1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Karnak
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The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak, comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings. Building at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom and continued into the Ptolemaic period, the area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian Ipet-isut and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the city of Thebes. The Karnak complex gives its name to the nearby, and partly surrounded, the complex is a vast open-air museum, and the second largest ancient religious site in the world, after the Angkor Wat Temple of Cambodia. It is believed to be the second most visited site in Egypt. It consists of four parts, of which only the largest is currently open to the general public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Ra only, the three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public. There also are a few temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re. The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, the original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have carried away for use in other buildings. The key difference between Karnak and most of the temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued through to Ptolemaic times, approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the features of Karnak are unique, but the size. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture and it also contains evidence of adaptations, using buildings of the Ancient Egyptians by later cultures for their own religious purposes. One famous aspect of Karnak is the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re,122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters. The architraves on top of columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers and this would be an extremely time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such great heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone, if stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material
3.
Precinct of Amun-Re
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The Precinct of Amun-Re, located near Luxor, Egypt, is one of the four main temple enclosures that make up the immense Karnak Temple Complex. The precinct is by far the largest of these and the one that is open to the general public. The temple complex is dedicated to the god of the Theban Triad, Amun. The site occupies roughly 250000 m², containing many structures, the main temple itself, Temple of Amun, covers roughly 61 acres and would have been able to hold 10 average European cathedrals. Some parts of the complex are closed or semi-closed, partially large parts of the North/South Axis, the whole southeast corner is semi-closed. The northwest corner is a museum that requires a ticket to visit. Most of the southwest is an area with millions of stone fragments, from small to huge, laid out in long rows. Also in this area can be found the housing of the Akhenaten Temple Project, a long building. The history of the Karnak complex is largely the history of Thebes, the earliest artifact found in the area of the temple is a small, eight-sided column from the Eleventh Dynasty, which mentions Amun-Ra. The tomb of Intef II mentions a house of Amun, which implies some structure, the main temple is laid out on an East/West axis, entered via a quay. The modern entrance is placed over the end of the ancient cult terrace, inscribed into the terrace are the inundation levels for several kings of the Third Intermediate Period, collectively known as the Nile Level Texts. The cult terrace is often thought to be a dock or quay. It was intended for the presentation of cult images, originally the quay led via a corridor of Sphinxes to the entrance to the second pylon, but these were moved aside when the First Pylon was constructed. Construction of the current pylon began in 30th dynasty, but was never totally completed and it is 113m wide and 15m thick. There are large numbers of mud bricks piled up against the inside of the pylon, the construction of the original first pylon and Forecourt in the 22nd dynasty enclosed several older structures, and meant that the original avenue of sphinxes had to be moved. These were built in the time of Seti II, and are dedicated to Amun, Mut, in order to construct this kiosk, the ram-sphinx corridor was removed and the statues moved to the edges of the open court. Only one column remains in place, bearing inscriptions by Taharqa, Psamtik II, on the south side of the forecourt, there is a small temple built by Ramesses III. Inscriptions inside the show the king slaughtering captives, whilst Amun-Re looks on
4.
Ramesses III
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Usimare Ramesses III was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty and is considered to be the last New Kingdom king to wield any substantial authority over Egypt. His long reign saw the decline of Egyptian political and economic power, linked to a series of invasions, Ramesses III was the son of Setnakhte and Queen Tiy-Merenese. He was probably murdered by an assassin in a conspiracy led by one of his wives, Tiye. Ramesses two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw and they are normally realised as Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu, meaning The Maat of Ra is strong, Beloved of Amun, Born of Ra, Ruler of Heliopolis. Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BC and this is based on his known accession date of I Shemu day 26 and his death on Year 32 III Shemu day 15, for a reign of 31 years,1 month and 19 days. Alternate dates for his reign are 1187 to 1156 BC, in Year 8 of his reign, the Sea Peoples, including Peleset, Denyen, Shardana, Meshwesh of the sea, and Tjekker, invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles, although the Egyptians had a reputation as poor seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses lined the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous volley of arrows into the ships when they attempted to land on the banks of the Nile. Then, the Egyptian navy attacked using grappling hooks to haul in the enemy ships, in the brutal hand-to-hand fighting which ensued, the Sea People were utterly defeated. The Harris Papyrus states, As for those who reached my frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two campaigns in Egypts Western Delta in his Year 5 and Year 11 respectively. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypts treasury and contributed to the decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground, the result in Egypt was a substantial increase in grain prices under the later reigns of Ramesses VI–VII, whereas the prices for fowl and slaves remained constant. Thus the cooldown affected Ramesses IIIs final years and impaired his ability to provide a constant supply of rations to the workmen of the Deir el-Medina community. No temple in the heart of Egypt prior to Ramesses reign had ever needed to be protected in such a manner. Thanks to the discovery of papyrus trial transcripts, it is now known there was a plot against his life as a result of a royal harem conspiracy during a celebration at Medinet Habu. The conspiracy was instigated by Tiye, one of his three wives, over whose son would inherit the throne. Tytis son, Ramesses Amonhirkhopshef, was the eldest and the chosen by Ramesses III in preference to Tiyes son Pentaweret
5.
Shoshenq I
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Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq I, — also known as Sheshonk or Sheshonq I — was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty. Of ancient Libyan ancestry, Shoshenq I was the son of Nimlot A, Great Chief of the Ma, and his wife Tentshepeh A and he is presumed to be the Shishaq mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, and his exploits are carved on the Bubastite Portal at Karnak. Bierbrier based his opinion on Biblical evidence collated by W. Albright in a BASOR130 paper, building materials would first have had to be extracted and architectural planning performed for his great monumental projects here. Such activities usually took up to a year to complete work was even begun. This would imply that Shoshenq I likely lived for a period in excess of one year after his 925 BC campaign and this possibility would also permit his 945 BC accession date to be slightly lowered to 943 BC. The editors of the 2006 book Ancient Egyptian Chronology write, The chronology of early Dyn.22 depends on dead reckoning. The sum of the highest attested regnal dates for Osorkon II, Takelot I, Osorkon I, the large Dakhla stela provides a lunar date in the form of a wrš feast in year 5 of Shoshenq, yielding 943 BC as his year 1. However, Dr. Anthony Leahy has suggested that the identification of the wrš-festival of Seth as lunar is hypothetical, thus far, however, only Dr. Kenneth Kitchen is on record as sharing the same academic view. Sheshonk I is frequently identified with the Egyptian king Shishaq, referred to in the Hebrew Bible at 1st Kings 11,40,14,25, Shoshenq I is generally attributed with the raid on Judah. This is corroborated with a stela discovered at Megiddo, Shoshenq I was the son of Nimlot A and Tentsepeh A. His paternal grandparents were the Chief of the MA Shoshenk and his wife Mehytenweskhet A, prior to his reign, Shoshenq I had been the Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Army, and chief advisor to his predecessor Psusennes II, as well as the father-in-law of Psusennes daughter Maatkare. He also held his fathers title of Great Chief of the Ma or Meshwesh, significantly, his uncle Osorkon the Elder had already served on the throne for at least six years in the preceding 21st Dynasty, hence, Shoshenq Is rise to power was not wholly unexpected. As king, Shoshenq chose his eldest son, Osorkon I, as his successor and consolidated his authority over Egypt through marriage alliances, finally, Shoshenq I designated his third son, Nimlot B, as the Leader of the Army at Herakleopolis in Middle Egypt. He pursued a foreign policy in the adjacent territories of the Middle East. There is no mention of either an attack nor tribute from Jerusalem, the fragment of a stela bearing his cartouche from Megiddo has been interpreted as a monument Shoshenq erected there to commemorate his victory. Some of these cities include ancient Israelite fortresses such as Megiddo, Taanach. There are other problems with Shoshenq being the same as the biblical Shishak and his list focuses on places either north or south of Judah, as if he did not raid the center. The fundamental problem facing historians is establishing the aims of the two accounts and linking up the information in them, there have been some possible suggestions and proposals from scholars regarding this issue
6.
Shishak
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Shishak or Susac or Shishaq is the biblical Hebrew form of the first ancient Egyptian name of a pharaoh mentioned in the Bible. He is usually identified with the historical pharaoh Shoshenq I, Shishak is best known for a campaign against the Kingdom of Judah, recorded in the Hebrew Bible and his supposed sacking of Jerusalem. In the fifth year of Rehoboams reign, Shishak swept through the kingdom of Judah with an army of 60,000 horsemen and 1,200 chariots. According to 2 Chronicles 12,3, he was supported by the Lubim, the Sukkiim, flavius Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews adds to this a contingent of 400,000 infantrymen. According to Second Chronicles, When Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem, he carried off the treasures of the temple of the Lord and he took everything, including the gold shields Solomon had made. The Bible is not specific about the means by which Shishak acquired these treasures and they have traditionally been interpreted as a ransom from Rehoboam to secure peace. However, if Shishak is to be equated with the historical Shoshenq I, israel Finkelstein concludes that the looting narrative should probably be seen as a theological construct rather than as historical references. Texts written in ancient languages seem to indicate that the first vowel was both long and round, and the final vowel was short. For example, the name is written in the Hebrew Bible as שישק, the Septuagint uses Σουσακιμ, derived from the marginal reading שושק of Hebrew. This indicates during the 2nd century BC Hebrew-speakers or Alexandrian Greek-speakers pronounced the name with a long close back rounded vowel. In the very early years after the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, on chronological, historical and this position was maintained by most scholars ever since, and is still the majority position. The fact that Shoshenq I left behind records of a campaign into Canaan. Other identifications have been put forward which have been considered fringe theories, in his book Ages in Chaos, Immanuel Velikovsky identified him with Thutmose III. More recently, David Rohls New Chronology identified him with Ramesses II, rohl, David M. Pharaohs and Kings, A Biblical Quest. Responding to the Critics and Assessing the Evidence In, P. James and P. van der Veen, Solomon and Shishak, BAR International Series 2732, Archaeopress, Shoshenq I and biblical Šîšaq, A philological defense of their traditional equation. James, Peter G. van der Veen, and Robert M. Porter, Egyptian Proper Names and Loanwords in North-West Semitic
7.
Cartouche
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In Egyptian hieroglyphs, a cartouche /kɑːrˈtuːʃ/ is an oval with a horizontal line at one end, indicating that the text enclosed is a royal name. They came into use during the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty under Pharaoh Sneferu, while the cartouche is usually vertical with a horizontal line, it is sometimes horizontal if it makes the name fit better, with a vertical line on the left. The Ancient Egyptian word for it was shenu, and it was essentially an expanded shen ring, in Demotic, the cartouche was reduced to a pair of brackets and a vertical line. Of the five royal titularies it was the prenomen, the name, and the Son of Ra titulary, the so-called nomen name given at birth. At times amulets were given the form of a cartouche displaying the name of a king, such items are often important to archaeologists for dating the tomb and its contents. Cartouches were formerly worn by Pharaohs. The oval surrounding their name was meant to them from evil spirits in life. The cartouche has become a symbol representing good luck and protection from evil, egyptians believed that one who had their name recorded somewhere would not disappear after death. A cartouche attached to a coffin satisfied this requirement, there were periods in Egyptian history when people refrained from inscribing these amulets with a name, for fear they might fall into somebodys hands conferring power over the bearer of the name. In the Rosetta Stone, the hieroglyph is used for the word name. For the cartouche cut in half, the half-cartouche hieroglyph, Gardiners sign listed no, v11, is used in the Egyptian language for words meaning, to cut, to divide, to separate. It was the use of cartouches on the Rosetta Stone that was the biggest clue allowing Jean-François Champollion to decipher hieroglyphics, cartouche Serekh, a predecessor to the cartouche Shen ring General Budge. The Rosetta Stone, E. A. Wallis Budge, c, archived from the original on June 15,2011
8.
Yad
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A yad is a Jewish ritual pointer, popularly known as a Torah pointer, used by the reader to follow the text during the Torah reading from the parchment Torah scrolls. Beyond its practical usage in pointing out letters, the yad ensures that the parchment is not touched during the reading, there are several reasons for this, handling the parchment renders one ritually impure and the often-fragile parchment is easily damaged. Moreover, the vellum parchment does not absorb ink so touching the scroll with fingers will damage the lettering, while not required when chanting from the Torah, it is used frequently and is considered a hidur mitzvah of reading the Torah. A yad can be made of any number of materials, though silver is common, the yad is often shaped like a long rod, capped by a small hand with its index finger pointing from it. In some cases a yad is covered with fabric, the Hebrew word yad also refers to a memorial, based on the verse in Isaiah 56,5
9.
Rosetta Stone
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The Rosetta Stone is a granodiorite stele, found in 1799, inscribed with three versions of a decree issued at Memphis, Egypt in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic script and Demotic script, respectively, as the decree is the same in all three versions, the Rosetta Stone proved to be the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. The stone, carved in black granodiorite during the Hellenistic period, is believed to have originally been displayed within a temple, possibly at nearby Sais. It was probably moved during the early Christian or medieval period and it was rediscovered there in July 1799 by a French soldier named Pierre-François Bouchard during the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt. Lithographic copies and plaster casts began circulating among European museums and scholars, meanwhile, British troops defeated the French in Egypt in 1801, and the original stone came into British possession under the Capitulation of Alexandria and was transported to London. It has been on display at the British Museum almost continuously since 1802. It is the object in the British Museum. Study of the decree was already under way when the first full translation of the Greek text appeared in 1803, the Rosetta Stone is, therefore, no longer unique, but it was the essential key to modern understanding of Ancient Egyptian literature and civilisation. The term Rosetta Stone is now used in contexts as the name for the essential clue to a new field of knowledge. The Rosetta Stone is listed as a stone of black granite, found at Rosetta in a contemporary catalogue of the artefacts discovered by the French expedition and surrendered to British troops in 1801. This gave a dark colour to the stone that led to its identification as black basalt. The Rosetta Stone is 1,123 millimetres high at its highest point,757 mm wide and it bears three inscriptions, the top register in Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the second in the Egyptian Demotic script, and the third in Ancient Greek. The Rosetta Stone is a fragment of a larger stele, no additional fragments were found in later searches of the Rosetta site. Owing to its state, none of the three texts is absolutely complete. The top register, composed of Egyptian hieroglyphs, suffered the most damage, only the last 14 lines of the hieroglyphic text can be seen, all of them are broken on the right side, and 12 of them on the left. The following register of demotic text has survived best, it has 32 lines, the final register of Greek text contains 54 lines, of which the first 27 survive in full, the rest are increasingly fragmentary due to a diagonal break at the bottom right of the stone. The stele was erected after the coronation of King Ptolemy V and was inscribed with a decree established the divine cult of the new ruler. The decree was issued by a congress of priests who gathered at Memphis, the date is given as 4 Xandicus in the Macedonian calendar and 18 Meshir in the Egyptian calendar, which corresponds to March 27,196 BC
10.
Amun
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Amun was a major Ancient Egyptian deity. He was attested since the Old Kingdom together with his wife Amaunet, with the 11th dynasty, he rose to the position of patron deity of Thebes by replacing Monthu. After the rebellion of Thebes against the Hyksos and with the rule of Ahmose I, Amun acquired national importance, expressed in his fusion with the Sun god, Ra, Amun-Ra retained chief importance in the Egyptian pantheon throughout the New Kingdom. Amun-Ra in this period held the position of transcendental, self-created creator deity par excellence, he was the champion of the poor or troubled and his position as King of Gods developed to the point of virtual monotheism where other gods became manifestations of him. With Osiris, Amun-Ra is the most widely recorded of the Egyptian gods, as the chief deity of the Egyptian Empire, Amun-Ra also came to be worshipped outside of Egypt, according to the testimony of ancient Greek historiographers in Libya and Nubia. As Zeus Ammon he came to be identified with Zeus in Greece, Amun and Amaunet are mentioned in the Old Egyptian Pyramid Texts. The name Amun meant something like the one or invisible. Amun rose to the position of tutelary deity of Thebes after the end of the First Intermediate Period, as the patron of Thebes, his spouse was Mut. In Thebes, Amun as father, Mut as mother and the Moon god Khonsu formed a family or Theban Triad. The history of Amun as the god of Thebes begins in the 20th century BC. The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the 11th dynasty, major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the 18th dynasty when Thebes became the capital of the unified ancient Egypt. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall may have begun during the 18th dynasty, though most building was undertaken under Seti I. Merenptah commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court and this Great Inscription shows the kings campaigns and eventual return with booty and prisoners. Next to this inscription is the Victory Stela, which is largely a copy of the more famous Israel Stela found in the complex of Merenptah on the west bank of the Nile in Thebes. Merenptahs son Seti II added 2 small obelisks in front of the Second Pylon, and this was constructed of sandstone, with a chapel to Amun flanked by those of Mut and Khonsu. The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Res layout was the addition of the first pylon, the local patron deity of Thebes, Amun, therefore became nationally important. The pharaohs of that new dynasty attributed all their enterprises to Amun. The victory accomplished by pharaohs who worshipped Amun against the rulers, brought him to be seen as a champion of the less fortunate
11.
Mut
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Mut, which meant mother in the ancient Egyptian language, was an ancient Egyptian mother goddess with multiple aspects that changed over the thousands of years of the culture. Alternative spellings are Maut and Mout and she was considered a primal deity, associated with the waters from which everything was born through parthenogenesis. She also was depicted as a woman with a head dress, the rulers of Egypt each supported her worship in their own way to emphasize their own authority and right to rule through an association with Mut. Some of Muts many titles included World-Mother, Eye of Ra, Queen of the Goddesses, Lady of Heaven, Mother of the Gods, and She Who Gives Birth, But Was Herself Not Born of Any. Mut was a title of the waters of the cosmos, Naunet, in the Ogdoad cosmogony during what is called the Old Kingdom. The hieroglyph for Muts name, and for itself, was that of a vulture. Much later new myths held that since Mut had no parents, making up a complete triad of deities for the later pantheon of Thebes, it was said that Mut had adopted Menthu, god of war. Lower and upper Egypt both already had patron deities–Wadjet and Nekhbet–respectively, indeed they also had lioness protector deities–Bast and Sekhmet–respectively, when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed these warrior goddesses as some of her aspects. Later in ancient Egyptian mythology deities of the pantheon were identified as equal pairs, female and male counterparts, in that phase, Mut and Amun had a son, Khonsu, another moon deity. The authority of Thebes waned later and Amun was assimilated into Ra, Mut, the doting mother, was assimilated into Hathor, the cow-goddess and mother of Horus who had become identified as Ras wife. Subsequently, when Ra assimilated Atum, the Ennead was absorbed as well, and so Mut-Hathor became identified as Isis, the most important of the females in the Ennead, and the patron of the queen. Alternatively, as a result of her assimilations, Mut is sometimes depicted as a cobra, a cat, a cow, or as a lioness as well as the vulture. The last image on this shows the goddesss facial features which mark this as a work made sometime between late Dynasty XVIII and relatively early in the reign of Ramesses II. There are temples dedicated to Mut still standing in modern-day Egypt and Sudan, reflecting the widespread worship of her and that temple had the statue that was regarded as an embodiment of her real ka. Her devotions included daily rituals by the pharaoh and her priestesses, interior reliefs depict scenes of the priestesses, currently the only known remaining example of worship in ancient Egypt that was exclusively administered by women. Usually the queen, who carried the royal lineage among the rulers of Egypt. The pharaoh participated also and would become a deity after death, in the case when the pharaoh was female, records of one example indicate that she had her daughter serve as the high priestess in her place. Often priests served in the administration of temples and oracles where priestesses performed the religious rites
12.
Khonsu
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Khonsu is the Ancient Egyptian god of the moon. His name means traveller, and this may relate to the travel of the moon across the sky. Along with Thoth he marked the passage of time, Khonsu was instrumental in the creation of new life in all living creatures. At Thebes he formed part of a triad with Mut as his mother. As the god of light in the night, Khonsu was invoked to protect against wild animals and it was said that when Khonsu caused the crescent moon to shine, women conceived, cattle became fertile, and all nostrils and every throat was filled with fresh air. This bloodthirsty aspect leads him to be referred to, in such as the Pyramid texts and he also became associated with more literal placentas, becoming seen as a deification of the royal placenta, and so a god involved with childbirth. Khonsu is typically depicted as a mummy with the symbol of childhood and he has close links to other divine children such as Horus and Shu. He is sometimes shown wearing a head like Horus, with whom he is associated as a protector and healer, adorned with the sun disk. Most of the construction of the complex at Karnak was centered on Khonsu during the Ramesside period. Khonsus reputation as a healer spread outside Egypt, a stele records how a princess of Bekhten was instantly cured of an illness upon the arrival of an image of Khonsu. King Ptolemy IV, after he was cured of an illness, called himself Beloved of Khonsu Who Protects His Majesty, locations of Khonsus cult were Memphis, Hibis and Edfu. Khonsu gradually replaced the war-god Monthu as the son of Mut in Theban thought during the Middle Kingdom, because the pool at the temple of Mut was in the shape of a crescent moon. The father who had adopted Khonsu was thought to be Amun, who had already been changed into a more significant god by the rise of Thebes, as these two were both considered extremely benign deities, Menthu gradually lost his more aggressive aspects. In art, Khonsu was depicted as a man with the head of a hawk and his head was shaven except for the sidelock worn by Egyptian children, signifying his role as Khonsu the Child. Occasionally he was depicted as a holding the flail of the pharaoh. He was sometimes pictured on the back of a goose, ram and his sacred animal was the baboon, considered a lunar animal by the ancient Egyptians. In the Egyptian Myth-based trilogy, The Kane Chronicles, Khonsu is allowed by Osiris to visit the characters, Sadie and Carter. He would give one hour for every piece they got off the board
13.
Nine bows
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The nine bows is a term used in Ancient Egypt to represent the traditional enemies of Egypt. The peoples covered by this term changed over time, as enemies changed, when illustrated the nine bows are usually shown as dressed differently from each other, as they each personify a specific enemy relevant to the time period. One of the oldest representations of the Nine bows is on the statue of Pharaoh Djoser–his feet rest upon part of the nine bows. The Rekhyt bird- is often associated in the iconography, with the phrase, pharaoh-King Tutankhamun has a famous representation of the Nine Bows, and the nine foreign enemies. The tomb was closed with a rope, and the rope impressed with a clay seal. The seal contains an impression with Anubis, reclining as a jackal, at the top list of the Nine foreign rebels, in a long, the Campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I Into Palestine
14.
Dura, Hebron
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Dura is a Palestinian town located eleven kilometers southwest of Hebron in the Hebron Governorate in the southern West Bank. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the town had a population of over 28,268 in 2007, the current mayor is Sameer Al-Namoura. Some believe Noah, the tenth of the pre-flood Patriarchs, as the story of Noahs Ark is told in the Hebrew Bible, is buried in Dura. The city was fortified by Rehoboam, King of the United Monarchy of Israel and later the King of the Kingdom of Judah, who was a son of Solomon, the city was called Adora in the First Book of Maccabees. In 1517, the village was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire with the rest of Syria, after the British Mandate, in the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Dura was occupied by Jordan and came under Jordanian rule. Dura was established as a municipality on January 1,1967, according to the municipality, the name Dura is derived from a Canaanite word meaning house and not the Arabic word for corn. Its ancient Canaanite name is Adoraim, according to the Bible,2 Chron. The city was fortified by Rehoboam, the city was called Macabees Adora Dura is an ancient place, where old cisterns and fragments of mosaics have been found. The town was referred to as Adora during the classical period and it may have been the administrative center of the district of eastern Idumaea established by the Roman consul Aulus Gabinius in the 6th century BCE, though other possibilities have been suggested. Its inhabitants, who were alleged to have been of Esaus progeny, were forced to convert to Judaism during the reign of Hyrcanus, mukaddasi, writing around 985 CE, noted that Dura was famous for its vineyards and a type of raisin called Duri. In 1517, the village was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire with the rest of Palestine, in 1596 it appeared in the tax registers as being in the Nahiya of Khalil of the Liwa of Quds. It had a population of 49 Muslim households and paid taxes on wheat, barley, olives, vines or fruit trees, in 1834, Duras inhabitants participated in an uprising against the Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha, who took over the area between 1831 and 1840. When Robinson visited in 1838, he described Dura as one of the largest villages in the area, and the residence of the Sheikhs of Ibn Omar, two barracks especially have been built in this way. Above the door of one, a block forming the lintel was once ornamented with mouldings, close to the town is a celebrated wely in which lies a colossal sarcophagus, containing, it is said, the body of Noah. An Ottoman village list from about 1870 found that Dura had a population of 420, in 144 houses, though the population count included men, only. In 1877 Lieutenant Kitchener had some boys publicly flogged in Dura following an incident when stones were thrown at a member of the Palestine Exploration Fund survey party. In 1883, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described Dura as A large and nourishing village on the slope of a hill. This plain is cultivated with corn, to the north of Dura are a few olives, and others on the south
15.
Rehoboam
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Rehoboam was an Israelite king mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. He was a son of Solomon and a grandson of David and his mother was Naamah the Ammonite. One of the most difficult issues in identifying Shishak with Shoshenq I is the statement that King Shishak of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. Solomons wisdom and power were not sufficient to prevent the rebellion of several of his border cities, Damascus under Rezon secured its independence of Solomon, and Jeroboam, a superintendent of works, his ambition stirred by the words of the prophet Ahijah, fled to Egypt. Thus before the death of Solomon the apparently unified kingdom of David began to disintegrate, with Damascus independent and a powerful man of Ephraim, the most prominent of the Ten Tribes, awaiting his opportunity, the future of Solomons kingdom became dubious. Conventional Bible chronology dates the start of Rehoboams reign to the mid-10th century BC and his reign is described in 1 Kings 12 and 14, 21-31 and in 2 Chronicles 10-12 In the Hebrew Bible, Rehoboam was 41 years old when he ascended the throne. The assembly for the coronation of Solomons successor, Rehoboam, was called at Shechem, before the coronation took place the assembly requested certain reforms in the policy followed by Rehoboams father, Solomon. The reforms requested would materially reduce the royal exchequer and hence its power to continue the magnificence of Solomons court, the older men counseled Rehoboam at least to speak to the people in a civil manner. However, the new king sought the advice from the people he had grown up with, who advised the king to show no weakness to the people, and to tax them even more, which Rehoboam did. He proclaimed to the people, Whereas my father laid upon you a heavy yoke, Whereas my father chastised you with whips, so shall I chastise you with scorpions. For my littlest finger is thicker than my fathers loins, and your backs, the two sections had acted independently until David, by his victories, succeeded in uniting all the tribes, though the Ephraimitic jealousy was ever ready to develop into open revolt. The building of the Temple was a blow for the various sanctuaries scattered through the land. Josephus makes the rebels exclaim, We leave to Rehoboam the Temple his father built, Jeroboam and the people rebelled, with the ten northern tribes breaking away and forming a separate kingdom. The new breakaway kingdom continued to be called Kingdom of Israel, the realm Rehoboam was left with was called Kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam went to war against the new Kingdom of Israel with a force of 180,000 soldiers, however, he was advised against fighting his brethren, and so returned to Jerusalem. The text reports that Israel and Judah were in a state of war throughout his 17-year reign, in the 5th year of Rehoboams reign Shishaq, king of Egypt, brought a huge army and took many cities. According to Joshua, son of Nadav, the mention in 2 Chron,11,6 sqq. that Rehoboam built fifteen fortified cities, indicates that the attack was not unexpected. The account in Chronicles states that Shishaq marched with 1,200 chariots,60,000 horsemen and troops who came with him from Egypt, Libyans, Sukkites, shishaqs armies captured all of the fortified towns leading to Jerusalem between Gezer and Gibeon
16.
Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
17.
Israel Finkelstein
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Israel Finkelstein Until the 9th century BCE, Jerusalem was restricted to the mound on the Temple Mount and ruled over a modest area in the southern highlands. B) The first expansion of Jerusalem came in the 9th century BCE, perhaps in its second half, Remains of the Iron IIA were unearthed south of al-Aqsa Mosque, above the Gihon Spring and to the south of the Dung Gate of the Old City. C) The most impressive phase in the settlement history of Jerusalem commenced in the late 8th century BCE, at that time Jerusalem expanded dramatically, to include the entire City of David ridge, as well as the Western Hill. This expansion was the result of the arrival of Israelite refugees after the demise of the Northern Kingdom in 722-720 BCE and these groups brought with them traits of Northern material culture, and more important – their foundation myths, royal traditions and heroic stories. These Northern traditions were incorporated into the Judahite Bible. Finkelstein noted that in the Persian Period, Jerusalem was limited to the mound on the Temple Mount – and even there was sparsely settled – and that Yehud of that time was also thinly settled. As the description of the construction of the wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah 3 must relate to the big city, the same holds true, in his opinion, for the genealogies in 1 Chronicles. Finkelstein then looked into the accounts of Judahite monarchs in 2 Chronicles and he called attention to similarities between these texts and 1 Maccabees, and proposed to understand Chronicles as representing legitimacy needs of the Hasmoneans. This means that at least 2 Chronicles dates to the late 2nd century BCE, • Yitzhak Meitlis, The Judean Hill Country in the Middle Bronze Age,1997. • David Ilan, Northeastern Israel in the Iron Age I, Cultural, Economic and Political Structures, • Assaf Yasur-Landau, Social Aspects of Aegean Settlement in the Southern Levant at the end of the 2nd Millennium BCE,2003. • Alon Shavit, Settlement Patterns in the Southern Coastal Plain in the Iron II,2004, • Yuval Gadot, Tel Aphek at the End of the Late Bronze Age and the Beginning of the Iron Age, Typological, Chronological and Cultural Implications,2004. • Aharon Sasson, Animal Husbandry in Light of Zooarchaeological Research in Stratum II at Tel Beer-sheba,2004, • Liora Kolska Horwitz, Diachronic Patterns of Animal Exploitation in the Sinai Peninsula,2006. • Norma Franklin, State Formation in the Northern Kingdom of Israel, • Alexander Fantalkin, The Contacts between the Greek World and the Southern Levant, during the Sixth-Seventh Centuries BCE,2008. • Arad Haggi, Harbours in Phoenicia, Israel and Philistia in the 9th - 7th Centuries BCE, Archaeology Finds, • Amir Sumaki-Fink, The History and Archaeology of Alalah in the Late Bronze Age,2009. • Yifat Thareani-Sussely, A Town in the Desert, Geographical, Economic, • Eran Arie, In the land of the valley, Settlement, Social and Cultural Processes in the Jezreel Valley from the End of the Late Bronze Age to the Formation of the Monarchy,2012. • David Friesem, Formation Processes Related to the Degradation of Mud Brick Structures, • Michael Toffolo, Correlating the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean, Contexts, Site Formation Processes and Chronology,2014. • Shirly Ben-Dor Evian, Egypt and Philistia in the Early Iron Age, The Historical Record, • Karen Covello-Paran, The Jezreel Valley during the Intermediate Bronze Age, Social and Cultural Landscapes,2015. • Elon Heymans, The Early History of Money and Monetary Exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean Iron Age, • Efrat Bocher, The Material Culture in Judah and Samaria during the Persian Period
18.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
19.
History of the Karnak Temple complex
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The history of the Karnak Temple complex is largely the history of Thebes. The earliest artifact found in the area of the temple is a small, eight-sided column from the Eleventh Dynasty, the tomb of Intef II mentions a house of Amun, which implies some structure, whether a shrine or a small temple is unknown. The unification of Egypt brought Amun increased power and wealth, and he was merged with the sun god Rê. The White Chapel of Senusret I and the Middle Kingdom court are the earliest remains of buildings within the temple area, close to the Sacred Lake, excavations have located a planned settlement. Major expansion of the complex took place during the Eighteenth dynasty. Amenhotep I constructed a shrine and a gateway. Thutmose I erected a wall around the Middle Kingdom temple, connecting the Fourth and Fifth pylons. They contain fourteen papyrus columns and the two obelisks of Hatshepsut, which were hidden from view by walls set up by Thutmose III. Thutmose II laid out a Festival Courtyard at the front of the temple, removed by later construction, under Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, another enclosure wall fortified with towers was erected, and the nearby Sacred Lake was either constructed or enlarged. During the reign of Thutmose III, the temple itself was extended by 50% with the addition of a building called the Akh-menu. This is normally translated as the most glorious of monuments, according to Gardiner’s Egyptian Grammar, the word akh can mean either glory or blessed/living spirit. So an alternative translation is monument to living spirit and it is now known as the Festival Hall of Thutmose III, which is seemingly decorated to echo a huge tent shrine, complete with awnings and tent poles. In this temple, the Karnak king list, shows Thutmose III with some of the kings that built parts of the temple complex. After a brief period of interruption during the Amarna Period, when the Egyptian capital was moved to Akhetaten, construction resumed at Karnak under Tutankhamun, the Ninth pylon was erected along the southern axis using material known as talatat from the now demolished Akhetaten. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall may have begun during the eighteenth dynasty, though most building was undertaken under Seti I. Merenptah commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court and this Great Inscription shows the kings campaigns and eventual return with booty and prisoners. Next to this enscription is the Victory Stela, which is largely a copy of the more famous Israel Stela, merenptahs son Seti II added 2 small obelisks in front of the Second Pylon, and a triple bark-shrine to the north of the processional avenue in the same area. This was constructed of sandstone, with a chapel to Amun flanked by those of Mut, the last rulers of this dynasty added little to the temple complex
20.
Karnak Open Air Museum
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Karnak Open Air Museum is an archaeological museum in Luxor, Egypt. It is located in the corner of the Precinct of Amon-Re at the Karnak complex. The Open Air Museum contains reconstructions of structures that have been dismantled and buried or hidden inside the pylons in the complex. Among these edifices are the Chapelle Rouge of Hatshepsut, the White Chapel of Senusret I, preventive archaeological excavations before the renovation of Amenhotep IIs calcite shrine were observed in this area, including an urban unit with mudbricks walls of Saito-Persian time. Monuments and objects from the Open Air Museum in the Karnak Project Excavations in the Open Air Museum The Karnak Open Air Museum in Luxor, Egypt
21.
Opet Festival
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The Beautiful Feast of Opet was an Ancient Egyptian festival celebrated annually in Thebes, during the New Kingdom and in later periods. The highlight of the ritual is the meeting of Amun-Re of Karnak with the Amun of Luxor, rebirth is a strong theme of Opet and there is usually a re-coronation ceremony of the pharaoh. In earlier celebrations of the Opet Festival, the statues of the god proceeded down the avenue of sphinxes that connect the two temples, stopping at specially constructed chapels en route and these shrines would have been filled with offerings, providing for the gods themselves and the attending priests. At the end of the ceremonies in the Luxor Temple, the barques journeyed back by boat to Karnak, in later celebrations, the statues would be transported both to and from Karnak/Luxor by boat. The festival was celebrated in the month of Akhet, the season of the flooding of the Nile. A royal barque also sailed with the vessel, and the ceremonies in the Chamber of the Divine King would reenact the coronation ceremonies. Huni Paopi Tombos Davies, V. & Friedman R. Egypt, British Museum Press,1998 Nigel Strudwick, Thebes in Egypt, Cornell University Press,1999 Darnell, John C. Opet Festival, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology,2010, http, //escholarship. org/uc/item/4739r3fr#
22.
Great Hypostyle Hall
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The Great Hypostyle Hall is located within the Karnak temple complex, in the Precinct of Amon-Re. It is one of the most visited monuments of Ancient Egypt, the structure was built around the 19th Egyptian Dynasty. Its design was instituted by Hatshepsut, at the North-west chapel to Amun in the upper terrace of Deir el-Bahri. The name refers to hypostyle architectural pattern, the hall covers an area of 50,000 sq ft. The roof, now fallen, was supported by 134 columns in 16 rows, the hall was not begun by Horemheb, or Amenhotep III as earlier scholars had thought but was built entirely by Seti I who inscribed the northern wing of the hall with inscriptions. Decoration of the wing was completed by Ramesses II. A series of later pharaohs added inscriptions to the walls and the columns in places their predecessors had left blank, including Ramesses III, Ramesses IV, the north side of the hall is decorated in raised relief, and was mainly Seti Is work. Ramesses II also usurped decoration of his father along the main north-south and east-west processional ways of the hall, most of Seti Is reliefs in the northern part of the hall were respected however. The outer walls depict scenes of battle, Seti I on the north, although these reliefs had religious and ideological functions, they are important records of the wars of these kings. On another wall adjoining the wall of the Hall is a record of Ramesses IIs peace treaty with the Hittites that he signed in Year 21 of his reign. In 1899,11 of the columns of the Great Hypostyle Hall had collapsed in a chain reaction. Georges Legrain, who was then the chief archaeologist in the area, later, similar work had to continue in order to strengthen the rest of the columns of the Temple. Talatat University of Memphis Great Hypostyle Hall Project Media related to Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Temple of Ptah (Karnak)
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The Temple of Ptah is a shrine located within the large Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak, in Luxor, Egypt. It lies to the north of the main Amun temple, just within the boundary wall, the building was erected by the Pharaoh Thutmose III on the site of an earlier Middle Kingdom temple. The edifice was enlarged by the Ptolemaic Kingdom. The temple consists of six small gateways, built close together, the first, to the west, was constructed by the Ptolemies. The subsequent gates date from the Eighteenth Dynasty, with the one erected by Hatshepsut
24.
Temple of Khonsu
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The Temple of Khonsu is an ancient Egyptian temple. It is located with the large Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak, in Luxor, the edifice is an example of an almost complete New Kingdom temple, and was originally constructed by Ramesses III, on the site of an earlier temple. The gateway of temple is at the end of the avenue of sphinxes that ran to the Luxor Temple. In Ptolemaic times, Ptolemy III Euergetes constructed a gateway and enclosure wall for the temple. Inscriptions inside the forecourt of the temple were made in the time of Herihor
25.
Festival Hall of Thutmose III
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The Festival Hall of Thutmose III is an ancient shrine in Luxor, Egypt. It is located at the heart of the Precinct of Amun-Re, the edifice is normally translated as the most glorious of monuments, but monument to living spirit is an alternative translation since akh can mean either glory or blessed/living spirit. The Festival Hall of Thutmose III is situated at the end of the Middle Kingdom court and it was originally built to celebrate the jubilee of Thutmose III, and later became used as part of the annual Opet Festival. It is seemingly decorated to echo a huge tent shrine, complete with awnings, in this temple, the Karnak king list, shows Thutmose III with some of the earlier kings that built parts of the temple complex. Built at the end of Karnaks main axis, and enclosed in its own walls. This is known as the Hry-ib, or that which is at the heart of it, the only original entrance was in the south-west corner. The walls contain the Botanical garden of Thutmosis III, the originals of these were removed and are now located in the Louvre in Paris. List of lists of ancient kings Blyth, Elizabeth, thebes in Egypt A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. Ancient Egypt, Anatomy of a Civilization
26.
Precinct of Mut
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The Precinct of Mut is an Ancient Egyptian temple compound located in the present city of Luxor, on the east bank of the Nile in South Karnak. The compound is one of the four key ancient temples that creates the Karnak Temple Complex and it is approximately 325 meters south of the precinct of the god Amun. The precinct itself encompasses approximately 90,000 square meters of the entire area, the Mut Precinct contains at least six temples, the Mut Temple, the Contra Temple, and Temples A, B, C, and D. Surrounding the Mut Temple proper, on three sides, is a lake called the Isheru. To the south of the lake is a vast amount of land currently being excavated by Dr. Betsy Bryan and her team from the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Today, most of the compound is destroyed, but it is currently being renovated. Surrounding the Mut Temple, the Contra Temple, and Temples A, B, C, the Mut Temple proper was made of mediocre sandstone and it is positioned north and south and is directly aligned with the Precinct of Amun. The purpose of the Contra Temple is still unclear, however, within the temple are two stelae, one referring to Ramsses II’s work on Temple A and the other telling of his marriage to Hittite princess. To the east of the Mut Temple is a building referred to as, Temple B, due to the amount of damage of Temple B. The sacred lake, Isheru, was man made and held religious importance to the cult of the goddess Mut, the goddess Mut is the wife and consort of the god Amun-Ra. She was also known as the Mother Goddess, Queen of the Goddesses, Mut was the Egyptian sky goddess and her symbols were the vulture, lioness and the crown of Uraeus. She was the mother of Khonsu, the god of the moon, Amun-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu made up the Theban Triad. Amenhotep III was originally thought to have been the first to build the Mut Temple, the earliest dated cartouches are of Thutmose II and III of the 18th Dynasty. During the 20th Dynasty, Ramsses III built Temple C, it was used until the 25th Dynasty when it became a quarry for renovations for Temple A. During his reign, Kushite ruler Taharqa in the 25th Dynasty made major changes to the Mut Precinct and he built a new sandstone gateway in the northwest of the site that leads to Temple A. He also renovated parts of the Mut Temple proper, erecting a columned porch facing the south, ptolemy VI during the Ptolemaic period erected a small chapel inside the Mut Temple proper. Several stelae found on the site, mention construction on the site by Roman emperors Augustus and Tiberius from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, many travelers, like Napoleon and Sir John Gardiner Wilkinson visited the Precinct of Mut between AD1799 and 1845. The photographs, journals and maps that dated to the excavations have added an exceptional insight as to how the Mut Precinct could have looked at the time of each exploration
27.
Temple of Amenhotep IV
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Constructed outside the boundaries of the Precinct of Amon-Re, to the east, the main temple in the complex was named Gm–p3–itn, which means The Sun Disc is Found in the Estate of the God Aten. The others were named Hwt–bnbn, Rwd–mnw–n–itn–r–nḥḥ, and Tni–mnw–n–itn–r–nḥḥ, very little of these buildings remains, they were built quickly, using Talatat blocks, and could therefore easily be demolished and reused as core for later structures. The Gempaaten appears to have no roof and its offering tables were exposed to direct sunlight, in this building were red granite and sandstone statues of Akhenaten, red granite offering tables and other statues, including a sphinx inscribed with the name of the Aten. It was of a size, but it was so completely destroyed that its foundations have been nearly obliterated. Erected in east Karnak, the Hwt benben or Mansion of the Benben was devoted to a solar cult, the Teni–menu seemed to contain domestic and storage rooms, and may have been a royal residence, although not enough of the structure remains to clarify the use. The walls of the Teni-menu were reused in the Ninth Pylon of the main Karnak temple and they have since been identified and reassembled like a giant puzzle and are partly exhibited in the Luxor museum. Donald Redford, Akhenaten, The Heretic King, Princeton,1984
28.
Chapelle Rouge
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The Red Chapel of Hatshepsut or the Chapelle Rouge originally was constructed as a barque shrine during the reign of Hatshepsut. She was the pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty of Ancient Egypt. Although it had demolished and parts were reused in antiquity, following rediscovery. Its original location is thought to have been in the court of the temple of Amun at Karnak. Alternatively, it might have been situated between the two obelisks of Hatshepsut and it also is thought that behind it, Hatshepsut erected several smaller chapels and the Chambers of Hatshepsut. During the early dynasty, the sun deity was Amun. The chapel would have been its sacred temple, a barque also was believed to transport the dead to the afterlife and royal ones would carry the pharaoh on a journey to become a deity. Eventually, in addition to the reliefs and paintings of barques, model copies were placed in the tombs of pharaohs, royalty, the chapel consists of two open courts and is approximately 18 metres long,6 m wide, and 5.5 m high. Its upper portion is made of red quartzite, the foundation is built of black diorite, black granite and grey diorite also were used in its construction. In the center of the first of three courts contained in the building, is a basin, probably used to hold a model of a barque, in the center of the inner court, two rectangular stone slabs mark places where statues or barques might have been placed. It was erected at the temple of Karnak in the sanctuary of Amun-Ra and placed immediately in front of a mud-brick and limestone temple remaining from the Middle Kingdom. To the north and south of the Red Chapel stood a collection of smaller sandstone cult shrines known as the Hatshepsut Suite, whose decorations showed Hatshepsut making offerings to the deities. The chapel consisted of two rooms, a vestibule, and a sanctuary, which were raised on a diorite platform, the purpose of the chapel was to house the Userhat-Amun, the barque believed to be used by the deity Amun to travel about on festival days. The Userhat-Amun was a wooden boat covered in gold that bore an enclosed shrine in which the Amun statue was placed to be protected from the public view. On holy days, the statue of Amun would be placed on the barque, when the statue of Amun was not traveling, however, the barque rested in its own shrine. During the early New Kingdom, the barque had become an important aspect of Egyptian theology. During the reign of Hatshepsut, the Red Chapel was the prominent barque shrine of Amun at Karnak, the structure, decoration, and complex history of the Red Chapel divulge secrets about the reign of Hatshepsut and the Egypt of the eighteenth dynasty. Almost all of the New Kingdom rulers built at Karnak, successive pharaohs added various structures in order to leave a lasting monument at the temple
29.
Great Karnak Inscription
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The Great Karnak Inscription is an ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription belonging to the 19th dynasty Pharaoh Merneptah. A long epigraph, it was discovered at Karnak in 1828-29, according to Wilhelm Max Müller, it is one of the famous standard texts of Egyptology. One of the greatest desiderata of scholars for many years, the Great Karnak Inscription is located on the west of the east wall of the Cachette Court, in the Precinct of Amun-Re of the Karnak temple complex, in modern Luxor. It runs from the pylon of the great sanctuary to the eighth pylon. It was first identified by Champollion, and later published by Karl Richard Lepsius. It includes a record of the campaigns of king against the Sea Peoples. The 79-line inscription shows the kings campaigns and eventual return with booty and it is the longest surviving continuous monumental text from Egypt. It has been designated KIU4246 by the Centre Franco-Égyptien dÉtude des Temples de Karnak
30.
Karnak king list
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Composed during the reign of Thutmose III, it listed sixty-one kings beginning with Sneferu from Egypts Old Kingdom. Only the names of kings are still legible, and one is not written in a cartouche. It was first described by James Burton in 1825, in 1843, a German expedition directed by egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius was traveling up the River Nile to Karnak. A French adventurer, Émile Prisse dAvennes, dismantled and stole the blocks containing the king list one night in order to secure it for France, severely damaged, it is now on display at the Louvre in Paris. The list features the name of the Pharaoh followed by the actual one inscribed on the list, the list comprises three sections and is divided at the center. The numbering follows Lepsius, counting from the sides, toward the center
31.
White Chapel
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The White Chapel of pharaoh Senusret I, also referred to as the Jubilee Chapel of Senusret I, was built during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. During the New Kingdom it was demolished and used as filler for the Third Pylon of the temple of Karnak and these pieces were then assembled into the building that is seen today in the Karnak Open Air Museum. The White Chapel is made of limestone and its columns hold reliefs of a very high quality, which are hardly seen elsewhere at Karnak, and depicts Pharaoh Senusret being crowned and embraced by Amun, Horus, Min and Ptah. All along the base of the walls runs a series of reliefs depicting the emblems and deities of the nomes, or provinces. On the western side are the nomes of Upper Egypt, arnaudiès, Alain, Beaux, Nathalie, Chéné, Antoine. Une chapelle de Sésostris Ier à Karnak, the White Chapel in the Karnak Project
