy Square, Islamabad is a gamma+ world city, it is categorised as very high on the Human Development Index, the highest in the country. The city has the highest cost of living in Pakistan, and its population is dominated by middle, the city is home to sixteen universities, including the Quaid-e-Azam University and NUST. The city is one of the safest in Pakistan, and has a surveillance system with 1,900 CCTV cameras. The name of the city, Islamabad is derived from two words, Islam and abad, meaning City of Islam, Islam is an Arabic word which refers to the religion of Islam and -abad is a Persian place name that means inhabited place or city. Islamabad Capital Territory, located on the Pothohar Plateau of the Punjab region, is considered one of the earliest sites of settlement in Asia. Some of the earliest Stone Age artefacts in the world have found on the plateau. Rudimentary stones recovered from the terraces of the Soan River testify to the endeavours of early man in the inter-glacial period, items of pottery and utensils dating back to prehistory have been found. Excavations have revealed evidence of a prehistoric culture, one end of the Indus Valley Civilization flourished here between the 23rd and 18th centuries BC. Later the area was a settlement of the Aryan community. A Buddhist town once existed in the region, many great armies such as those of Zahiruddin Babur, Genghis Khan, Timur and Ahmad Shah Durrani used the corridor through Islamabad on their way to invade the rest of the Indian Subcontinent. Modern Islamabad is based on the old settlement known as Saidpur, the British took control of the region from the Sikhs in 1849 and built South Asias largest cantonment in the region. When Pakistan gained independence in 1947, the port city of Karachi was its first national capital. In the 1960s, Islamabad was constructed as a capital for several reasons
29.
Plagiarism
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Plagiarism is the wrongful appropriation and stealing and publication of another authors language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions and the representation of them as ones own original work. Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic ethics and it is subject to sanctions like penalties, suspension, and even expulsion. Recently, cases of plagiarism have been identified in academia. The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe in the 18th century, Plagiarism is not in itself a crime, but can constitute copyright infringement. In academia and industry, it is a serious ethical offense, Plagiarism is not defined or punished by law, but rather by institutions. In the 1st century, the use of the Latin word plagiarius to denote stealing someone elses work was pioneered by the Roman poet Martial, plagiary, a derivative of plagiarus, was introduced into English in 1601 by dramatist Ben Jonson to describe someone guilty of literary theft. The derived form plagiarism was introduced into English around 1620, the Latin plagiārius, kidnapper, and plagium, kidnapping, have the root plaga, based on the Indo-European root *-plak, to weave. Plagiarism specifically is not mentioned in any current statute, either criminal or civil, some cases may be treated as unfair competition or a violation of the doctrine of moral rights. The increased availability of copyrighted material due to the development of technology has furthered the debate as to whether copyright offences are criminal. In short, people are asked to use the guideline, if you did not write it yourself, Plagiarism is not the same as copyright infringement. Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights of a copyright holder, Plagiarism, in contrast, is concerned with the unearned increment to the plagiarizing authors reputation, or the obtaining of academic credit, that is achieved through false claims of authorship. Thus, plagiarism is considered an offense against the plagiarists audience. Plagiarism is also considered an offense against anyone who has provided the plagiarist with a benefit in exchange for what is specifically supposed to be original content. In such cases, acts of plagiarism may sometimes form part of a claim for breach of the plagiarists contract, or, if done knowingly. Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud, many institutions use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential plagiarism and to deter students from plagiarizing. Most universities address the issue of academic integrity by providing students with thorough orientations, required writing courses, indeed, there is a virtually uniform understanding among college students that plagiarism is wrong. Nevertheless, each year students are brought before their institutions’ disciplinary boards on charges that they have misused sources in their schoolwork, an extreme form of plagiarism, known as contract cheating involves students paying someone else, such as an essay mill, to do their work for them. In journalism, plagiarism is considered a breach of journalistic ethics, some individuals caught plagiarizing in academic or journalistic contexts claim that they plagiarized unintentionally, by failing to include quotations or give the appropriate citation
30.
Cory Doctorow
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Cory Efram Doctorow is a Canadian-British blogger, journalist, and science fiction author who serves as co-editor of the blog Boing Boing. He is an activist in favour of liberalising copyright laws and a proponent of the Creative Commons organization, some common themes of his work include digital rights management, file sharing, and post-scarcity economics. Doctorow was born in Toronto, Ontario and his father was born in a refugee camp in Azerbaijan. Although he is an admirer of acclaimed novelist E. L, Doctorow, the two are of no known relation, contrary to popular belief, the surname Doctorow is somewhat common among Jewish people of Eastern European descent. In elementary school, Doctorow befriended Tim Wu and he received his high school diploma from the SEED School, and attended four universities without attaining a degree. He later served on the board of directors for the Grindstone Island Co-operative in Big Rideau Lake in Ontario, in June 1999, he co-founded the free software P2P company Opencola with John Henson and Grad Conn. The company was sold to the Open Text Corporation of Waterloo, Ontario, upon his departure, Doctorow was named a Fellow of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The professorship included a one-year writing and teaching residency at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles and he then returned to London, but remained a frequent public speaker on copyright issues. In 2009, Doctorow became the first Independent Studies Scholar in Virtual Residence at the University of Waterloo in Ontario and he was a student in the program during 1993–94, but left without completing a thesis. Doctorow is also a Visiting Senior Lecturer at the Open University in the United Kingdom, in 2012 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from The Open University. Doctorow married Alice Taylor in October 2008, and together they have one daughter named Poesy Emmeline Fibonacci Nautilus Taylor Doctorow, Doctorow became a British citizen by naturalisation on 12 August 2011. These two facts are not unrelated and he rejoined the EFF in January 2015 to campaign for the eradication of digital rights management. He served as Canadian Regional Director of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1999, on October 31,2005, Doctorow was involved in a controversy concerning digital rights management with Sony-BMG, as told in Wikinomics. Doctorow was the speaker at the July 2016 Hackers on Planet Earth conference. Doctorow began selling fiction when he was 17 years old and sold several stories followed by publication of his story Craphound in 1998, the electronic edition was released simultaneously with the print edition. In March 2003, it was re-released with a different Creative Commons licence that allowed derivative works such as fan fiction and it was nominated for a Nebula Award, and won the Locus Award for Best First Novel in 2004. A semi-sequel short story named Truncat was published on Salon. com in August 2003, Doctorow released the bestselling novel Little Brother in 2008 with a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike licence. It was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2009. and won the 2009 Prometheus Award, Sunburst Award, and his novel Makers was released in October 2009, and was serialized for free on the Tor Books website
31.
The Codebreakers
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The Codebreakers – The Story of Secret Writing is a book by David Kahn, published in 1967 comprehensively chronicling the history of cryptography from ancient Egypt to the time of its writing. The United States government attempted to have the book altered before publication, the Codebreakers is widely regarded as the best account of the history of cryptography up to its publication. Kahn, then a journalist, was contracted to write a book on cryptology in 1961 and he began writing it part-time, and then he quit his job to work on it full-time. The book was to include information on the NSA, and according to the author James Bamford, in 1982, the NSA considered various options, including writing a negative review of Kahns work to be published in the press to discredit him. Kahns publisher, Macmillan and Sons, handed over the manuscript to the government for review without Kahns permission on 4 March 1966. Kahn and Macmillan eventually agreed to some material from the manuscript. The book finishes with a chapter on SETI, because of the year of its publication, the book did not cover most of the history concerning the breaking of the German Enigma machine, which became public knowledge during the 1970s. Hence, not much was said of Alan Turing, the book was republished in 1996, and this new edition includes an additional chapter briefly covering the events since the original publication. Books on cryptography, other works cover the later history in more detail. Secret War of Words, The Codebreakers, new York Times Book Review, Jan 7,1968
32.
David Kahn (writer)
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David Kahn is a US historian, journalist and writer. He has written extensively on the history of cryptography and military intelligence, Kahns first published book, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing, has been widely considered to be a definitive account of the history of cryptography. David Kahn was born in New York City to Florence Abraham Kahn, a manufacturer, and Jesse Kahn. Kahn has said he traces his interest in cryptography to reading Fletcher Pratts Secret, Kahn is a founding editor of the Cryptologia journal. In 1969, Kahn married Susanne Fiedler, they are now divorced and they have two sons, Oliver and Michael. After graduation, he worked as a reporter at Newsday for several years and he also served as an editor at the International Herald Tribune in Paris for two years in the 1960s. It was during this period that he wrote an article for the New York Times Magazine about two defectors from the National Security Agency and this article was the origin of his monumental book, The Codebreakers. The Codebreakers comprehensively chronicles the history of cryptography from ancient Egypt to the time of its writing and it is widely regarded as the best account of the history of cryptography up to its publication. Most of the editing, German translating, and insider contributions were from the American World War II cryptographer, Kahn, then a newspaper journalist, was contracted to write a book on cryptology in 1961. He began writing it part-time, at one point quitting his job to work on it full-time. Kahns publisher, the Macmillan company, handed over the manuscript to the government for review without Kahns permission on March 4,1966. Kahn and Macmillan eventually agreed to some material from the manuscript. The Codebreakers did not cover most of the history concerning the breaking of the German Enigma machine, the book was republished in 1996, and the new edition included an additional chapter briefly covering the events since the original publication. The Codebreakers was a finalist for the non-fiction Pulitzer Prize in 1968, Kahn was awarded a doctorate from Oxford University in 1974, in modern German history under the supervision of the then Regius professor of modern history, Hugh Trevor-Roper. Kahn continued his work as a reporter and op-ed editor for Newsday until 1998, despite past differences between Kahn and the National Security Agency over the information in The Codebreakers, Kahn was selected in 1995 to become NSAs scholar-in-residence. The collection is housed at the NCM library and is non-circulating, Kahn lives in New York City. He has lived in Washington, D. C, Paris, France, Freiburg, Germany, Oxford, England, and Great Neck, New York. Yardley and the Birth of American Codebreaking How I Discovered World War IIs Greatest Spy and Other Stories of Intelligence and Code, Boca Raton, CRC Press, the Puzzle Palace, Inside the National Security Agency, Americas Most Secret Intelligence Organization
33.
Edgar Allan Poe
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Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and he is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the countrys earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a difficult life. Poe was born in Boston, the child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year, thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but Poe was with them well into young adulthood, tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money, Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at time that his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with the anonymous collection of poems Tamerlane and Other Poems. With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement, however, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the several years working for literary journals and periodicals. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, in Richmond in 1836, he married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845, Poe published his poem The Raven to instant success and his wife died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. For years, he had been planning to produce his own journal The Penn, Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, a number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre. He was born Edgar Poe in Boston on January 19,1809 and he had an elder brother William Henry Leonard Poe, and a younger sister Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather David Poe Sr. had emigrated from Cavan, Ireland to America around the year 1750, Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeares King Lear, a play that the couple were performing in 1809
34.
Digital rights management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses
35.
Intelligence agency
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Means of information gathering are both overt and covert and may include espionage, communication interception, cryptanalysis, cooperation with other institutions, and evaluation of public sources. The assembly and propagation of information is known as intelligence analysis or intelligence assessment. Intelligence agencies can provide the services for their national governments. There is a distinction between security intelligence and foreign intelligence, security intelligence pertains to domestic threats. Foreign intelligence involves information collection relating to the political, or economic activities of foreign states, zegart, Flawed by Design, The Evolution of the CIA, JCS, and NSC, Stanford, Calif. Нариси з історії розвідки субєктів державотворення на теренах України / Заг, journals The Journal of Intelligence History Reports Ruiz, Victor H.2010. A Knowledge Taxonomy for Army Intelligence Training, An Assessment of the Military Intelligence Basic Officer Leaders Course Using Lundvalls Knowledge Taxonomy
36.
Emergency service
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Emergency services and rescue services are organizations which ensure public safety and health by addressing different emergencies. Some of these agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies whilst others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their normal responsibilities, many of these agencies engage in community awareness and prevention programs to help the public avoid, detect, and report emergencies effectively. There are three main emergency service functions, Law enforcement —enforcing the law to prevent crime, investigate crime, reach out to the community, fire departments — protecting life and property through the provision of firefighting. However, there are many countries where fire, rescue. Emergency services have one or more dedicated emergency telephone numbers reserved for emergency calls. In some countries, one number is used for all the emergency services, in some countries, each emergency service has its own emergency number. These services can be provided by one of the services or by a separate government or private body. Military — to provide specialist services, such as disposal or to supplement emergency services at times of major disaster. Coast guard — Provide coastal patrols with a security function at sea, tasked with law enforcement and search. Lifeboat — Dedicated providers of rescue services, usually at sea. Mountain rescue — to provide search and rescue in mountainous areas, cave rescue — to rescue people injured, trapped, or lost during caving explorations. Mine rescue — specially trained and equipped to rescue miners trapped by fires, explosions, cave-ins, toxic gas, flooding, technical rescue — other types of technical or heavy rescue, but usually specific to a discipline. Search and rescue — can be discipline-specific, such as urban, wildland, maritime, wildland firefighting — to size-up, contain, extinguish, and mop-up wildfires. Bomb disposal — to render safe hazardous explosive ordnance, such as terrorist devices, unexploded bombs and other. Blood/organ transplant supply — to provide organs or blood on an emergency basis, Emergency management — to provide and co-ordinate resources during large-scale emergencies. Amateur radio emergency communications — to provide support to other emergency services. HAZ-MAT — removal of hazardous materials, Air search providing aerial spotting for the emergency services, such as conducted by the Civil Air Patrol in the US, or Sky Watch in the UK. Most services do, or should, have procedures and liaisons in place to ensure this, there can sometimes be tension between services for a number of other reasons, including professional versus voluntary crew members, or simply based on area or division
37.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
38.
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
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Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, also known as PENT, PENTA, TEN, corpent, penthrite, is the nitrate ester of pentaerythritol, and is structurally very similar to nitroglycerin. Penta refers to the five atoms of the neopentane skeleton. PETN is one of the most powerful explosive materials known, with an effectiveness factor of 1.66. When mixed with a plasticizer, PETN forms a plastic explosive, along with RDX it is the main ingredient of Semtex. PETN is also used as a drug to treat certain heart conditions. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate was first prepared and patented in 1894 by the explosives manufacturer Rheinisch-Westfälische Sprengstoff A. G. of Cologne, the production of PETN started in 1912, when the improved method of production was patented by the German government. PETN was used by the German Military in World War I and it was also used in the MG FF/M autocannons and many other weapon systems of the Luftwaffe in World War II, specifically in the high explosive Minengeschoß shell. PETN forms eutectic mixtures with some liquid or molten aromatic nitro compounds, due to its highly symmetrical structure, PETN is resistant to attack by many chemical reagents, it does not hydrolyze in water at room temperature or in weaker alkaline aqueous solutions. Water at 100 °C or above causes hydrolysis to dinitrate, presence of 0. 1% nitric acid accelerates the reaction, the chemical stability of PETN is of interest, because of the presence of PETN in aging weapons. Neutron radiation degrades PETN, producing carbon dioxide and some pentaerythritol dinitrate and trinitrate, gamma radiation increases the thermal decomposition sensitivity of PETN, lowers melting point by few degrees Celsius, and causes swelling of the samples. Like other nitrate esters, the degradation mechanism is the loss of nitrogen dioxide. Studies were performed on thermal decomposition of PETN, in the environment, PETN undergoes biodegradation. Some bacteria denitrate PETN to trinitrate and then dinitrate, which is further degraded. PETN has low volatility and low solubility in water, and therefore has low bioavailability for most organisms and its toxicity is relatively low, and its transdermal absorption also seems to be low. It poses a threat for aquatic organisms and it can be degraded to pentaerythritol by iron. Production is by the reaction of pentaerythritol with concentrated acid to form a precipitate which can be recrystallized from acetone to give processable crystals. Variations of a method first published in a US Patent 2,370,437 by Acken, PETN is manufactured by numerous manufacturers as a powder, or together with nitrocellulose and plasticizer as thin plasticized sheets. PETN residues are easily detectable in hair of people handling it, the highest residue retention is on black hair, some residues remain even after washing
39.
The Economist
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The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London. Continuous publication began under its founder, James Wilson, in September 1843, in 2015 its average weekly circulation was a little over 1.5 million, about half of which were sold in the United States. The publication belongs to the Economist Group and it is 50% owned by the English branch of the Rothschild family and by the Agnelli family through its holding company Exor. The remaining 50% is held by investors including the editors. The Rothschilds and the Agnellis are represented on the board of directors, a board of trustees formally appoints the editor, who cannot be removed without its permission. Although The Economist has an emphasis and scope, about two-thirds of the 75 staff journalists are based in the London borough of Westminster. For the year to March 2016 the Economist Group declared operating profit of £61m, previous major shareholders include Pearson PLC. The Economist takes a stance of classical and economic liberalism which is supportive of free trade, globalisation, free immigration. The publication has described itself as a product of the Caledonian liberalism of Adam Smith and it targets highly educated readers and claims an audience containing many influential executives and policy-makers. The publications CEO described this recent global change, which was first noticed in the 1990s and accelerated in the beginning of the 21st century, on the contents page of each issue, The Economists mission statement is written in italics. The Economist was founded by the British businessman and banker James Wilson in 1843, to advance the repeal of the Corn Laws, articles relating to some practical, commercial, agricultural, or foreign topic of passing interest, such as foreign treaties. An article on the principles of political economy, applied to practical experience, covering the laws related to prices, wages, rent, exchange, revenue. Parliamentary reports, with focus on commerce, agriculture and free trade. Reports and accounts of popular movements advocating free trade, general news from the Court of St. Jamess, the Metropolis, the Provinces, Scotland, and Ireland. Law reports, confined chiefly to areas important to commerce, manufacturing, books, confined chiefly, but not so exclusively, to commerce, manufacturing, and agriculture, and including all treatises on political economy, finance, or taxation. A commercial gazette, with prices and statistics of the week, correspondence and inquiries from the news magazines readers. It has long respected as one of the most competent. Its logo was designed in 1959 by Reynolds Stone, in January 2012 The Economist launched a new weekly section devoted exclusively to China, the first new country section since the introduction of a section about the United States in 1942
