1.
Bone (corsetry)
–
In corsetry, a bone is one of the rigid parts of a corset that forms its frame and gives it rigidity. The purpose of the boning in a corset varies slightly from era to era, generally, the cinching/shaping properties of corsetry puts strain onto the fabric from which the corset is made. The boning supports the desired shape and prevents wrinkling of the corset fabric, bones, and the substances used for the purpose, are often generically called boning. The corsets of the 16th through 18th centuries were intended to mold the upper torso into a cone like shape. The earliest corsets had a wooden busk placed down the fronts of the corsets. Corsets of the 17th and 18th centuries were most often heavily boned with little or no space between the bone channels and this was necessary to force the body to conform to the desired shape of the era. At the time, the most popular materials used for the boning were Giant reeds or whalebone, the early 19th century brought a very different style of corset. A return to the natural or classical form was embraced by fashion, to achieve and enhance the separation of the bust the busk was used. The busk was essentially a large rigid Popsicle stick shaped bone inserted into a casing down the front of the corset. These busks were made from wood, ivory, bone, or baleen and were often elaborately carved. It was most often the bone within corsets of this type as other required shaping was provided by cut of the pattern. The cording of the early 19th-century corsets was often very elaborate, the mid 19th century brought more complex corsets and tighter lacing, which required more boning to create the desired shape. The modern busk was popular allowing corsets to easily open in the front, steel and baleen were the dominant materials for boning and were occasionally used together. By the fourth quarter of the 19th century baleen was growing increasingly more expensive and this encouraged experimentation into types of materials used for boning. Some of the most popular alternatives were cork strips, cording, watchspring steel, Coraline, Coraline was manufactured from the straight, stiff fibers of the Mexican ixtle plant, bound together by two strands of thread wrapped in opposite directions. Featherbone was manufactured from the quills of feathers, the extremely rigid and elongated torso popular in the 1880s to early 1890s required extensive boning to support and enhance the steam-molded and starched corsets of the period. By the late 1890s, a lighter, shorter style of corset was becoming popular, which had simpler shapes and this style of corset quickly evolved into the beautifully complex early Edwardian style corsets. These corsets from 1901–1908 relied heavily on the cut of the pattern to create and accentuate the shape
Bone (corsetry)
–
English "ventilated" corset of whalebone and cotton, late 19th century (
Victoria and Albert Museum)
Bone (corsetry)
–
Spirella side by side with a piece of flat stay
Bone (corsetry)
–
10mm Spiral Stay
2.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
3.
Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
4.
Retail
–
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
Retail
–
Macy's Herald Square,
New York City.
Retail
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
Retail
–
San Juan de Dios Market in
Guadalajara, Jalisco
Retail
–
Inside a supermarket in
Russia
5.
Animal husbandry
–
Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by human beings, in which genetic qualities and behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans, are further developed. The term can refer to the practice of breeding and raising livestock to promote desirable traits in animals for utility, sport, pleasure. Animal husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years since the first domestication of animals, selective breeding for desired traits was first established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. One of his most important breeding programs was with sheep, using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New Leicester and it was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. These sheep were exported widely and have contributed to modern breeds. Under his influence, English farmers began to breed cattle for use primarily as beef for consumption -, long-horned heifers were crossed with the Westmoreland bull to eventually create the Dishley Longhorn. Over the following decades, farm animals increased dramatically in size, in 1700, the average weight of a bull sold for slaughter was 370 pounds. By 1786, that weight had more than doubled to 840 pounds, in more modern times herds are tended on horses, all-terrain vehicles, motorbikes, four-wheel drive vehicles, and helicopters, depending on the terrain and livestock concerned. Today, herd managers often oversee thousands of animals and many staff, farms, stations and ranches may employ breeders, herd health specialists, feeders, and milkers to help care for the animals. Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used today, not only as methods to guarantee that females breed regularly. This may be done by transplanting embryos from high-quality females into lower-quality surrogate mothers - freeing up the higher-quality mother to be reimpregnated and this practice vastly increases the number of offspring which may be produced by a small selection of the best quality parent animals. On one hand, this improves the ability of the animals to feed to meat, milk, or fiber more efficiently. On the other, it decreases genetic diversity, increasing the severity of disease outbreaks among other risks. The semi-natural, unfertilized pastures formed by traditional methods in Europe, were managed and maintained by the grazing and mowing of livestock. Animal agriculture is responsible for 20%-33% of all fresh water consumption in the world today, livestock or livestock feed occupies 1/3 of the earth’s ice-free land. Animal agriculture is the cause of species extinction, ocean dead zones, water pollution. Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in many ways, the widespread use of pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers used in the production of feed crops often interferes with the reproductive systems of animals and poison waterways
Animal husbandry
–
Agriculture
Animal husbandry
–
Dairy cattle in Mangskog,
Sweden, 1911.
6.
Tacuinum sanitatis
–
The Tacuinum Sanitatis is a medieval handbook mainly on health, based on the Taqwīm as‑siḥḥah تقويم الصحة, an eleventh-century Arab medical treatise by Ibn Butlan of Baghdad. Though describing in detail the beneficial and harmful properties of foods and plants, Tacuinum Sanitatis says that illnesses result from imbalance of these elements. Magister Faragius in Naples took responsibility for one translation into Latin, in a manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, carmelia Opsomer published a commented facsimile of the ms 1041 held in the library of the university of Liège. Unillustrated manuscripts present a series of tables, with a commentary on the facing pages. The Taccuinum was first printed in 1531 and this edition was accompanied by a commentary volume by Alain Touwaide, Eberhard König and Carlos Miranda García-Tejedor. Tacuinum Sanitatis in, Health and Well Being, A Primitive Medieval Guide, the Illuminated Tacuinum Sanitatis Manuscripts from Northern Italy ca. 1380-1400, Sources, Patrons, and the Creation of a New Pictorial Genre, in Visualizing Medieval Medicine and Natural History, 1200-1550, eds. Jean Ann Givens, Karen Reeds, Alain Touwaide, 51-81, Opsomer, C. ed. L’Art de vivre en santé. Images et recettes du Moyen Âge, le « Tacuinum sanitatis » de la Bibliothèque universitaire de Liège. Wickersheimer, E. Les Tacuini Sanitatis et leur traduction allemande par Michel Herr, Bibliothèque dHumanisme et Renaissance 121950, the Tacuinum Sanitatis, A Lombard Panorama. Tacuinum Sanitatis site on the M. Moleiro Editor website The Tacuinum Sanitatis in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Introductory text and some illustrations
Tacuinum sanitatis
–
Ibn Butlan 's Tacuinum sanitatis,
Rhineland, 2nd half of 15th century.
Tacuinum sanitatis
–
Harvesting
garlic, from Tacuinum Sanitatis, ca. 1400 (
Bibliothèque nationale, Paris).
Tacuinum sanitatis
–
Tacuinum Sanitatis, Lombardy, late 14th century (
Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome).
7.
Animal slaughter
–
Animal slaughter is the killing of nonhuman animals, usually referring to killing domestic livestock. In general, the animals would be killed for food, however, they also be slaughtered for other reasons such as being diseased. The slaughter involves some initial cutting, opening the body cavities to remove the entrails and offal. Such dressing can be done by hunters in the field or in a slaughterhouse, later, the carcass is usually butchered into smaller cuts. The use of a blade for the slaughtering of livestock has been practiced throughout history. Prior to the development of electric stunning equipment, some species were killed by striking them with a blunt instrument. The belief that this was unnecessarily cruel and painful to the animal led to the adoption of specific stunning. As early as 1853, he designed a chamber that could kill animals by gassing them and he also founded the Model Abattoir Society in 1882 to investigate and campaign for humane methods of slaughter, and experimented with the use of electric current at the Royal Polytechnic Institution. The development of stunning technologies occurred largely in the first half of the twentieth century, in 1911, the Council of Justice to Animals was established in England to improve the slaughter of livestock. In the early 1920s, the HSA introduced and demonstrated a mechanical stunner, the HSA went on to play a key role in the passage of the Slaughter of Animals Act 1933. This made the stunning of cows and electrical stunning of pigs compulsory, with the exception of Jewish. Modern methods, such as the captive bolt pistol and electric tongs were required, the period was marked by the development of various innovations in slaughterhouse technologies, not all of them particularly long-lasting. Many countries have adopted the principle of a process for the non-ritual slaughter of animals. This is to ensure a death with minimal suffering. The first stage of the process, usually called stunning, renders the animal unconscious, and thus not susceptible to pain, in the second stage, the animal is killed. Countries differ in the methods which have been legalized for different species or different ages, some regulations being governmental, various methods are used to render an animal unconscious during animal slaughter. Electrical This method is used for swine, sheep, calves, cattle, the current is applied either across the brain or the heart to render the animal unconscious before being killed. In industrial slaughterhouses, chickens are killed prior to scalding by being passed through an electrified water-bath while shackled, gaseous This method can be used for sheep, calves and swine
Animal slaughter
–
"The slaughtered swine" (1652) by Barent Fabricius
Animal slaughter
–
Blueprint for a
slaughterhouse designed by
Benjamin Ward Richardson, published 1908.
Animal slaughter
–
Stunning a cow with a captive bolt pistol
Animal slaughter
–
A hen being killed in Brazil
8.
Supermarkets
–
A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores
Supermarkets
–
Produce section in a
Brazilian supermarket
Supermarkets
–
Packaged food aisles in a
hypermarket
Supermarkets
–
A supermarket in Sweden in 1941
Supermarkets
–
Consumers shopping for fresh produce and fruit.
9.
Grocery stores
–
A grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food. A grocer is a seller of food. Grocery stores often offer non-perishable food that is packaged in cans, bottles and boxes, with also having fresh produce, butchers, delis. Large grocery stores that stock significant amounts of products, such as clothing. Some large supermarkets also include a pharmacy, and customer service, redemption, in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, supermarkets and convenience stores are sometimes described as grocery businesses, or simply grocers. Some grocery stores form the centerpiece of a complex that includes other facilities, such as gas stations. This setup is especially common in the United Kingdom, with chains such as Tesco. Some groceries specialize in the foods of a nationality or culture, such as Italian, Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such speciality stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the growing season. Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer was a dealer in dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar. These items were bought in bulk, hence the term grocer from the French grossier meaning wholesaler, as increasing numbers of staple foodstuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as meats, produce. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores and these facilities generally dealt only in dry goods such as flour, dry beans, baking soda, and canned foods. Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from cigars to imported napkins, traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold, the first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. The early supermarkets began as chains of grocers shops, a small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers
Grocery stores
–
The
produce section in a supermarket
Grocery stores
–
Packaged food aisles in a
hypermarket.
Grocery stores
–
A grocery store in Nizwa, Oman
Grocery stores
10.
Butcher shops
–
A butcher is a person who may slaughter animals, dress their flesh, sell their meat or do any combination of these three tasks. They may prepare standard cuts of meat and poultry for sale in retail or wholesale food establishments, a butcher may be employed by supermarkets, grocery stores, butcher shops and fish markets, slaughter house, or may be self-employed. An ancient trade, whose duties may date back to the domestication of livestock, today, many jurisdictions offer trade certifications for butchers. Some areas expect a three-year apprenticeship followed by the option of becoming a master butcher, butchery is a traditional line of work. In the industrialized world, slaughterhouses use butchers to slaughter the animals, the steps include stunning, exsanguination, skinning or scalding and dehairing, evisceration and splitting. Secondary butchery involves boning and trimming primal cuts in preparation for sale, historically, primary and secondary butchery were performed in the same establishment, but the advent of methods of preservation and low cost transportation has largely separated them. In parts of the world, it is common for butchers to perform many or all of the butchers duties, where refrigeration is less common, these skills are required to sell the meat of slaughtered animals. Some butchers sell their goods in specialized stores, commonly termed a butcher shop, butchers at a butcher shop may perform primary butchery, but will typically perform secondary butchery to prepare fresh cuts of meat for sale. These shops may also sell related products, such as food supplies, baked goods. Butcher shops can have a variety of animal types, meat cuts. Additionally, butcher shops may focus on a culture, or nationality. Some butcher shops, termed meat delis, may include a delicatessen. In the United States and Canada, butcher shops are becoming common because of the increasing popularity of supermarkets. A primal cut is a piece of meat initially separated from the carcass during butchering, different countries and cultures make these cuts in different ways, and primal cuts also differ between type of carcass. The British, American and French primal cuts all differ in some respects, a notable example is fatback, which in Europe is an important primal cut of pork, but in North America is regarded as trimmings to be used in sausage or rendered into lard. The primal cuts may be complete or cut further. See also Butcher In various periods and cultures, the butcher has been applied to people who act cruelly to other human beings or slaughter them
Butcher shops
–
A butcher's,
Tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV (14th) century)
Butcher shops
–
Primary butchery in a meat packing plant, 1873
Butcher shops
–
Boucherie du Bac, 82
Rue du Bac,
Paris.
Butcher shops
–
A butcher at work in Syria
11.
Fish market
–
For the Sydney station, see Fish Market tram stop. A fish market is a marketplace for selling fish products and it can be dedicated to wholesale trade between fishermen and fish merchants, or to the sale of seafood to individual consumers, or to both. Retail fish markets, a type of wet market, often sell street food as well. Fish markets range in size from small stalls, such as the one in the photo at the right, to the great Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo. The term fish market can refer to the process of fish marketing in general. Fish markets were known in antiquity and they served as a public space where large numbers of people could gather and discuss current events and local politics. Because seafood is quick to spoil, fish markets are historically most often found in seaside towns, once ice or other simple cooling methods became available, some were also established in large inland cities that had good trade routes to the coast. Since refrigeration and rapid transport became available in the 19th and 20th century, consequently, most major fish markets now mainly deal with wholesale trade, and the existing major fish retail markets continue to operate as much for traditional reasons as for commercial ones. Both types of markets are often tourist attractions as well. The following is an incomplete list of fish markets. Tsukiji fish market, Tokyo, Japan, the worlds largest fish market, la Nueva Viga Market, Mexico City, Mexico, the worlds second largest fish market. Marketing from 250,000 up to 550,000 tons of seafood a year. C, bestor TC Tsukiji, the fish market at the center of the world In PE Lilienthal, California studies, Volume 11, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-22024-9. Le Blanch J The Global fish market and the need for multilateral fishing disciplines In, Leonard B Overfishing, A Global Challenge, Diane Publishing, la Nueva Viga, paseo marino en el DF fuera de las guías turísticas. A Fishmongers Guide to Greatness Berrett-koehler Series, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, ISBN 978-1-57675-323-1, graddy K The Fulton fish market Journal of Economic Perspectives,20, 207–220. Kirman, Alan P. and Vriend, Nicolaas J. Learning to be loyal, in, Domenico Delli Gatti, Mauro Gallegati, Alan P. Kirman, Interaction and market structure, essays on heterogeneity in economics, Volume 484. Maniatis GC The Organizational Setup and Functioning of the Fish Market in Tenth-Century Constantinople Dumbarton Oaks Papers,54, porcù Leide Fishy business, Humor in a Sardinian fish market International Journal of Humor Research,18, 69–102. Doi,10. 1515/humr.2005.18.1.69 Sophie S and Håkan H Behind the fish market facade The IMP Journal,3, 50-74. Sancar Seckiners new book DZ Uzerine Notlar, published Dec.2014, a film clip of a fish market in New York in 1903 is available at the Internet Archive Fish out of water, A guide to city fishmongers New York Magazine,10 April 1978
Fish market
–
A fish stall in HAL market,
Bangalore
Fish market
–
Fish department in
H Mart store in
Fairfax, Virginia with
Mackerel,
Bluefish,
Porgy,
Whiting and many other fish.
Fish market
–
The Great Fish Market, painted by
Jan Brueghel the Elder
Fish market
–
Frozen
tuna in the
Tsukiji fish market, Tokyo
12.
Domestication
–
Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. There is a difference between domestic and wild populations. The dog was the first domesticated vertebrate, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Among birds, the domestic species today is the chicken, important for meat and eggs, though economically valuable poultry include the turkey, guineafowl. Birds are also kept as cagebirds, from songbirds to parrots. The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the bee and the silkworm. Terrestrial snails are raised for food, while species from several phyla are kept for research, the domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals in the Middle East, and the bottle gourd in Asia. Agriculture developed in at least 11 different centres around the world, domesticating different crops, Domestication means belonging to the house. Animals domesticated for home companionship are usually called pets, while those domesticated for food or work are called livestock or farm animals and this definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the impacts on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, Domestication syndrome is the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The domestication of animals is the relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors, there is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. Domestication should not be confused with taming, the beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways. The dog was the first domesticant, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from, in both of these cases, humans became entangled with these species as the relationship between them, and the human role in their survival and reproduction, intensified. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the two pathways are not as goal-oriented and archaeological records suggest that they take place over much longer time frames
Domestication
–
Dogs and
sheep were among the first animals to be domesticated.
Domestication
–
Hereford cattle, domesticated for beef production.
Domestication
–
Cow domestication in North India for milk production.
Domestication
–
A herd of Pryor Mustangs
13.
Livestock
–
Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass
Livestock
–
Domestic sheep and a
cow (heifer) pastured together in
South Africa
Livestock
–
Alpaca Mammal,
herbivore
Livestock
–
Banteng Mammal,
herbivore
Livestock
–
Bison Mammal,
herbivore
14.
Guilds
–
A guild /ɡɪld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen and they were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places, an important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna, Oxford and Paris, they originated as guilds of students as at Bologna, or of masters as at Paris. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices, there were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild. In many cases became the governing body of a town. The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, Trade guilds arose in the 14th century as craftsmen united to protect their common interest. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship, in France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, Within the guild itself there was little division of labour. Thus, according to Étienne Boileaus Book of Handicrafts, by the century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris. In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society, a shoemakers guild is recorded in 1208. In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as companies, survive today. Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently, membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, the latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain, e. g. Valencia or Toledo. Not all city economies were controlled by guilds, some cities were free, in order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France, in Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business
Guilds
–
One of the legacies of the guilds, the elevated
Windsor Guildhall was originally a meeting place for guilds, as well as magistrates' seat and
town hall.
Guilds
–
Traditional
wrought-iron guild sign of a
glazier — in
Germany. These signs can be found in many old European towns where guild members marked their places of business. Many survived through time or staged a comeback in industrial times. Today they are newly created or even restored, especially in old town areas.
Guilds
–
The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild by
Rembrandt, 1662.
Guilds
–
A center of urban government: the
Guildhall, London (engraving, ca 1805)
15.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
16.
Apprenticeship
–
An apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeship also enables practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated profession, Apprenticeships typically last 3 to 7 years. People who successfully complete an apprenticeship reach the journeyman or professional level of competence. In early modern usage, the clipped form prentice was common, the system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as a form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in such as seamstress, tailor. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, in Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city. Subsequently, governmental regulation and the licensing of technical colleges and vocational education formalized and bureaucratized the details of apprenticeship, Australian Apprenticeships encompass all apprenticeships and traineeships. They cover all sectors in Australia and are used to achieve both entry-level and career upskilling objectives. There were 470,000 Australian Apprentices in-training as at 31 March 2012, Australian Government employer and employee incentives may be applicable, while State and Territory Governments may provide public funding support for the training element of the initiative. Australian Apprenticeships combine time at work with formal training and can be full-time, part-time or school-based, Australian Apprentice and Traineeship services are dedicated to promoting retention, therefore much effort is made to match applicants with the right apprenticeship or traineeship. This is done with the aid of aptitude tests, tips, information and resources on potential apprenticeship and traineeship occupations are available in over sixty industries. The distinction between the terms apprentices and trainees lies mainly around traditional trades and the time it takes to gain a qualification, Australia also has a fairly unusual safety net in place for businesses and Australian Apprentices with its Group Training scheme. It is a safety net, because the Group Training Organisation is the employer and provides continuity of employment and it lasts two to four years – the duration varies among the 250 legally recognized apprenticeship trades. About 40 percent of all Austrian teenagers enter apprenticeship training upon completion of compulsory education and this number has been stable since the 1950s. The five most popular trades are, Retail Salesperson, Clerk, Car Mechanic, Hairdresser, there are many smaller trades with small numbers of apprentices, like EDV-Systemtechniker which is completed by fewer than 100 people a year. The Apprenticeship Leave Certificate provides the apprentice with access to two different vocational careers, the person responsible for overseeing the training inside the company is called Lehrherr or Ausbilder. An Ausbilder must prove he has the qualifications needed to educate another person
Apprenticeship
–
The profession of
thatching is learned through apprenticeship in Germany
Apprenticeship
–
Carpentry is another profession learned through apprenticeship
Apprenticeship
–
A medieval baker with his apprentice. The Bodleian Library, Oxford.
Apprenticeship
–
A
master chimney sweep and apprentice in 2008
17.
Viscera
–
In biology, an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs are composed of main tissue, parenchyma, and sporadic tissues, the main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ, such as the myocardium, the main tissue of the heart, while sporadic tissues include the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all biological organisms, in particular they are not restricted to animals. In single-cell organisms like bacteria, the analogue of an organ is called organelle. A hollow organ is an organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch, such as the stomach or intestine, or that includes a cavity. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, the functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via an organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system, the same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems and these specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy. Cardiovascular system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, digestive system, digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anus. Excretory system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in balance, electrolyte balance. Integumentary system, skin, hair and nails, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. Reproductive system, the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, respiratory system, the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, the organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla. The less-advanced taxa do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs, the study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy, as in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive, vegetative plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves
Viscera
–
The
liver of a sheep. The liver is one of the main organs in the body.
Viscera
–
The flower is the angiosperm's reproductive organ. This
Hibiscus flower is hermaphroditic, and it contains
stamen and
pistils.
Viscera
–
Strobilus of
Equisetum telmateia.
Viscera
–
Human viscera
18.
Sagittal plane
–
A sagittal plane is an anatomical plane which divides the body into right and left parts. The plane may be in the centre of the body and split it into two halves or away from the midline and split it into unequal parts, most elements of Irish dancing occur in the sagittal plane. Examples include, The terms median plane or mid-sagittal plane are sometimes used to describe the sagittal plane running through the midline and this plane cuts the body into halves, passing through midline structures such as the navel and spine. It is one of the planes which, combined with the Umbilical plane, the term parasagittal is used to describe any plane parallel to the sagittal plane. In practice, such a section is referred to simply as a sagittal view because viewing is achieved along the sagittal axis. Owing to the nature of its definition, only one true sagittal plane exists. Be aware that the term sagittal view may be applied to any parasagittal section as well as the sagittal plane, specific named parasagittal planes include, The midclavicular line crosses through the clavicle. Other sagittal lines/planes include the lateral sternal and parasternal, the term sagittal is derived from the Latin word sagitta, meaning arrow. An image of an arrow piercing a body and passing from front to back on a trajectory would be one way to demonstrate the derivation of the term. Another explanation would be the notching of the sagittal suture posteriorly by the lambdoidal suture —similar to feathers on an arrow, extension and flexion are the movements of limbs within the sagittal plane. Abduction and adduction are terms for movements of limbs within the coronal plane, anatomical terms of location Coronal plane Transverse plane
Sagittal plane
19.
Refrigeration
–
Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
Refrigeration
–
Commercial refrigeration
Refrigeration
–
Ice harvesting in
Massachusetts, 1852, showing the
railroad line in the background, used to transport the ice.
Refrigeration
–
William Cullen, the first to conduct experiments into artificial refrigeration.
Refrigeration
–
Ferdinand Carré 's ice-making device
20.
Primal cut
–
A primal cut or cut of meat is a piece of meat initially separated from the carcass of an animal during butchering. Examples of primals include the round, loin, rib, and chuck or the swine ham, loin, Boston butt. Different countries and cultures make these cuts in different ways, the British, American and French primal cuts all differ in some respects. For example, rump steak in British and Commonwealth English is commonly called sirloin in American English, on the other hand, British sirloin is called porterhouse by Americans. Another notable example is fatback, which in Europe is an important primal cut of pork, the primal cuts may be sold complete or cut further. Cuts of beef Cuts of lamb Cuts of pork Media related to Meat cuts at Wikimedia Commons
Primal cut
–
French
21.
Rue du Bac, Paris
–
Rue du Bac is a street in Paris situated in the 7th arrondissement. The street, which is 1150 m long, begins at the junction of the quais Voltaire and Anatole-France, the street used to be in the fashionable Faubourg Saint-Germain. Rue du Bac is also the name of a station on line 12 of the Paris Métro, rue du Bac owes its name to a ferry established toward 1550 on what is now the quai Voltaire, to transport stone blocks for the construction of the Palais des Tuileries. It crossed the Seine at the site of todays Pont Royal, originally, the street was named grand chemin du Bac, then ruelle du Bac and grande rue du Bac. N°1, Building by Auguste Rolin and C, n°s 83-85, Former monastery of the Immaculate Conception built in 1637. It also occupied numbers 87 and 89 rue de Grenelle onto which the garden extended, n°97, Hôtel de Ségur, This house was built in 1722 for Pierre Henry Lemaître, perhaps for François Debias-Aubry. Some of the interior dates to this period. From 1786 to 1792 and from 1796 to 1798 it was occupied by Madame de Staël, n°101, Hôtel de La Feuillade. N°s 2-4, The Caisse des dépôts et consignations, the financial institution created in 1816 to control financial affairs in the publics interest. N°40, The door of this building opens on a passage to the rue du Bac. Inside the passage was the Hôtel Cochin where lived Charles de Montalembert, n°44, In 1932, André Malraux composed a portion of Mans Fate, or La Condition humaine. N°46, Outside door has panels representing Prudence and Law sculpted by Michel Varin, the original 18th century interior had sumptuous wood paneling adorned with work by the painters Carle Van Loo, Jean-Baptiste Oudry, Jean II Restout. It was dispersed at the end of the 19th century, some of its elements have been redisplayed at the musée Jacquemart-André, the Hôtel de Pontalba and the castle of Vaux-le-Pénil. N°70, Building from the years 1830-1840, n°102, Hôtel de Sainte-Aldegonde, built in the first half of the 18th century. N°110, Across courtyard, studio and house constructed in 1812 for himself by Pierre-Louis Baltard, the ground floor of the house was occupied by James McNeill Whistler from 1892 to 1901. N°s 118-120, Two hotels, separated by a party wall, the doors representing the four corners of the world are of exceptional quality, probably the work of Jean-Baptiste Tureau. N°128, Missions étrangères de Paris, an evangelical Catholic organization, catherine Labouré, who was at the origin of the creation of the Miraculous Medal 48. 850974°N2. 323770°E /48.850974,2.323770. This is the address where the character Mr Klein lived in the film Mr Klein, n°84, Former entrance into the garden of the Hôtel de Galliffet which has its main entrance at 73 rue de Grenelle
Rue du Bac, Paris
–
Rue du Bac
Rue du Bac, Paris
–
Rue du Bac, Paris
Rue du Bac, Paris
Rue du Bac, Paris
–
The
Miraculous Medal.
St. Catherine Labouré is interred at
140 rue de Bac, one of the places where the Virgin Mary appeared to her 48°51′04″N 2°19′26″E / 48.850974°N 2.323770°E / 48.850974; 2.323770.
22.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
23.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
Syria
–
Female figurine, 5000 BC.
Ancient Orient Museum.
Syria
–
Flag
Syria
–
God head, the kingdom of
Yamhad (c. 1600 BC)
Syria
–
Ebla royal palace c. 2400 BC
24.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
Culture
–
Human
symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached
behavioral modernity
Culture
–
Religion and expressive
art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture
–
Celebrations,
rituals, and patterns of consumption are important aspects of
folk culture.
Culture
–
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
25.
Nationality
–
Nationality is the legal relationship between a person and a state. Nationality affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state, what these rights and duties are vary from state to state. By custom and international conventions, it is the right of state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law, in some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality. Nationality differs technically and legally from citizenship, which is a different legal relationship between a person and a country, the noun national can include both citizens and non-citizens. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the life of the state. However, in most modern countries all nationals are citizens of the state, in English and some other languages, the word nationality is sometimes used to refer to an ethnic group. This meaning of nationality is not defined by political borders or passport ownership, individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government. In international law, nationality is the status or relationship that gives a nation the right to protect a person from other nations, diplomatic and consular protection are dependent upon this relationship between the person and the state. A persons status as being the national of a country is used to resolve the conflict of laws, Nationality is also the status that allows a nation to grant rights to the subject and to impose obligations upon the subject. In most cases, no rights or obligations are automatically attached to this status, although the status is a precondition for any rights. Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, however, since the Nottebohm case, other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the nationality is based on a true social bond. In the case of dual nationality, states may determine the most effective nationality for a person, there are also limits on removing a persons status as a national. Nationals normally have the right to enter or return to the country belong to. Passports are issued to nationals of a state, rather only to citizens. However, nationals may not have the right of abode in the countries that grant them passports, Nationality is legally a distinct concept from citizenship. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on the political life of the state. In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only political rights
Nationality
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Legal status of
persons
26.
Delicatessen
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A delicatessen or deli is a retail establishment that sells a selection of unusual or foreign prepared foods. Delicatessens originated in Germany during the 1700s and spread to the United States in the mid-1800s, European immigrants to the United States, especially Ashkenazi Jews, popularized the delicatessen in American culture beginning in the late 1800s. Delicatessen is a German loanword which first appeared in English in 1889 and is the plural of Delikatesse, in German it was originally a French loanword, délicatesse, meaning delicious things. Its root word is the Latin adjective delicatus, meaning giving pleasure, delightful, the first Americanized short version of this word, deli, came into existence c. 1954. The German food company Dallmayr is credited with being the first delicatessen created, in 1700, it became the first store to import bananas, mangoes, and plums to the German population from faraway places such as the Canary Islands and China. Over 300 years later, it remains the largest business of its kind in Europe, the first delicatessens to appear in the United States were in New York City in the mid-1800s, with the first known use of this word occurring in 1885. These catered to the German immigrant population living there, as the German-Jewish population increased in New York City during the mid- to late 1800s, kosher delicatessens began to open, the first was founded in 1889. In the United States, by the late 20th to early 21st centuries, supermarkets, local economy stores, and fast food outlets began using the word to describe sections of their stores. The decline of the deli as an independent retail establishment was most noted in New York City, from a high in the 1930s of about 1,500 Jewish delicatessens, in most of Australia, the term delicatessen retains its European meaning. Large supermarket chains often have a department, and independent delicatessens exist throughout the country. Both types of deli offer a variety of cured meats, sausages, pickled vegetables, dips, breads, Deli also denotes a small convenience store or milk bar in Western and South Australia, and some businesses use deli as part of their business name. Traditional delicatessens also exist in these states, with continental delicatessen sometimes used to indicate the European version, in Canada, both meanings of delicatessen are used. In Europe delicatessen means high-quality, expensive foods and stores, in German-speaking countries a common synonym is Feinkost, and shops which sell it are called Feinkostläden. Department stores often have a Delikatessenabteilung, European delicatessens include Fauchon in Paris, Dallmayr in Munich, Harrods and Fortnum & Mason in London, and Peck in Milan. Although U. S. -style delicatessens are also found in Europe, in Russia, shops and supermarket sections approximating US-style delis are called kulinariya and offer salads and main courses. Delicate meats and cheeses, cold-cut and sliced hot, are sold in a separate section, the Eliseevsky food store in central Moscow, with its fin de siècle decor, is similar to a European delicatessen. From the Tsarist era, it was preserved by the Soviets as an outlet for difficult-to-obtain Russian delicacies, delicatessens may also provide foods from other countries and cultures which is not readily available in local food stores. In Italy, the deli can be called gastronomia, negozio di specialità gastronomiche, in France it is nowadays known as a traiteur or épicerie fine
Delicatessen
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An Italian delicatessen in Rome
Delicatessen
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French delicacies, sold in delicatessens: foie gras with Sauternes wine
Delicatessen
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A fish counter at
Harrods in London
Delicatessen
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An Italian style delicatessen in
Five Dock, Sydney
27.
Supermarket
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A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores
Supermarket
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Produce section in a
Brazilian supermarket
Supermarket
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Packaged food aisles in a
hypermarket
Supermarket
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A supermarket in Sweden in 1941
Supermarket
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Consumers shopping for fresh produce and fruit.
28.
Cut of beef
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Cuts of beef are first divided into primal cuts, pieces of meat initially separated from the carcass during butchering. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut, the term primal cut is quite different from prime cut, used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animals legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest, cut often refers narrowly to skeletal muscle, but can also include other edible flesh, such as offal or bones without significant muscles attached. The following is a list of the American primal cuts, Beef carcasses are split along the axis of symmetry into halves, then across into front and back quarters. Canada uses identical cut names as the U. S, with the exception of the round which is called the hip, the chuck is the source of bone-in chuck steaks and roasts, and boneless clod steaks and roasts, most commonly. The trimmings and some whole boneless chucks are ground for hamburgers, the rib contains part of the short ribs, the prime rib and rib eye steaks. Brisket, primarily used for barbecue, corned beef or pastrami, the foreshank or shank is used primarily for stews and soups, it is not usually served any other way because it is the toughest of the cuts. The plate is the source of short ribs, used for pot roasting, and the outside skirt steak. The navel is the part of the plate, and is commonly used to make pastrami. The remainder is usually ground, as it is typically a tough, the loin has two subprimals, or three if boneless, the short loin, from which the T-bone and porterhouse steaks are cut if bone-in, or strip steak. They can also be cut bone-in to make parts of the T-bone, the round contains lean, moderately tough, lower fat cuts, which require moist or rare cooking. Some representative cuts are round steak, eye of round, top round, the flank is used mostly for grinding, except for the long and flat flank steak, best known for use in London broil, and the inside skirt steak, also used for fajitas. Flank steaks were once one of the most affordable steaks, because they are tougher than the more desirable loin. Many modern recipes for flank steak use marinades or moist cooking methods, such as braising, to improve the tenderness and this, combined with a new interest in these cuts natural leanness, has increased the price of the flank steak. It is called ossenhaas in Dutch and it tends to be cut slightly smaller than its American counterpart. Top sirloin Round – Mainly used for kogelbiefstuk considered to be the form of steak in Dutch. Flank Chuck – Best cuts are used for stoofvlees, lesser bits are used in hachee, brisket Shankle Beef tongue is considered the cheapest piece of beef, it is used in certain styles of sausages such as the frikandel, though not as the main ingredient. Tail, though not on the image shown, is used extensively in stews, bilden das Roastbeef or Zwischenrippenstück 7
Cut of beef
29.
Cut of lamb
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Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of domestic sheep at different ages. A sheep in its first year is called a lamb, the meat of a juvenile sheep older than one year is hogget, outside North America this is also a term for the living animal. The meat of a sheep is mutton, a term only used for the meat. The term mutton is almost always used to refer to meat in the Indian subcontinent. Lamb is the most expensive of the three types, and in recent decades sheep meat is increasingly only retailed as lamb, sometimes stretching the accepted distinctions given above. The stronger-tasting mutton is now hard to find in many areas, in Australia, the term prime lamb is often used to refer to lambs raised for meat. The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries, younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal, baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red. Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear, hogget — A term for a sheep of either sex having no more than two permanent incisors in wear, or its meat. Still common in farming usage, it is now rare as a domestic or retail term for the meat, Much of the lamb sold in the UK is hogget to an Antipodean farmer. Mutton — a female or castrated male sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear, under United States law, lamb is defined in terms of mutton, The term lamb means meat, other than mutton, produced from sheep. Under current federal regulations, only the lamb is used, Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams The terms mutton. Nevertheless, the use of lamb in the United States may be confusing. Under the previous definition, lamb meant meat, other than mutton, the term mutton is applied to goat meat in most of these countries, and the goat population has been rising. For example, mutton-curry is always made from goat meat and it is estimated that over one-third of the goat population is slaughtered every year and sold as mutton. The flavour and texture of milk-fed lamb when grilled or roasted is generally thought to be finer than that of older lamb, the areas in northern Spain where this can be found include Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, and La Rioja. Milk-fed lambs are prized for Easter in Greece, when they are roasted on a spit
Cut of lamb
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Lamb
Cut of lamb
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Mutton
Cut of lamb
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Lamb rib chops
Cut of lamb
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Chuletillas of milk-fed lamb in Asturias
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Data from Wikidata
