1.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
2.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
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Intelligence assessment
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Assessments are developed in response to requirements declared by the leadership in order to inform decision making. Assessment may be carried out on behalf of a state, military or commercial organisation with a range of sources of information available to each. An intelligence assessment reviews both available information and previous assessments for relevance and currency, where additional information is required, some collection may be directed by the analyst. Intelligence studies is the field concerned with intelligence assessment, especially relating to international relations. Intelligence assessment is based on a requirement or need, which may be a standing requirement or tailored to a specific circumstance or a Request for Information. The requirement is passed to the agency and worked through the intelligence cycle. The RFI may indicate in what format the requester prefers to consume the product, the RFI is reviewed by a Requirements Manager, who will then direct appropriate tasks to respond to the request. This will involve a review of existing material, the tasking of new product or the collection of new information to inform an analysis. New information may be collected through one or more of the various disciplines, human source, electronic and communications intercept. The nature of the RFI and the placed on it may indicate that some collection types are unsuitable due to the time taken to collect or validate the information gathered. Intelligence gathering disciplines and the sources and methods used are highly classified and compartmentalised. The analyst uses multiple sources to mutually corroborate, or exclude, where sufficient current information already exists, the analysis may be tasked directly without reference to further collection. The analysis will be written to a classification level with alternative versions potentially available at a number of classification levels for further dissemination. The subject for action, or target, is identified and efforts are made to find the target for further development. This activity will identify where intervention against the target will have the most beneficial effects, during the finish stage, the intervention is executed, potentially an arrest or detention or the placement of other collection methods. Following the intervention, exploitation of the target is carried out, the output from the exploit stage will also be passed into other intelligence assessment activities. Intelligence cycle List of intelligence gathering disciplines Military intelligence Surveillance Futures studies Surveys Andrew, Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century essays by scholars Dulles, Allen W. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security,1100 pages,850 articles, strongest on technology Odom, Gen. William E. Fixing Intelligence, For a More Secure America, Second Edition OToole, George
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United States Intelligence Community
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Member organizations of the IC include intelligence agencies, military intelligence, and civilian intelligence and analysis offices within federal executive departments. The IC is headed by the Director of National Intelligence, who reports to the President of the United States, among their varied responsibilities, the members of the Community collect and produce foreign and domestic intelligence, contribute to military planning, and perform espionage. The IC was established by Executive Order 12333, signed on December 4,1981, the term Intelligence Community was first used during Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smiths tenure as Director of Central Intelligence. Intelligence is information that agencies collect, analyze, and distribute in response to government leaders questions, safeguarding these processes and this information through counterintelligence activities. Execution of covert operations approved by the President. S, international terrorist and/or narcotics activities, and other hostile activities directed against the U. S. The IC is headed by the Director of National Intelligence, whose leadership is exercised through the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. Under the law, the DNI is responsible for directing and overseeing the NIP, the MIP is directed and controlled by the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence. In 2005 the Department of Defense combined the Joint Military Intelligence Program, since the definitions of the NIP and MIP overlap when they address military intelligence, assignment of intelligence activities to the NIP and MIP sometimes proves problematic. The overall organization of the IC is primarily governed by the National Security Act of 1947, the statutory organizational relationships were substantially revised with the 2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act amendments to the 1947 National Security Act. Prior to 2004, the Director of Central Intelligence was the head of the IC, following the passage of IRTPA in 2004, the head of the IC is the Director of National Intelligence. The member elements in the branch are directed and controlled by their respective department heads. By law, only the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency reports to the DNI, in light of major intelligence failures in recent years that called into question how well Intelligence Community ensures U. S. Attempts to modernize and facilitate cooperation within the IC include technological, structural, procedural. The U. S. intelligence budget in fiscal year 2013 was appropriated as $52.7 billion, in fiscal year 2012 it peaked at $53.9 billion, according to a disclosure required under a recent law implementing recommendations of the 9/11 Commission. The 2012 figure was up from $53.1 billion in 2010, $49.8 billion in 2009, $47.5 billion in 2008, $43.5 billion in 2007, and $40.9 billion in 2006. About 70 percent of the budget went to contractors for the procurement of technology and services. Intelligence spending has increased by a third over ten years ago, in inflation-adjusted dollars, according to the Center for Strategic, how the money is divided among the 16 intelligence agencies and what it is spent on is classified. It includes salaries for about 100,000 people, multibillion-dollar satellite programs, aircraft, weapons, electronic sensors, intelligence analysis, spies, computers, and software
5.
Office of Strategic Services
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The Office of Strategic Services was a wartime intelligence agency of the United States during World War II, and a predecessor of the modern Central Intelligence Agency. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces, other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning. It had no direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments, Signal Intelligence Service, the FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies, Colonel Donovan was employed to evaluate the global military position to offer suggestions concerning American intelligence requirements because the U. S. did not have a central intelligence agency. Thereafter the organization was developed with British assistance, Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers, until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, during the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for work in Latin America. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people, OSS officer Archimedes Patti played a central role in OSS operations in French Indochina and met frequently with Ho Chi Minh in 1945. One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives, the OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, the OSS also recruited and ran one of the wars most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe. In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul, turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe as well as Turkeys close proximity to the Balkan states placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering, the goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning Packy Macfarland who maintained the story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz, a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as Dogwood, Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington. While the OSS Dogwood-chain produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence, eventually by May 1944 through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo and Washington the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies, schwartzs Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down
6.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Axis powers
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The Axis powers, also known as the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied Powers. The Axis agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity, the Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936, Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome–Berlin axis, thus creating the term Axis. The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, Italy joined the Pact in 1937. At its zenith during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied parts of Europe, North Africa. There were no three-way summit meetings and cooperation and coordination was minimal, the war ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers and the dissolution of their alliance. As in the case of the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, at the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume. The term was used by Hungarys prime minister Gyula Gömbös when advocating an alliance of Hungary with Germany, when Mussolini publicly announced the signing on 1 November, he proclaimed the creation of a Rome–Berlin axis. Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued an alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France, in early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. General Hans von Seeckt supported an alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them and restore the German-Russian border of 1914. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons, however at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany, that Italy must. Tow them, not be towed by them, the French government warned Italy that it had to choose whether to be on the side of the pro-Versailles powers or that of the anti-Versailles revanchists. Grandi responded that Italy would be willing to offer France support against Germany if France gave Italy its mandate over Cameroon, France refused Italys proposed exchange for support, as it believed Italys demands were unacceptable and the threat from Germany was not yet immediate. In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, Gömbös sought to alter Hungarys post–Treaty of Trianon borders by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy, knowing that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers. At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party. Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state. Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German-populated territories of the South Tyrol within Italy, Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938
8.
President's Daily Brief
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The Brief is also produced for the President-elect of the United States, between election day and inauguration. The PDB is intended to provide the president of the United States with new intelligence warranting attention, the prototype of the PDB was termed the Presidents Intelligence Check List, the first was produced by CIA officer Richard Lehman at the direction of Huntington D. Although the production and coordination of the PDB was a CIA responsibility, Intelligence Community reviewed articles and were free to write and submit articles for inclusion. While the name of the PDB implies exclusivity, it has historically been briefed to other high officials, the distribution list has varied over time, but has always or almost always included the Secretaries of State and Defense and the National Security Advisor. Rarely, special editions of the PDB have actually been for the Presidents eyes only, the PDB is an all-source intelligence product summarized from all collecting agencies. The Washington Post noted that a leaked document indicated that the PRISM SIGAD run by the National Security Agency is the one source of raw intelligence used for NSA analytic reports. The PDB cited PRISM data as a source in 1,477 items in the 2012 calendar year, declassified documents show that as of January 2001 over 60% of material in the PDB was sourced from signals intelligence. According to the National Security Archive, the percentage of SIGINT-sourced material has likely increased since then, during a briefing on May 21,2002, Ari Fleischer, former White House Press Secretary, characterized the PDB as the most highly sensitized classified document in the government. On Sept.16,2015, CIA Director John Brennan spoke at the LBJ Library, at the release of a total of 2,500 daily briefs and intelligence checklists from the Kennedy. The release was a reversal of the previous stance in legal briefs attempting to keep the PDB indefinitely classified. On Aug.24,2016, CIA released a further 2,500 briefs from the Nixon, the PDB was scrutinized by news media during testimony to the 9/11 Commission, which was convened during 2004 to analyze the September 11,2001 attacks. Two days later, the White House complied and released the document with redaction. Obama records, by contrast in this analysis, showed that during his first 1,225 days in office, during 2011 and the first half of 2012, his attendance. In the first six weeks of the transition of Donald Trump in 2016. He had participated in multiple PDBs in some weeks, CNN has learned, and the transition team said last week Trump would be increasing his PDB participation to three times a week. In mid-December 2016, the CIA website said President Obama had initiated electronic delivery of the brief in 2014. Priess, David, The Presidents Book of Secrets, a history of the PDB
9.
Senate Report on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq
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The report, which was released on July 9,2004, identified numerous failures in the intelligence-gathering and -analysis process. The report found that these failures led to the creation of inaccurate materials that misled both government policy makers and the American public, the Committees Republican majority and Democratic minority agreed on the reports major conclusions and unanimously endorsed its findings. They disagreed, though, on the impact that statements on Iraq by senior members of the Bush administration had on the intelligence process, the second phase of the investigation, addressing the way senior policymakers used the intelligence, was published on May 25,2007. After the 1991 Gulf War, Iraq agreed to destroy its stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction, to verify compliance, UN inspection teams were to be given free access to the country. Over the next seven years, inspectors sometimes complained about non-cooperation, Iraqi officials in turn complained that some weapons inspectors were acting as spies for foreign intelligence agencies. Butler evacuated his inspectors and the bombing proceeded, after the bombing campaign, Iraq refused to allow weapons inspectors to re-enter the country. After George W. Bush became president in January 2001, and especially after the September 11,2001 attacks, on October 1,2002, the CIA delivered a classified National Intelligence Estimate assessing the threat represented by Iraqs WMD activities. Three days later, CIA Director George Tenet published a white paper on the subject of Iraqs WMD capabilities. Over the next two weeks, a joint resolution authorizing the use of force was passed by both houses of Congress, in the wake of resolution 1441, Iraq allowed UN weapons inspectors to return to the country. While the inspections were taking place, the U. S. continued to lobby the members of the UN Security Council to pass a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq. As part of that effort U. S. Secretary of State Colin Powell gave a presentation to the UN on February 5,2003, in which he detailed U. S. intelligence findings regarding Iraqi WMD. On March 20,2003, the U. S. and its allies invaded Iraq, over the ensuing year, U. S. and allied forces searched for evidence supporting the pre-invasion claims about Iraqi WMD stockpiles and programs. The lead role in this search was played by the Iraq Survey Group, consisting of investigators from the U. S. Department of Defense, the ISG also stated that Iraq had intended to restart all banned weapons programs as soon as multilateral sanctions against it had been dropped. As these facts were emerging in June,2003, U. S, on June 20,2003, Senator Roberts and Senator John D. S. Saxby Chambliss, and John W. Warner, the following eight Democrats made up the rest of the Committee, Vice-Chairman John D. Jay Rockefeller IV, Carl Levin, Dianne Feinstein, Ronald L. Wyden, Richard J. Durbin, B. Evans Evan Bayh III, Johnny R. John Edwards, and Barbara A. Mikulski. In the course of the investigation, Committee staff reviewed more than 30,000 pages of documentation provided by the intelligence community. The Committee requested that it be supplied copies of the Presidents Daily Briefs concerning Iraqs WMD capabilities and ties to terrorism, the Committee also held a series of hearings on the intelligence concerning Iraqi WMD and ties to terrorism
10.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
11.
2003 invasion of Iraq
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The 2003 invasion of Iraq lasted from 20 March to 1 May 2003 and signalled the start of the Iraq War, which was dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom by the United States. 160,000 troops were sent by the Coalition into Iraq, during the invasion phase. About 130,000 were sent from the USA alone, with about 28,000 British soldiers, Australia,36 other countries were involved in its aftermath. In preparation for the invasion,100,000 U. S. troops were assembled in Kuwait by 18 February, the coalition forces also received support from Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan. Others place a greater emphasis on the impact of the September 11 attacks, and the role this played in changing U. S. strategic calculations. The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some long-standing U. S. allies, including the governments of France, Germany, and New Zealand. Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of destruction in Iraq. According to the French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April 2003,36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war. The invasion was preceded by an airstrike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on 20 March 2003, the following day, coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Province from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border. Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the army into chaos. The main body of forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq. Most of the Iraqi military was defeated and Baghdad was occupied on 9 April. Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi army, including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on 10 April, Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country. On 1 May, an end of combat operations was declared, ending the invasion period. Hostilities of the 1991 Gulf War were suspended on 28 February 1991 and it was revealed that a biological weapons program in Iraq had begun in the early 1980s with help from the U. S. and Europe in violation of the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972. The investigation concluded there was no evidence the program had continued after the war. The U. S. and its allies then maintained a policy of containment towards Iraq, Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. In October 1998, removing the Saddam regime became official U. S. foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act
12.
National Security Archive
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The National Security Archive has spurred the declassification of more than 10 million pages of government documents by being the leading non-profit user of the U. S. Freedom of Information Act, filing a total of more than 50,000 FOIA, journalists and historians founded the National Security Archive in 1985 to enrich research and public debate about national security policy. In September 2005, the Archive won the Emmy Award for outstanding achievement in news, in 1998, the National Security Archive shared the George Foster Peabody Award for the outstanding broadcast series, CNNs Cold War. In April 2000, the National Security Archive won the George Polk Award, for “facilitating thousands of searches for journalists and scholars. And James L. Knight Foundation, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the National Security Archive receives no government funding. Incorporated as an independent Washington, D. C. non-profit organization, the National Security Archive operates eight program areas, each with dedicated funding. The National Security Archive’s open government and accountability program receives support from the Open Society Foundations, the Archive’s international freedom of information program in priority countries abroad and in the Open Government Partnership has been supported by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. The Archive’s human rights program, providing documentation for use by truth commissions and prosecutions, receives funding from the John D. The Archive’s Latin America program, with projects on Mexico, Chile, Cuba and other countries, is supported by the Ford Foundation, the Reynolds Foundation, and the Coyote Foundation. The Archive’s Iran program is supported by the Arca Foundation and through a partnership with MIT Center for International Studies. S, human Rights Policy, published through ProQuest.3 gigabytes per day. There are currently over 400 briefing books available, the National Security Archive also frequently posts about declassification and secrecy news on its blog, Unredacted. The National Security Archive has participated in over 50 Freedom of Information lawsuits against the U. S. government, casualties of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The National Security Archive has also settled two seminal lawsuits regarding the preservation of White House emails, the original White House e-mail lawsuit against Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. The Archive has conducted annual FOIA audits since 2002, modeled after the California Sunshine Survey and subsequent state FOI Audits, the Archives FOIA Audits use open-government laws to test whether or not agencies are obeying those same laws. The surveys include, The Ashcroft Memo, Drastic Change or More Thunder Than Lightning, Justice Delayed is Justice Denied A FOIA Request Celebrates Its 17th Birthday, A Report on Federal Agency FOIA Backlog Pseudo-Secrets, A Freedom of Information Audit of the U. S. Every year the National Security Archive nominates a government agency for the Rosemary Award for worst open government performance, the award is named after President Nixons secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who erased 18 1⁄2 minutes of a crucial Watergate tape. Past “winners” include the Department of Justice, the Federal Chief Information Officer’s Council, the FBI, the Department of the Treasury, the Air Force, the Archive has organized, sponsored, or co-sponsored a dozen major conferences. These include the historic conferences held in Havana in 2002 and in Budapest in 1996 respectively, kennedy, in meetings with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchevs son-in-law Adzhubei in January 1962, compared the US failure at the Bay of Pigs to the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956
13.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
14.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
15.
Politics of Cuba
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Cuba has had, according to the Constitution, a democratic centralist political system since 1959 based on the one state – one party principle. Cuba is constitutionally defined as a Marxist–Leninist socialist state guided by the ideas of Marx, one of the fathers of historical materialism, Engels. The present Constitution also ascribes the role of the Communist Party of Cuba to be the force of society and of the state. Executive power is exercised by the Government, which is represented by the Council of State, legislative power is exercised through the unicameral National Assembly of Peoples Power, which is constituted as the maximum authority of the state. Fidel Castro has ruled from 1959 to 2016 before his brother took the power, Esteban Lazo Hernández is President of the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the government, the Ministry of Interior is the principal organ of state security and control. According to the Cuban Constitution Article 94, the First Vice President of the Council of State assumes presidential duties upon the illness or death of the President. Cuba has a national legislature, the National Assembly of Peoples Power. The National Assembly convenes twice a year in ordinary periods of sessions, however, it has permanent commissions to look after issues of legislative interest. The National Assembly also has permanent departments that oversee the work of the Commissions, Local Assemblies of the Peoples Power, International Relations, Judicial Affairs and the Administration. Article 88 of the Constitution of Cuba, adopted in 1976, provides for citizen proposals of law, in 2002 supporters of a movement known as the Varela Project submitted a citizen proposal of law with 11,000 signatures calling for a national referendum on political and economic reforms. The Government response was to collect 8.1 million signatures to request that Cubas National Assembly enact an amendment making socialism an unalterable feature of Cuban government. The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution is a network of organizations across Cuba. The organizations are designed to put medical, educational or other campaigns into national effect and it is the duty of the CDR officials to know the activities of each person in their respective blocks. Cuba is a one-party political system, suffrage is non-compulsory and is afforded to Cuban citizens who have resided for two years on the island. Such citizens must be aged sixteen years, must not have been found guilty of a criminal offense. Cubans living abroad are denied the right to vote, the national elections for the 612 members of the National Assembly of Peoples Power are held according to this system and the precepts of the 1976 Constitution. From 1959 to 1976, a legislative branch did not exist, in 1992 the Constitution was reformed to allow direct voting to elect members to the National Assembly
16.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
17.
Philip Goldberg
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Philip Seth Goldberg is an American diplomat and government official, who served as the United States Ambassador to the Philippines. He served previously as Charge dAffaires and Deputy Chief of Mission at the U. S. Embassy in Santiago, Chile, Chief of Mission in Pristina, Kosovo and he also served as Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research. Goldberg is a native of Boston, Massachusetts, and is a graduate of The Rivers School, before joining the Foreign Service, Goldberg, who speaks Spanish, worked as a liaison officer between the city government of New York City and the United Nations and consular community. Goldberg is a Career Minister in the U. S, Goldberg has served overseas as a consular and political officer at the U. S. Embassy in Bogota, Colombia, and political-economic officer in Pretoria, South Africa. From 1994 to 1996 Goldberg served as the State Departments Desk Officer for Bosnia, from 1996 to 1998 Goldberg served as Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of State. From 1998 to 2000 Goldberg served as Executive Assistant to Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott, in 2001 Goldberg served as a senior member of the State Department team handling the transition from the Clinton to Bush Administrations. From January 2001 to June 2001 Goldberg served as acting Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs, from 2001 to 2004 Goldberg served as Deputy Chief of Mission at the U. S. Embassy in Santiago, Chile. From June 2009 until June 2010, he served as the Coordinator for Implementation of UNSC Resolution 1874 on North Korea and he has received numerous honors for his work including Presidential Distinguished and Meritorious Rank awards, and the State Departments Distinguished Honor Award. Ambassadors of the United States Appearances on C-SPAN Philip S. Goldberg Presidential Nomination, Philip Seth Goldberg
18.
Director of National Intelligence
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Further, by Presidential Policy Directive 19 signed by Barack Obama in October 2012, the DNI was given overall responsibility for Intelligence Community whistleblowing and source protection. Only one of the two positions can be held by an officer at any given time. The statute does not specify what rank the officer will hold during his or her tenure in either position. On July 20,2010, President Obama nominated retired Lt. Gen. James R. Clapper for the position, Clapper was confirmed by the Senate on August 5,2010, and replaced acting Director David C. The prior DNI was retired Navy four-star admiral Dennis C, blair, whose resignation became effective May 28,2010. Before the DNI was formally established, the head of the Intelligence Community was the Director of Central Intelligence, senators Dianne Feinstein, Jay Rockefeller and Bob Graham introduced S.2645 on June 19,2002, to create the Director of National Intelligence position. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on December 17,2004, in addition, the law required the CIA Director to report his agencys activities to the DNI. Critics say compromises during the bills crafting led to the establishment of a DNI whose powers are too weak to lead, manage. In particular, the law left the United States Department of Defense in charge of the National Security Agency, the National Reconnaissance Office, and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. On February 17,2005, President George W. Bush named US Ambassador to Iraq John Negroponte to the post, pending confirmation by the Senate. Negroponte was confirmed by a Senate vote of 98 to 2 in favor of his appointment on April 21,2005, on February 13,2007, John Michael McConnell became the 2nd Director of National Intelligence, after Negroponte was appointed Deputy Secretary of State. Donald M. Kerr was confirmed by the U. S. Senate to be Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence on October 4,2007 and sworn in on October 9,2007. Declan McCullagh at News. com wrote on August 24,2007 and this effectively made the DNI website invisible to all search engines and in turn, any search queries. Ross Feinstein, Spokesman for the DNI, said that the cloaking was removed as of September 3,2007, were not even sure how got there – but it was again somehow hidden the next day. Another blog entry by McCullagh on September 7, states that the DNI site should now be open to search engines, robots. txt has been configured to allow access to all directories for any agent. In September 2007, the Office of the DNI released Intelligence Community 100 Day &500 Day Plans for Integration & Collaboration and these plans include a series of initiatives designed to build the foundation for increased cooperation and reform of the U. S. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 established the Office of the Director of National Intelligence as an independent agency to assist the DNI, the ODNIs goal is to effectively integrate foreign, military and domestic intelligence in defense of the homeland and of United States interests abroad. The budget for the ODNI and the Intelligence Community for fiscal year 2013 was $52.6 billion, the ODNI has about 1,750 employees
19.
US Board on Geographic Names
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The United States Board on Geographic Names is a federal body within the United States Geological Survey, an agency of the Department of the Interior. The purpose of the board is to establish and maintain uniform usage of names throughout the federal government of the United States. The Board was created in 1890, its present form derives from a law of 1947, under the U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, the BGN was created by presidential order. Mendenhall, superintendent of the U. S. President Benjamin Harrison signed an Executive Order on September 4,1890, to this Board shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. The decisions of the Board are to be accepted … as the authority for such matters. The Board was given authority to resolve all unsettled questions concerning geographic names, Decisions of the Board were accepted as binding by all departments and agencies of the federal government. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of domestic and it also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in Antarctica. Although its official purpose is to resolve problems and new name proposals for the federal government. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes. Generally, the BGN defers federal name use to comply with local usage, for example, in rare cases where a locally used name is very offensive, the BGN may decide against adoption of the local name for federal use. In federal mapping and names collection efforts, there is often a phase lag where a delay occurs in adoption of a locally used name, sometimes the delay is several decades. Volunteers in the Earth Science Corps are used to assist the U. S. Geological Survey in collecting names of geographic features. The Geographic Names Information System, developed by the BGN in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, includes topographic map names, the names of books and historic maps which confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded, the BGN has members from six federal departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency, the Government Publishing Office, the Library of Congress, and the U. S. Postal Service. The BGN rules on hundreds of naming decisions annually and stores over two million records in its databases at geonames. usgs. gov. State and local governments, and private mapping organizations usually follow the BGNs decisions, the BGN has an executive committee and two permanent committees with full authority, the 10 to 15-member Domestic Names Committee and the 8 to 10-member Foreign Names Committee. The BGN does not create a name, the BGN responds to proposals for names from federal agencies, state, local, and tribal governments. The BGN does not translate terms, but instead accurately uses foreign names in the Roman alphabet, for non-Roman languages, the BGN uses transliteration systems or creates them for less well-known languages
20.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
21.
Foreign Policy
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Foreign Policy is an American news publication, founded in 1970 and focused on global affairs, current events, and domestic and international policy. It produces content daily on its website, and in six print issues annually, Foreign Policy is under the leadership of CEO and Editor of The FP Group David Rothkopf, who joined FP in that role 2012 after being a regular contributor to the publication since 1997. Foreign Policy magazine and ForeignPolicy. com are published by The FP Group, the FP Group also produces FP Events, Foreign Policys events division, launched in 2012. Huntington hoped it would be serious but not scholarly, lively, in the Spring of 1978, after six years of close partnership, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace acquired full ownership of Foreign Policy. In 2000, a change was implemented from a slim quarterly academic journal to a bi-monthly magazine. Also, it launched international editions in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, in September 2008, Foreign Policy was bought by The Washington Post Company. In 2012, Foreign Policy grew to become the FP Group – an expansion of Foreign Policy magazine to include ForeignPolicy. com, in December 2013, FP expanded and modernized ForeignPolicy. com as part of a complete website redesign. The new site was designed to present FPs readers with an array of editorial features. Morning Brief - FPs daily digest of top global news, flash Points - Weekly reader of highlights from foreignpolicy. com delivered every Friday morning. Democracy Lab Weekly Brief - Reporting on a world in transition, south Asia Daily - A daily synthesis of news about Afghanistan, Pakistan and India Mideast Daily Brief - A daily morning overview of major news in the region. com. FP is the independent magazine that has won consecutive digital national magazine awards every year from being established in 2009. 2014 Foreign Policy received its first design recognition for The Surveillance State, “Turtle Bay, ” the reported blog by journalist Colum Lynch, won the Digital National Magazine Award for best reporting for a series of hard-hitting investigative articles about the United Nations. 2010 Foreign Policy’s “The Best Defense” column authored by Tom Ricks received the Digital National Magazine Award for best blog,2009 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category. Forbes RealClearWorld designated ForeignPolicy. com as a top international news site,2008 Folio Magazine Gold Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, What America Must Do by Kenneth Rogoff, Jan/Feb 2008. FPs What America Must Do feature received the Eddie Award as a Gold Winner for the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category for a Single Article, Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, A World Enslaved by Benjamin Skinner, Mar/Apr 2008. Folio Magazine Silver Editorial Excellence Award – Consumer Magazine, News/Commentary/General Interest, media Industry Newsletters Best of the Web Award in the blog category for Passport a blog by the editors of Foreign Policy. 2007 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence in the 100,000 to 250,000 circulation category, Foreign Policy was presented as a Gold Winner by the Eddie Awards for “Who Wins in Iraq, ” in the Consumer News/Commentary/General Interest category. 2003 Foreign Policy won the National Magazine Award for Outstanding Achievement, FP Top 100 Global Thinkers Foreign Policy of the United States Official website Foreign Policy Passport at Foreign Policy
22.
Harry S Truman Building
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The Harry S Truman Building is the headquarters of the United States Department of State. It is located in the capital, Washington, D. C. It is located to the west of Edward J. Kelly Park and north of the National Academy of Sciences building, the Truman Building houses the office of the United States Secretary of State. Leading up to World War II, the expanding Department of War occupied several different buildings on the mall and it was always intended to construct the building in two phases, and the Foggy Bottom site was chosen because it was large enough to accommodate both. Gilbert Stanley Underwood and William Dewey Foster won the contract for the War Department building and they designed the building during 1938–1939 and construction began in 1940. During the design process, several agencies expressed concern that the War Department had already expanded beyond the capacity of the building. These concerns turned out to be correct, while some offices of the War Department moved into the building for a few years, by the time construction was complete, the War Department had already outgrown the building. Congress appropriated funds for construction of the Pentagon early in 1941, instead, the structure was used for the Department of State. Although the original portion of the building is commonly referred to as the War Department Building. World War II spurred the growth of department as well. However, the expansion was delayed until Congress allocated funds for the addition in 1955. Harley, Probst Associates, a joint venture between Harley, Ellington, and Day of Detroit and Graham, Anderson, Probst, and White of Chicago, the addition, known as the State Department Extension, was completed in 1960 and dedicated in 1961. The original building was informally called Old State with the addition identified as New State, in September 2000, the State Department building was named in honor of President Harry S. Truman. Currently, more than 8,000 employees work in the Truman Building, the building houses 1,400,000 square feet of usable space, the corridors take up over 267,000 square feet, and the roof area is about 7 acres. There are 43 elevators, over 4,000 windows, the building is currently being renovated under a 12-year plan to modernize the structure. In May 2014, the General Services Administration awarded a $25 million contract to build a new entrance on the east side of the Truman Building. The glass and steel structure will act not only as a high-security entrance to the building, the 20, 000-square-foot addition, called the U. S. Diplomacy Center, was designed by the firm Beyer Binder Belle, the addition is being privately funded by the Diplomacy Center Foundation, a nonprofit established by former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright in 2000 to honor American diplomats
23.
Mike Pompeo
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Michael Richard Mike Pompeo is an American politician and businessman who is the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Representative for Kansass 4th congressional district from 2011–17 and he was a member of the Tea Party movement within the Republican Party. He was a Kansas representative on the Republican National Committee and a member of the Italian American Congressional Delegation. On November 18,2016, he was selected by President-elect Donald Trump to be the nominee for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and was confirmed by the U. S. Senate 66–32 on January 23,2017. Pompeo was born in Orange, California, the son of Dorothy and he received his J. D. from Harvard Law School, where he was an editor of the Harvard Law Review. He then worked as a lawyer for Williams & Connolly, as a teenager, he enrolled at the United States Military Academy at West Point. He graduated first in his class from West Point in 1986, according to his official biography, he then served as a cavalry officer patrolling the Iron Curtain before the fall of the Berlin Wall. He also served with the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry in the Fourth Infantry Division and he served his last tour in the Gulf War. Pompeo founded Thayer Aerospace and Private Security, in 2006 he sold his interest in Thayer. He became the President of Sentry International, an equipment company. State Senator Dick Kelsey also ran for the nomination, but ended his campaign before the August primary, in the general election, Pompeo defeated Democratic nominee State Representative Raj Goyle. Pompeo received 59% of the vote, to 36% for Goyle, during the campaign, Pompeo received $80,000 in donations from Koch Industries and its employees. 2012 In his 2012 re-election bid, Pompeo defeated Democratic nominee Robert Tillman by a margin of 62%–32%,2014 Pompeo won the general election, defeating Democrat Perry Schuckman, with 66. 7% of the vote. 2016 Pompeo won the election with 60. 6% of the vote. He is also on the House Select Committee on the Events Surrounding the 2012 Terrorist Attack in Benghazi, on November 18,2016, then-President-elect Donald Trump announced that he would nominate Pompeo to be the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 23,2017, the sole Republican vote against him came from Rand Paul. He was sworn in on the night by Vice President Mike Pence. On February 8,2017 President Trump outlined the 24 members of the Cabinet with the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency being newly included, on May 9,2013, Pompeo introduced the Natural Gas Pipeline Permitting Reform Act
24.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
25.
John J. Sullivan (diplomat)
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John Joseph Sullivan is an American lawyer. He served as Deputy Secretary of the United States Department of Commerce from 2008 to 2009 in the George W. Bush administration. Sullivan, born and raised in Boston, Massachusetts, received his A. B. in history and political science from Brown University in 1981, at Columbia, he was a Harlan Fiske Stone Scholar and Book Reviews Editor of the Columbia Law Review. He was a law clerk for Judge John Minor Wisdom of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, in 1991, Sullivan served as Counselor to Assistant Attorney General J. Michael Luttig in the Office of Legal Counsel of the United States Department of Justice. The next year, he served as Deputy General Counsel of President George H. W. Bushs 1992 re-election campaign. In 1993, Sullivan joined the Washington, D. C. law firm of Mayer, Brown, Rowe & Maw LLP, in February 2004, U. S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld appointed Sullivan as Deputy General Counsel of the United States Department of Defense. In this capacity, he was responsible for all litigation involving the department, during his tenure, he was awarded the Secretary of Defense’s Medal for Exceptional Public Service. Sullivan then moved to the U. S. Department of Commerce, upon the resignation of Deputy Secretary David Sampson, Sullivan was assigned as Acting Deputy Secretary beginning on September 1,2007. He was soon thereafter nominated by George W. Bush to serve in a permanent capacity, as the department’s chief operating officer, he managed a $6.8 billion budget and 38,000 employees in 13 operating units. He was also a member of President Bushs Management Council and a member of the Board of Directors of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation, President Donald Trump nominated Sullivan for General Counsel of the Department of Defense on March 7,2017. He and his wife, Grace Rodriguez, have three children and live in Maryland
26.
United States Deputy Secretary of State
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The Deputy Secretary of State of the United States is the principal deputy to the Secretary of State. If the Secretary of State resigns or dies, the Deputy Secretary of State becomes Acting Secretary of State until the President nominates, the position was created in 1972. Prior to July 13,1972, the Under Secretary of State had been the ranking officer of the Department of State. The position is vacant, pending a nomination by Donald Trump. Under Secretary for Political Affairs Thomas A. Shannon, Jr. currently serves as the acting Deputy Secretary, the State Department is the only federal Cabinet-level agency with two co-equal Deputy Secretaries
27.
Stephen Mull
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Stephen D. Ambassador Mull holds the rank of Career Ambassador, the highest diplomatic rank in the United States Foreign Service. Mull was born in Reading, Pennsylvania and he graduated from Georgetown University with a Bachelor of Science degree in International Politics in 1980. Mull is a member of the Senior Foreign Service in the class of Minister Counselor. He previously served as the Deputy Chief of Mission in Jakarta, Indonesia, missions in Poland, the Bahamas, and South Africa since the beginning of his career in the Foreign Service in 1982. President George W. Bush nominated Mull as the U. S. Ambassador to Lithuania, after being confirmed by the Senate, he assumed his position on August 26,2003. He completed his tour of duty on July 18,2006, on April 30,2009, Mull testified before the U. S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee on international efforts to combat piracy off the coast of Somalia. Mull is married to Cheri Stephan, the Mulls have one child, Ryan. Stephen Mull was appointed the United States Ambassador to Poland on October 24,2012
28.
Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs
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The Under Secretary for Political Affairs is the fourth ranking position in the United States Department of State, after the Secretary and the two Deputy Secretaries. The current Under Secretary is Thomas A. Shannon, Jr. who assumed office on February 12,2016, the Under Secretary is advised by Assistant Secretaries of the geographic bureaus, who guide U. S. diplomatic missions within their regional jurisdiction. The political bureaus were first overseen in 1949 by a Deputy Under Secretary for Political Affairs. S, after August 1959, the Deputy Under Secretary for Political Affairs served as a focal point for interdepartmental relations, especially those dealing with politico-military issues
29.
Counselor of the United States Department of State
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The Counselor conducts special international negotiations and consultations, and also undertakes special assignments from time to time, as directed by the Secretary. Currently, the Counselor holds under law a rank equivalent to that of Under Secretary of State, the Secretary of State created the position of Counselor for the Department of State in 1909 as part of a general Department reorganization. In 1912, the became a Presidential appointment. Between 1913 and 1919, the Counselor served as the Departments second-ranking officer, in 1919, the newly created position of Under Secretary of State subsumed the duties of the Counselor. An Act of Congress, May 18,1937, re-established the position of Counselor of the Department of State, between 1961 and 1965, the Counselor also served as the Chairman of the Policy Planning Council. On April 30,1994, the title was changed to Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs when Counselor Timothy E. Wirth was appointed to that position, but another Counselor was appointed in 1997. The most recent Counselor was Ambassador Kristie A. Kenney, who served from February 12,2016 to February 17,2017
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Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs
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It is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs. From 1949 to 1983, European affairs were within the purview of the Bureau of European Affairs, joint Executive Office – Oversees the bureaus human resources, shared with the Bureau of International Organization Affairs Office of the Coordinator of the U. S. S. S. S
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Bureau of International Organization Affairs
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The Bureau of International Organization Affairs is a bureau in the United States Department of State that creates and executes U. S. policy in the United Nations and other international organizations. It is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs, the Bureau of International Organization Affairs was created in order to strengthen the United States involvement in important international relations. The bureau was created under the U. S. government in order to assess the successes and failures of the United States involvement in the UNESCO organization, the Bureau of International Organization Affairs has grown in size since its feeble beginnings. The Bureau of International Organization Affairs was initially created to aid in the United States withdrawal from the organization UNESCO, “The bureau concluded that UNESCOs performance has been much less satisfactory than that of other multilateral organizations. To augment its preliminary findings, the bureau carried out a policy review on UNESCO beginning in August 1983. The results of this formed the basis for the United States decision to announce its intention to withdraw. If relations break down with either, the Assistant Secretarys usefulness is, of course, the protocol of the relationship places a handicap on the Assistant Secretary of State in carrying out his assigned duties. The United States Representative, particularly when he sits as a member of the Presidents Cabinet, but in the main it has been harmonious. The reasons for this preoccupation are several, all are life and death issues of survival or at any rate issues where the stakes were extraordinarily high. And all of them save Indochina became UN problems, the Bureau of International Organization Affairs is divided into eleven unique offices. Ambassador Rosemary DiCarlo expressed the support of the United States in implementing the “New Horizon Project, ” which attempts to better “anticipate challenges to peacekeeping missions. ”The Ambassador also encouraged an effort from the UN member states as a whole to train. Lastly, Rice confirmed the necessity of PKO’s to end violations of humanitarian law. She also confirmed support of the Security Council’s obligations on Iran, and encouraged direct diplomacy while continuing work with the Security Council. Similarly, the U. S. encouraged the Iran Sanctions Committee to “redouble its efforts to ensure full and robust implementation of Security Council resolutions 1737,1747, lastly, President Obama’s preference for a two state solution was reiterated. A priority was placed on civilian protection first and foremost. ”Rice also stated that “no one should use the ICC’s decision as a pretext to incite or launch violence against civilians or international personnel. ”After Bashir expelled humanitarian aid groups, the U. S. committed itself to greater efforts “with others to try to avert a deeper humanitarian crisis. ”The IO comes out with a series of reports every year to allow people to see what the IO is involved in when it comes to the UN. They also allow the public to see how the United States of America has voted in the UN, the Bureau of International Organization Affairs pursues diplomatic goals through results-driven, transparent, accountable and efficient international organizations. It is also referred to as the IO for International Organization and is part of the department of state, the IO was created to regulate and help control a wide range of international affairs. One of the goals that they work on is getting human rights to areas that do not have them
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Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs
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The bureau is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs, who reports to the Secretary of State through the Under Secretary for Political Affairs. The current Acting Assistant Secretary is William E. Todd, after six years of trying, Congress allocated the funds to create an independent Bureau of South Asian Affairs in 1991. In February 2006 the bureau absorbed the Office of Central Asian Affairs from the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, SCA Front Office – The office of the Assistant Secretary and other principals in the bureau Office of Central Asia – Informs policy and coordinates with U. S. Missions in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan Office of INSB – Informs policy, missions in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Maldives Afghanistan Desk – Oversees Afghanistan–United States relations, and liaises with the U. S. Embassy in Afghanistan. India Desk – Oversees India–United States relations, and liaises with the U. S. Embassy in India Pakistan Desk – Oversees Pakistan–United States relations, and liaises with the U. S
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Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs
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The Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs is a bureau of the U. S. Department of State charged with promoting economic security and prosperity at home and abroad. It reports to the Under Secretary for Economic Growth, Energy, the Bureaus work lies at the nexus of economic prosperity and national security. In addition, EB also addresses a range of issues including intellectual property rights, piracy. As the single point where international economic policy tools and threads converge and it is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs, Charles Rivkin
